Roman History Final Exam

Greater Dionysia

*Significance: The Festival of Dionysus, otherwise known as the "Greater Dionysia" was the theatrical event of the year in 5th century Athens. Every year in the spring (around our March) playwrights would compete to entertain the masses of Athenian citizenry. As many as 16,000 Athenian citizens (this excludes women, slaves, metoioi, and metics) would file into the amphitheater to view the newest plays by Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, Aristophanes, and others. The festival has inspired people through the present day, as a celebration of humanity (see Nietzsche's or Aristotle's take) and an exposition of culture.[6][7] The University of Houston's Center for Creative works produces and performs an adaptation each spring.[8] The purpose of the enterprise is to educate and entertain, and adaptations occasionally go beyond Greek theater for inspiration (for example, the 2013 Spring adaptation of the Iliad, titled Ilium). Collaborators flock from all over America and the productions themselves are quite popular, selling out on all ticketed venues.[8] The New York Classical Club, through Fordham University's Classics Department, stages a competition every April wherein groups of high school students produce unique adaptations of the same play.

pay for public service (jury pay)

According to Aristotle, Pericles first made service in the jury-courts a paid office, as a popular counter-measure against Cimon's wealth.

*Persian Wars*

Historical Significance & Highlights: https://www.ancient.eu/Persian_Wars/ Greco-Persian Wars, also called Persian Wars, (492-449 BCE), a series of wars fought by Greek states and Persia, under the rule of Darius, over a period of almost half a century. Critical battles include the Battle of Marathon and the Battle of Thermopylae. The fighting was most intense during two invasions that Persia launched against mainland Greece between 490 and 479. Although the Persian empire was at the peak of its strength, the collective defense mounted by the Greeks overcame seemingly impossible odds and even succeeded in liberating Greek city-states on the fringe of Persia itself. The Greek triumph ensured the survival of Greek culture and political structures long after the demise of the Persian empire.

Harmodius and Aristogeton

Historical Significance: Harmodius and Aristogeiton (both died 514 BC) were two lovers from ancient Athens. They became known as the Tyrannicides (τυραννοκτόνοι, tyrannoktonoi), the preeminent symbol of democracy to ancient Athenians, after they committed an act of political assassination at the 514 BC Panathenaic Festival. They assassinated Hipparchus, thought to be the last Peisistratid tyrant, though according to Thucydides Hipparchus was not a tyrant but a minister. They also planned to kill the real tyrant of Athens, Hippias, but were unsuccessful.

Council of 500 (Boule)

Historical Significance: In cities of ancient Greece, the boule was a council of over 500 citizens appointed to run daily affairs of the city. Originally a council of nobles advising a king, boulai evolved according to the constitution of the city: In oligarchies boule positions might have been hereditary, while in democracies members were typically chosen by lot (→ Sortition), and served for one year. Little is known about the workings of many boulai, except in the case of Athens, for which extensive material has survived. Under the reforms of Cleisthenes enacted in 508/507 BC, the boule was expanded to 500 men, made up of 50 men from each of the ten new tribes also created by Cleisthenes. The 500 men were chosen by lot at the deme level, each deme having been allotted a certain number of places proportional to population. Membership was restricted at this time to the top three of the original four property classes (the Pentacosiomedimni, Hippeis and Zeugitae, but not the Thetes) and to citizens over the age of thirty. The former restriction, though never officially changed, fell out of practice by the middle of the 5th century BC. Members of the boule served for one year and no man could serve more than twice in his life, nor more than once a decade

Isagoras

Historical Significance: Isagoras, son of Tisander, was an Athenian aristocrat in the late 6th century BC. He had remained in Athens during the tyranny of Hippias, but after Hippias was overthrown, he became involved in a struggle for power with Cleisthenes, a fellow aristocrat. In 508 BC he was elected archon eponymous, but Cleisthenes opposed him, with support from the majority of the population. Isagoras requested support from the Spartan king Cleomenes I, an old friend who had earlier been given hospitality by Isagoras. According to Herodotus, Cleomenes had had an affair with Isagoras' wife. Isagoras, with Cleomenes' help, expelled Cleisthenes and other members of the Alcmaeonidae family on pretext of the Alcmaeonidaean stain (see Megacles). Cleisthenes' supporters and the ordinary Athenian citizens revolted against Isagoras' tyranny, and ended up trapping Isagoras and his Spartan allies on the Acropolis for two days. On the third day they made a truce, allowed Cleomenes and Isagoras to escape, and executed 300 of Isagoras' supporters. Cleisthenes then returned to the city and became archon in the democracy.

Mt. Laurium (silver)

Historical Significance: Silver is important for Athens to become a military state; ships are capital intensive, as they cost money to build, insure, maintain. When Athens started to become a maritime state and port city, the mining of silver was vital in allowing the Athenians to have the resources to build monumental structures and fund all of their endeavors. One could conjecture that without silver, Mt. Laurium and the fiscal surplus it provided, Athens could not have developed the world's 'first' modern democracy.

