Scientific Literacy in Psych
What is a non-parenthetical citation?
Citations that involve the integration of the author's name into the text itself Example: ~Edwards and Jones (2013) suggested that the influence of peer group pressure on bullying behavior by girls needs more large-scale investigations
What is parenthetical citation
Citations to original sources that appear in the text of your paper -Allows the reader to see immediately where your information comes from -Saves you the trouble of having to make footnotes or endnotes Example: ~The influence of peer group pressure on bullying behavior by girls needs more large-scale investigations (Edwards & Jones, 2013)
Three to five authors
Cite all of the authors the first time that you cite them in the manuscript -(Washington, Yu, & Galvin, 2013) For all subsequent citations, use only the first author's last name followed by "et al." -(Washington et al., 2013)
One or two authors
Cite the same way each time if you cite them more than once
What does John Oliver say P-Hacking is in the "Last Week Tonight with John Oliver" video?
Collecting many variables and playing with your data until you find something that counts as statistically significant but is probably meaningless
Population (Google, 2015)
-All the inhabitants of a particular town, area, or country -A particular section, group, or type or people or animals living in an area or country
Volunteerism
-Can take 2 different forms -Respondents answer a formal call for volunteers -Numerous problems -Only sickest or most needy may volunteer -Only the most well may volunteer -Respondents are part of a randomly selected pool of participants -Could be that those who volunteered are fundamentally different from those who chose not to volunteer
When do I have to cite?
-Cite works of those whose ideas, theories, or research influenced your own work ~See figure 6.1 for an example of appropriate documentation
Samples of convenience (accidental sample)
-Convenience sampling is a type of nonprobability sampling in which people are sample simply because they are "convenient" sources of data for researchers (Lavrakas, 2008) -Doesn't involve known nonzero probabilities of selection -Rather, subjective methods are used to decide which elements should be included in the sample
APA Style Reference List
-Each in-text citation should correspond with an entry in the reference list -Formatting the reference list ~Reference list entries are listed in alphabetical order ~Each entry is listed with a hanging indent
If your source is a corporation, agency, etc., spell out the name of the agency the first time that you cite it
-If you decide to use an abbreviation, define it the first time that you cite the source -First citation: (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition [DSM-5], 2013) (National Institutes of Health [NIH], 2019) -Subsequent citations: (DSM-5, 2013) (NIH, 2019)
Name all four subsections of the Method section
-Participants -Measures -Procedure -Analysis
Content (for Presentation)
-Present the most important points, not every single detail
What is Plagiarism?
-Presenting of another's work as though it were your own ~Failing to credit a source when you have directly quoted or paraphrased their work
Conceptual definition
-Provides a mental or intellectual description of a construct -"Dictionary definition"
Operational Definition
-Provides a scientific and measurable description of a construct -Scientific definition -Fosters replication and quantification of potentially abstract processes or constructs -Helps ensure that results are useful and meaningful to the larger scientific community
Results (for Presentation)
-Remind audience what your study was trying to answer -Then describe the main findings -Include at least 1 figure or table to show results -Use APA format for figure/table
If two sources agree about the same topic, you may cite them within the same set of parentheses
-Separate each group of the authors with a semicolon -List the authors in alphabetical order (Edwards & Jones, 2013; Washington et al., 2013)
How can I select an unbiased sample?
-Use a simple random sample: 1. Identify all members of a population of interest 2. Give every single member of the population an equal chance to be selected 3. Select as many as you need for a given sample
Slide Design
-Use large font ~ at least 26 point font -"Less=more" Complete sentences not necessary -Use dark background and light font or light background and dark font -Make it professionally attractive -No crazy fonts -No flower, hearts, or rainbows
Mean
-Value around which all deviations sum to zero -Most frequently used measure of central tendency -"balance point" of a distribution -Abbreviated as 'M' 'μ' or |X (a underscore on top of a 'X')
Define the term "convenience sample" AND name two characteristics that distinguish this type of sample from other types of samples
Convenience Sample is a type of nonprobability sampling in which people are sampled simply because they are "convenient" sources of data for researchers (Lavrakas, 2008) 1. Does not involve known nonzero probabilities of selection 2. Subjective methods are used to decide which elements should be included in the sample
Which of the following was an issue that was identified by JH as one that is common in scientific research?
Expectations based on animal research are generalized to humans
Which of the following have been variables featured in articles?
Farting, consuming a glass of red wine per night, and being a liberal
Unpublished manuscripts are protected under __________ _____________ until the rights are formally signed over by all authors
Federal Law
Define the term "volunteerism" as it pertains to sampling AND name the two different forms that volunteerism could take
Volunteerism: Could be that those who volunteered are fundamentally different from those who chose not to volunteer Forms: 1. Respondents answer a formal call for volunteers 2. Respondents are part of