Reforms of Solon

Historical Significance: Solon legislated for all citizens to be admitted into the Ekklesia and for a court (the Heliaia) to be formed from all the citizens. Solon's economic reforms, known as the "shaking off of burdens," dealt with one of the immediate causes of the crisis: debt. All debts were cancelled, enslaved debtors freed, and borrowing on the security of the person forbidden. Solon further strengthened the Athenian economy by encouraging the growth of Attica's trade and industry. He forbade the export of produce other than olive oil, minted new Athenian coinage on a more universal standard, reformed the standard of weights and measures, and granted immigrant craftsmen citizenship.

*Neiaira* (and the prosecution of her husband Stephanus --Demosthenes, speech 59), the book Trying Neaira

Historical Significance: Story: Neiaira is raised by Nicarete as her daughter before being purchased by Timanoridas and Eucrates. Then, when they are about to marry, Neiaira purchases her freedom. In order to raise the required sum she sought assistance from her former clientele. One former client Phrynion answered Neaera's request and made up the deficit required to complete the purchase. Phrynion brought Neaera to Athens and treated her as a possession. He treats her badly and she runs away to Stephanos. Phyrnion brings a lawsuit against Stephanos and Neiara, claiming that he owns her and that her child is illegally an Athenian citizen. The case was settled through arbitration and that Neaera 'should be free and her own mistress' but 'each shall keep at his house and have the enjoyment of [her] for an equal number of days per month'. Key Characters: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neaira_(hetaera) Neaera was brought up by Nicarete to be a prostitute and, once she had served her purpose, was sold to Timanoridas and Eucrates who 'made use of her for as long as they wished'. Apollodorus (Against Neaera 29) details that when Timanoridas and Eucrates were about to marry they offered Neaera the opportunity to purchase her freedom. In order to raise the required sum she sought assistance from her former clientele. One former client Phrynion answered Neaera's request and made up the deficit required to complete the purchase. Phrynion brought Neaera to Athens and treated her as a possession, 'he kept her...[and]...made love to her openly, anywhere and everywhere he chose' (Apollodorus Against Neaera 33). Hamel (2003:41), Blundell (1995:148) and Davidson (1997:101) note Neaera's dissatisfaction with the relationship. However, Davidson (1997:100) goes further observing the power that Phrynion held over her. It certainly appears from Apollodorus' account that Phrynion believed he could control Neaera. However, given her subsequent action, in leaving Phrynion, (Apollodorus Against Neaera 39) it could be considered that she believed herself to be a free woman. Neaera moved to Megara after leaving Phrynion and continued to ply her trade, returning to Athens only after Stephanus promised to act as her protector (Apollodorus Against Neaera 38). Apollodorus (Against Neaera 38) suggests that Stephanus intended to live with Neaera as his wife; this would entitle her to all the rights that come with the status. Phrynion, having learned of her return to Athens, brought a lawsuit against Stephanus on the basis that he owned her. Apollodorus (Against Neaera 46-7) evidences that the case was settled through arbitration and that Neaera 'should be free and her own mistress' but 'each shall keep at his house and have the enjoyment of [her] for an equal number of days per month'. This, Davidson (1997:101) argues, demonstrates that 'freedom for a freedwoman was a relative not an absolute thing'. Without knowledge of the arguments presented during arbitration it is difficult to assess why these decisions were made. It is possible that Stephanus' argued that Neaera was living with him as his concubine and Phrynion may have countered that he in part owns her; due to the contribution paid for her release from Timanoridas and Eucrates. Themes: status when you are born, exploitation, social status, social boundries Neiaira marries stephanos, a citizen of means and it totally changes her life

The Thirty Tyrants

Historical Significance: The Thirty Tyrants were a pro-Spartan oligarchy installed in Athens after its defeat in the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC. Upon Lysander's request, the Thirty were elected as a government, not just as a legislative committee. The Thirty Tyrants maintained power for eight months. Though brief, their reign resulted in the killing of 5% of the Athenian population, the confiscation of citizens' property, and the exile of other democratic supporters. They became known as the "Thirty Tyrants" because of their cruel and oppressive tactics. The two leading members were Critias and Theramenes.

The Amnesty

Historical Significance: The Thirty Tyrants' brief reign was marred by violence and corruption. In fact, historians have argued that the violence and brutality the Thirty carried out in Athens was necessary to transition Athens from a democracy to an oligarchy. However, the violence produced an unanticipated paradox. The more violent the Thirty's regime became, the more opposition they faced. The increased level of opposition ultimately resulted in the upheaval of the Thirty's regime by Thrasybulus' rebel forces. After the revolution, Athens needed to decide the best way to govern the liberated city-state and to reconcile the atrocities committed by the Thirty. It was decided to give amnesty to all of the members of the selected 3,000, except for the Thirty themselves, the Eleven, a group of prison magistrates appointed by lot that reported directly to the Thirty, and the ten who ruled in Piraeus. After the revolution that overthrew the Thirty Tyrants, Athens and her citizens struggled to reconcile and rebuild. Post-30 Tyrants

trittys

Historical Significance: Trittys were population divisions in ancient Attica, established by the reforms of Cleisthenes in 508 BC. The name means "third". There were thirty trittyes and ten tribes in Attica. Each tribe was composed of three trittyes, one from the coast (paralia), one from the city (asty), and one from the inland area (mesogeia). Trittyes were composed of one or more demes; demes were the basic unit of division in Attica.

Athenian 10 tribes

Historical Significance: When he became the chief magistrate, he had to face the problems Solon had created 50 years earlier through his compromising democratic reforms—foremost among which was the allegiance of citizens to their clans. In order to break such loyalties, Cleisthenes divided the 140-200 demes (natural divisions of Attica) into 3 regions: city, coast, and inland. In each of the 3 regions, the demes were divided into 10 groups called trittyes. Each trittys was called by the name of its chief deme. He then disposed of the 4 birth-based tribes and created 10 new ones composed of one trittys from each of the 3 regions. The 10 new tribes were named after local heroes:

Medea (Play written by Euripides)

Historical Significance: Differences between Story & Movie: Medea is an ancient Greek tragedy written by Euripides, based upon the myth of Jason and Medea and first produced in 431 BC. The plot centers on the actions of Medea, a former princess of the "barbarian" kingdom of Colchis, and the wife of Jason; she finds her position in the Greek world threatened as Jason leaves her for a Greek princess of Corinth. Medea takes vengeance on Jason by murdering Jason's new wife as well as her own children, after which she escapes to Athens to start a new life. Jason has settled with, Medea, his Colchian wife, after his adventure in quest of the Golden Fleece, an uncommon article of clothing made from the wool of a magical flying ram in Greek mythology (Hunter 2011). Medea is instilled with grief and rage after she learns that her husband Jason will marry the daughter of the local king, Creon. Medea, devastated when hearing the news, was enraged because she aided Jason in his exploits, even killing her own brother to help Jason escape. In return for the heartache that Jason has caused, Medea plans a scheme to kill Glauce, Jason's new wife. She then kills her two sons in order to avenge Jason's decision. In Von Trier's adaptation of Medea, Medea is seen as an oracle in her own country, but is a feared foreign heretic in Greece. Medea, set on revenge, persuades King Creon to give her one more day before her exile, for the sake of her children. Dark foreshadowing emerges as Medea sends her children to Glauce with a gift that is secretly poisoned. With the intention of destroying Jason completely, she further resolves to take the lives of his two heirs, her own two children, in a painful exhibition of filicide. Glauce's power is in her beauty, innocence and youth-all attributes that Medea has lost touch of. More handsome than beautiful, Medea, as Lars Von Trier has depicted her, is the antithesis of atypical femininity; Opposite of Jason and the Argonauts film depiction which I will mention later in this paper. Each scene directed by Von Trier has been recast from Euripides play. However, there are various differences that are recognizable. For one, it is obvious that von Trier improves on Euripides play; however, he does use more visual narratives to relay Medea's story such as the usage of audios and imageries whereas Euripides has a chorus. More so, Jason's virgin new bride Glauce, given a name and a voice, becomes a central character, unlike Euripides original play where she is barely present. Opposite of Euripides account of Medea, Von Trier uses cinematic techniques to grasp the audience's attention. In Euripides account of Medea, it is much more difficult to get an actual visual interpretation of the events taking place. With Von Trier's Medea, he uses special cinematic effects to engage the audience in each scene to a greater extent that Euripides can. Von Trier effectively turns this proto-feminist film into a portrayal of female martyrdom and suffering. Every composition is specific, sensationally illustrating every character. It is clear that Von Trier preserves Euripides basic story line. However, he does use different cinematic techniques to add more depth to each character, as well as stimulate more action. For instance, in Euripides, Medea stabs her sons whereas in Von Trier's Medea, she hangs her sons. This is just a cinematic technique where Von Trier uses a different approach to add action to the scene. In the play, the audience does not witness the death of the two young boys. Rather, the audience only hears harsh cries which conclude the scene. Von Trier allows the audience to accept the realization of such a dramatic scene. We are able to grasp exactly what it is that Medea has done. Stabbing works well in plays because it is a rapid way to portray a death scene. The act of hanging her sons, allows us to experience a twofold killing as well as understand Medea's distressing decision. -Less dramatic compared to movie -More frequent use of dialogue -Violence is enacted off stage -Medea stabs her children and the audience -hears their cries, but cannot see them Plot climaxes at the poisoning of Creon's daughter -Glauce largely kept off stage -Blame is placed on Jason for abandoning his children -Nurse states in the beginning that Medea hate's her sons, no sense of hatred in the film Her means of escape is Helios' chariot

Delian League/Athenian Empire

Historical Significance: Members: The Delian League, founded in 478 BC, was an association of Greek city-states, with the number of members numbering between 150 and 330 under the leadership of Athens, whose purpose was to continue fighting the Persian Empire after the Greek victory in the Battle of Plataea at the end of the Second Persian invasion of Greece. The League's modern name derives from its official meeting place, the island of Delos, where congresses were held in the temple and where the treasury stood until, in a symbolic gesture, Pericles moved it to Athens in 454 BC. Shortly after its inception, Athens began to use the League's navy for its own purposes - which led to its naming by historians as the Athenian Empire. This behavior frequently led to conflict between Athens and the less powerful members of the League. By 431 BC, Athens's heavy-handed control of the Delian League prompted the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War; the League was dissolved upon the war's conclusion in 404 BC under the direction of Lysander, the Spartan commander.

Hellenic League

Historical Significance: Members: The Peloponnesian League, or Hellenic League was an alliance in the Peloponnesus from the 6th to the 4th centuries BC, dominated by Sparta. It is known mainly for being one of the two rivals in the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), against the Delian League, which was dominated by Athens.

Heliaia (People's Court)

Historical Significance: It is not clear whether Heliaia was instituted by Cleisthenes or Solon, but it seems that the latter initiated a function of the Assembly to sit as an appeals court.[2][γ] The court had 6,000 members, chosen annually by lot[3] among all the male citizens over 30 years old, unless they were in debt to the Treasury or disfranchised, namely deprived of their civil rights through the humiliating punishment of atimia (ἀτιμία).[4] Those suffering from intellectual or corporeal flaws were also excepted, if their shortages prevented them from fully perceiving the proceedings. If any unqualified person participated in a jury, then information was laid against him and he was brought before the Heliaia. If convicted the court could assess against him whatever punishment or fine he is thought to deserve. If the punishment was a money fine, then the infringer had to go to prison until he had paid both the former debt, for which the information was laid, and whatever additional sum had been imposed on him as a fine by the court

Pericles -pay for public service (jury pay) -Pericles' Citizenship Law -Pericles' removal of the Delian League Treasury to Athens

Historical Significance: 1. Citizenship law makes Athenian citizenship more useful/valuable and limits who can participate in the democracy 2. The removal of the treasury from the island of Delos to Athens in 448 by Pericles signifies the end of the Delian league as a alliance and the beginning of the Athenian empire Citizenship Law: In 451 B.C. Pericles introduced one of most striking proposals with his sponsorship of a law stating that henceforth citizenship would be conferred only on children whose mother and father both were Athenians.1 Previously, the offspring of Athenian men who married non-Athenian women were granted citizenship. Aristocratic men in particular had tended to marry rich foreign women, as Pericles' own maternal grandfather had done. Pericles' new law enhanced the status of Athenian mothers and made Athenian citizenship a more exclusive category, definitively setting Athenians off from all others. Not long thereafter, a review of the citizenship rolls was conducted to expel any who had claimed citizenship fraudulently. Together these actions served to limit the number of citizens and thus limit dilution of the advantages which citizenship in Athens' radical democracy conveyed on those included in the citizenry. Removal of Treasury: 448, Pericles moves the treasury to Athens Pericles was a prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator and general of Athens during its golden age - specifically the time between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. He was descended, through his mother, from the powerful and historically influential Alcmaeonid family. Pericles had such a profound influence on Athenian society that Thucydides, a contemporary historian, acclaimed him as "the first citizen of Athens".[1] Pericles turned the Delian League into an Athenian empire, and led his countrymen during the first two years of the Peloponnesian War. The period during which he led Athens, roughly from 461 to 429 BC, is sometimes known as the "Age of Pericles", though the period thus denoted can include times as early as the Persian Wars, or as late as the next century. Pericles promoted the arts and literature; it is principally through his efforts that Athens acquired the reputation of being the educational and cultural center of the ancient Greek world. He started an ambitious project that generated most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis (including the Parthenon). This project beautified and protected the city, exhibited its glory, and gave work to the people.[2] Pericles also fostered Athenian democracy to such an extent that critics call him a populist.[3][4] He, along with several members of his family, succumbed to the Plague of Athens in 429 BC, which weakened the city-state during a protracted conflict with Sparta.

*Themistocles*

Historical Significance: An Athenian politican who fought in the Greco-Persian war. He was elected archon in 492 and convinced the polis of Athens to increase the Naval power of Athens, which was critical in defeating the Persians over decades of war. He may have fought at the Battle of Marathon. Themistocles was an Athenian politician and general. He was one of a new breed of non-aristocratic politicians who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy. As a politician, Themistocles was a populist, having the support of lower-class Athenians, and generally being at odds with the Athenian nobility. Elected archon in 493 BC, he convinced the polis to increase the naval power of Athens, a recurring theme in his political career. During the first Persian invasion of Greece he fought at the Battle of Marathon[2] (490 BC) and was possibly one of the ten Athenian strategoi (generals) in that battle.

*Hippias* -Hipparchus -Harmodius and Aristogeton

Historical Significance: Historically significant because he was known as last of the three tyrants of Athens. To understand democracy in Athens, one must understand that it was initially established because the people of Athens had suffered under the rule of Tyrants like Hippias. So, in a way, he contributed to the establishment of democracy. After his brother was assassinated in 514 by Harmodius and Aristogeton, he executed them and became a cruel ruler, killing a large number of citizens and instituting harsh taxes. He ruled with his brother between 527 and 510 BC until Cleomenes of Sparta successfully invaded Athens in 510. Hippias of Athens was one of the sons of Peisistratus, and was the last tyrant of Athens between about 527 BC and 510 BC, when Cleomenes I of Sparta successfully invaded Athens and forced Hippias to leave Athens. His brother Hipparchus, who may have ruled jointly with him, was murdered by Harmodius and Aristogeiton (the tyrannicides) in 514 BC. Hippias executed the tyrannicides and it was said that he became a bitter and cruel ruler, executing a large number of citizens and imposing harsh taxes.[3] Hippias's cruelty soon created unrest among his subjects. As he began losing control, he sought military support from the Persians. He managed to form an alliance by marrying his daughter, Archedice, to Aiantides, son of Hippoklos, the tyrant of Lampsakos. This relationship with Hippoklos helped facilitate Hippias' access to Darius' court at Susa. The Alcmaeonidae family of Athens, which Peisistratus had exiled in 546 BC, was concerned about Hippias forming alliances with the Persian ruling class, and began planning an invasion to depose him. In 510 BC Cleomenes I of Sparta successfully invaded Athens and trapped Hippias on the Acropolis. They also took the Pisistratidae children hostage forcing Hippias to leave Athens in order to have them returned safely. The Spartans later thought that a free and democratic Athens would be dangerous to Spartan power, and attempted to recall Hippias and re-establish the tyranny. Hippias had fled to Persia, and the Persians threatened to attack Athens if they did not accept Hippias back. Nevertheless, the Athenians preferred to remain democratic despite the danger from Persia.

ostracism

Historical Significance: Introduced by Cliesthenes as part of his reforms around 508 BC, but the first victim was not until about 20 years later. The most famous person to be offered ostracism through exile was Socrates, who opted to drink a hemlock poison instead. Historical accounts say he died peacefully, but death through hemlock poisoning is said to causing asphyxiation. Ostracism was not in use throughout the whole period of Athenian democracy (circa 506-322 BC), but only occurred in the fifth century BC. The standard account, found in Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians 22.3,[12] attributes the establishment to Cleisthenes, a pivotal reformer in the creation of the democracy. In that case, ostracism would have been in place from around 506 BC. The first victim of the practice, however, was not expelled until 487 BC—nearly 20 years later. Over the course of the next 60 years some 12 or more individuals followed him. The list may not be complete, but there is good reason to believe the Athenians did not feel the need to eject someone in this way every year. The list of known ostracisms runs as follows:

Hipparchus

Historical Significance: May have ruled with his brother Hippias. Was assassinated by Harmodius and Aristogeton. After his death, Hippias became a tyrant. Hipparchus was said by some Greek authors to have been the tyrant of Athens, along with his brother Hippias, after Peisistratos died, in about 528/7 BC. However, according to Thucydides, Hippias was the only 'tyrant'. Both Hipparchus and Hippias enjoyed the popular support of the people. Hipparchus was a patron of the arts; it was Hipparchus who invited Simonides of Ceos to Athens. In 514 BC Hipparchus was assassinated by the tyrannicides, Harmodius and Aristogeiton. This was apparently a personal dispute, according to Herodotus and Thucydides. Hipparchus had fallen in love with Harmodius, who was already the lover of Aristogeiton. Not only did Harmodius reject him, but humiliated him by telling Aristogeiton of his advances. Hipparchus then invited Harmodius' sister to participate in the Panathenaic Festival as kanephoros only to publicly disqualify her on the grounds that she was not a virgin. Harmodius and Aristogeiton then organized a revolt for the Panathenaic Games but they panicked and attacked too early. Although they killed Hipparchus, Harmodius was killed by his bodyguard and Aristogeiton was arrested, tortured and later killed. According to Thucydides, Hippias ordered the Greeks to lay down their ceremonial arms and then had them searched, arresting any found with concealed weapons. This was later denied by Aristotle,[2] who said that this story was created by the democratic government in order to impress upon the people how much of a tyrant Hippias was. Aristotle also mentions that Aristogeiton was tortured in order to give the names of the conspirators in the plot. Enraged that Hippias hadn't killed him, Aristogeiton offered more names to Hippias in exchange for his hand in pledge. When Hippias put his hand on Aristogeiton's, Aristogeiton berated him for giving his hand to his brother's murderer — at which point Hippias stabbed Aristogeiton in rage. After the assassination of his brother, Hippias is said to have become a bitter and cruel tyrant, and was overthrown a few years later in 510 BC by the Spartan king Cleomenes I.

*Peisistratos*

Historical Significance: Peisistratos was an Athenian ruler between 561 BC and 527 BC and was known as the first of three tyrants, the other two beings his sons Hippias and Hipparchus. He is known for instituting the Panatheanic Games, which were some of the grandest games in all of Greece, and nearly everyone could participate. They consisted of contests, procession, and sacrifices. He also was known for introducing the Greater Dionysus, or festival of Dionysus, the God of wine. In this event, every year in the spring (around our March) playwrights would compete to entertain the masses of Athenian citizenry. Overall, Peisistratos was historically significant because he incorporated public games as part of government, or the isagoras. Peisistratos, the son of Hippocrates, was a ruler of ancient Athens during most of the period between 561 and 527 BC. His legacy lies primarily in his instituting the Panathenaic Games, historically assigned the date of 566 B.C., and the consequent first attempt at producing a definitive version of the Homeric epics. Peisistratos' championing of the lower class of Athens, the Hyperakrioi, (see below) is an early example of populism. While in power, Peisistratos did not hesitate to confront the aristocracy, and he greatly reduced their privileges, confiscated their lands and gave them to the poor, and funded many religious and artistic programs. Peisistratus was a one-time brother-in-law of Cleisthenes;[4] however, Peisistratus was much older. Peisistratids is the common term for the three tyrants who ruled in Athens from 546 to 510 BC, namely Peisistratos and his two sons, Hipparchus and Hippias.

strategos

Historical Significance: Strategos is a compound of the words 'stratos' meaning to spead out, and 'agos', leader. Under Cleisthenes, 10 strategos, or leaders of the army, were officially introduced. This is important in understanding Athenian democracy because we can see how power was not only spread out on the judicial side of Athens, but also on the military side. Strategos is a compound of two Greek words: stratos and agos. Stratos means army, literally "that which is spread out", coming from the proto-Indo-European root *stere- "to spread". Agos (ἀγός) means "leader", from agein (ἄγειν) "to lead", from the proto-Ιndo-Εuropean root *ag- "to drive, draw out or forth, move In its most famous attestation, in Classical Athens, the office of strategos existed already in the 6th century BC, but it was only with the reforms of Cleisthenes in 501 BC that it assumed its most recognizable form: Cleisthenes instituted a board of ten strategoi who were elected annually, one from each tribe (phyle). The ten were of equal status, and replaced the polemarchos, who had hitherto been the senior military commander.[2] At the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC (according to Herodotus) they decided strategy by majority vote, and each held the presidency in daily rotation. At this date the polemarchos had a casting vote, and one view among modern scholars is that he was the commander-in-chief; but from 486 onwards the polemarchos, like the other archontes, was appointed by lot. The annual election of the strategoi was held in the spring, and their term of office coincided with the ordinary Athenian year, from midsummer to midsummer. If a strategos died or was dismissed from office, a by-election might be held to replace him.

*The Peloponnesian War*

Historical Significance: The Peloponnesian War took place from 431 BC to 404 BC was an ancient Greek war fought by the Delian League led by Athens against the Peloponnesian League, or Hellenic league, led by Sparta, under the direction of Lysander. The war had three phases, though the Spartans ultimately won in 404 after they destroyed the Athenian navy the previous year. The Peloponnesian War reshaped the ancient Greek world. On the level of international relations, Athens, the strongest city-state in Greece prior to the war's beginning, was reduced to a state of near-complete subjection, while Sparta became established as the leading power of Greece. The economic costs of the war were felt all across Greece; poverty became widespread in the Peloponnese, while Athens found itself completely devastated, and never regained its pre-war prosperity. Ancient Greek warfare, meanwhile, originally a limited and formalized form of conflict, was transformed into an all-out struggle between city-states, complete with atrocities on a large scale. The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) was an ancient Greek war fought by the Delian League led by Athens against the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta. Historians have traditionally divided the war into three phases. In the first phase, the Archidamian War, Sparta launched repeated invasions of Attica, while Athens took advantage of its naval supremacy to raid the coast of the Peloponnese and attempt to suppress signs of unrest in its empire. This period of the war was concluded in 421 BC, with the signing of the Peace of Nicias. That treaty, however, was soon undermined by renewed fighting in the Peloponnese. In 415 BC, Athens dispatched a massive expeditionary force to attack Syracuse, Sicily; the attack failed disastrously, with the destruction of the entire force in 413 BC. This ushered in the final phase of the war, generally referred to either as the Decelean War, or the Ionian War. In this phase, Sparta, now receiving support from the Achaemenid Empire, supported rebellions in Athens's subject states in the Aegean Sea and Ionia, undermining Athens's empire, and, eventually, depriving the city of naval supremacy. The destruction of Athens's fleet in the Battle of Aegospotami effectively ended the war, and Athens surrendered in the following year. Corinth and Thebes demanded that Athens should be destroyed and all its citizens should be enslaved, but Sparta refused. The term "Peloponnesian War " was never used by Thucydides, by far its major historian: that the term is all but universally used today is a reflection of the Athens-centric sympathies of modern historians. As prominent historian J. B. Bury remarks, the Peloponnesians would have considered it the "Attic War". The Peloponnesian War reshaped the ancient Greek world. On the level of international relations, Athens, the strongest city-state in Greece prior to the war's beginning, was reduced to a state of near-complete subjection, while Sparta became established as the leading power of Greece. The economic costs of the war were felt all across Greece; poverty became widespread in the Peloponnese, while Athens found itself completely devastated, and never regained its pre-war prosperity. The war also wrought subtler changes to Greek society; the conflict between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta, each of which supported friendly political factions within other states, made civil war a common occurrence in the Greek world. Ancient Greek warfare, meanwhile, originally a limited and formalized form of conflict, was transformed into an all-out struggle between city-states, complete with atrocities on a large scale. Shattering religious and cultural taboos, devastating vast swathes of countryside, and destroying whole cities, the Peloponnesian War marked the dramatic end to the fifth century BC and the golden age of Greece.

isegoria

Historical Significance: The closed translation of isegoria to english is 'freedom of speech'. Herodotus, Greek author of Histories who lived in the 4th century BC, claimed that the government of Athens was not actually a democracy but an isegoria; this is because the idea of free speech so was closely intertwined with Athenian government that the two ideas could be considered one and the same. Athenian isegoria refers to the ability of all citizens to speak to the senate and bring about matters in the public discourse, including lawsuits. "Freedom of speech" The right of all free male citizens to speak in public settings and assemblies Although Athens was not the only democracy in the ancient world, from the beginning the Athenian principle of isegoria was seen as something special. The historian Herodotus even described the form of government at Athens not as demokratia, but as isegoria itself. According to the fourth-century orator and patriot Demosthenes, the Athenian constitution was based on speeches (politeia en logois) and its citizens had chosen isegoria as a way of life. But for its critics, this was a bug, as well as a feature. One critic, the so-called 'Old Oligarch,' complained that even slaves and foreigners enjoyed isegoria at Athens, hence one could not beat them as one might elsewhere.

seisachtheia

Historical Significance: The seisachtheia were important in establishing democracy in Athens. They were carved into large tables that were situated on axels and displayed in public for hundreds of years according to historians. Solon instituted them in 594 BC. Seisachtheia was a set of laws instituted by the Athenian lawmaker Solon (c. 638 BC-558 BC) in order to rectify the widespread serfdom and slavery that had run rampant in Athens by the 6th century BC, by debt relief. When Solon was elected archon, or chief magistrate, c. 594 BCE, his main objective was to free the land and destroy the horoi. His reform law, known as the seisachtheia, or "shaking-off the burdens," cancelled all debts, freed the hektēmoroi, destroyed the horoi, and restored land to its constitutional holders. Solon also prohibited the mortgaging of land or of personal freedom on account of debt.

demes

Historical Significance: Under Cleisthenes, enrollment in the citizen-lists of a deme became the requirement for citizenship; prior to that time citizenship had been based on membership in a phratry, or family group. This set the foundation for the establishment of political districts, which we still see today (states are affiliated with a political party or known as swing-states) In Ancient Greece, a deme or demos modern Municipality was a suburb or a subdivision of Athens and other city-states. Demes as simple subdivisions of land in the countryside seem to have existed in the 6th century BC and earlier, but did not acquire particular significance until the reforms of Cleisthenes in 508 BC. In those reforms, **enrollment in the citizen-lists of a deme became the requirement for citizenship; prior to that time**, citizenship had been based on membership in a phratry, or family group. At this same time, demes were established in the main city of Athens itself, where they had not previously existed; in all, at the end of Cleisthenes' reforms, Athens was divided into 139 demes to which one should add Berenikidai, established in 224/223 BC, Apollonieis (201/200 BC) and Antinoeis (126/127). The establishment of demes as the fundamental units of the state weakened the gene, or aristocratic family groups, that had dominated the phratries.

isonomia

Historical Significance: Word for 'popular government.' It is important to understand the Greeks did not separate the idea of government from their way of life; the two concepts were directly intertwined. It was not like in the US, where people can claim to be 'apolitical' and fail to take politics into account in their daily lives. In Ancient Greece, participation in politics was an important facet of life for all people, regardless of social class, though social class did dictate the degree to which a person could participate. Isonomia was a word used by ancient Greek writers such as Herodotus and Thucydides to refer to some kind of popular government. It was subsequently eclipsed until brought back into English as isonomy ("equality of law").

Panathenaic Festival

Significance: The Panathenaea was Athens' most important festival and one of the grandest in the entire Greek world. Except for slaves, all inhabitants of the city and suburbs could take part in the festival. The Panathenaea was one of those occasions when women could get out of the house and take an active role in a public function. Even metics (resident aliens) and freed slaves could participate (up to a certain point). The holiday fell on the 28th day of the month called Hekatombaion,1 roughly equivalent to last � of July and first � of August, and the first month of the Athenian year. This holiday was believed to be an observance of Athena's birthday and honored the goddess as the city's patron divinity: Athena Polias ('Athena of the city'). In 566 BC, at the initiative of Pisistratus (soon to become tyrant of Athens), this festival was extended every four years over a number of days with many public events (Great Panathenaea). The following discussion will concentrate on this more splendid form of the festival, which lasted for a number of days, consisted of three elements: contests, procession, and sacrifices.

*Reforms of Cleisthenes (Kleisthenes)* -Isagoras -Cleomenes I -Demes -ostracism -trittys

Who: Historical Significance: Perhaps the most important figure in the establishment of Athenian democracy, Cleisthenes instituted a number of groundbreaking reforms in the year 508. Soon after Cleomenes put his crony, Isagora, in power in 510, Cleisthenes began to contend with him for power with the support of the middle class and was ultimately successful. Cleisthenes reorganized the original clanular structure provided by Solon and established demes, which were political districts that were based on citizenship and provided the framework for how many countries operate with systems of political districts today. He also introduced trittys, strategos, the Council of 500 (expanded from Solon's council of 400), the Heliaia, Cleisthenes was an ancient Athenian lawgiver credited with reforming the constitution of ancient Athens and setting it on a democratic footing in 508 BCE. For these accomplishments, historians refer to him as "the father of Athenian democracy." He was a member of the aristocratic Alcmaeonid clan. He was the younger son of Megacles and Aragiste making him the maternal grandson of the tyrant Cleisthenes of Sicyon. He was also credited with increasing the power of the Athenian citizens' assembly and for reducing the power of the nobility over Athenian politics. In 510 BCE, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow their king, the tyrant Hippias, son of Peisistratos. Cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy headed by Isagoras. But his rival Cleisthenes, with the support of the middle class and aided by democrats, took over. Cleomenes intervened in 508 and 506 BCE, but could not stop Cleisthenes, now supported by the Athenians. Through Cleisthenes' reforms, the people of Athens endowed their city with isonomic institutions—equal rights for all citizens (though only men were citizens)—and established ostracism.

*Solon* -seisachtheia -Reforms of Solon

Who: What did he do: Historical Significance: Solon lived from 622 to 558 BC and was given special authority from Athenians in 594 BC to revise the city-state's laws, as the society was debtly indebted and on the brink of war. Solon instituted a number of reforms called the seisachtheia: he alleviated wealth disparity through the abolition of debt slavery, he created census classes, the council of 400, and made unemployment illegal. He is historically significant because his work (coupled with the reforms of Cleisthenes in 508 BC) set the foundation for Athens to become the first 'modern' democracy in the sense that people of different social statuses began to have universal rights. In desperation, the Athenians in 594 B.C. gave Solon special authority to revise their laws1 to deal with the economic crisis and its dire social consequences that had brought their society to the brink of internecine war. Appointed by Athenians in 594 to alleviate disparity between poor and rich; abolishes debt slavery, creates census classes, Council of 400, limits length of offices, makes unemployment illegal; considered one of the 7 wise men of ancient greece and known for his virtue. Left Athens for ten years after reforms and travelled. Solon's laws were inscribed on large wooden slabs or cylinders attached to a series of axles. Before Solon's reforms, the Athenian state was administered by nine archons appointed or elected annually by the Areopagus on the basis of noble birth and wealth. Solon legislated for all citizens to be admitted into the Ekklesia and for a court (the Heliaia) to be formed from all the citizens. The Heliaia appears to have been the Ekklesia, or some representative portion of it, sitting as a jury. By giving common people the power not only to elect officials but also to call them to account, Solon appears to have established the foundations of a true republic. Solon's economic reforms, known as the "shaking off of burdens," dealt with one of the immediate causes of the crisis: debt. All debts were cancelled, enslaved debtors freed, and borrowing on the security of the person forbidden. Solon further strengthened the Athenian economy by encouraging the growth of Attica's trade and industry. He forbade the export of produce other than olive oil, minted new Athenian coinage on a more universal standard, reformed the standard of weights and measures, and granted immigrant craftsmen citizenship. Reforms also affected the political structure of Athens. Solon's constitution was based on four classes determined by census and wealth. Although privilege by birth was eliminated, Solon retained a hierarchical distribution of political responsibility. Solon's legal code replaced Draco's harsh laws except for those concerning homicide. He introduced two important changes into judicial practice: any Athenian—not merely the injured party—might initiate a suit, and some measure of control over the verdict of magistrates was provided by right of appeal to a court of the citizens at large.

Useful Readings

https://www.thoughtco.com/cleisthenes-tribes-of-athens-120591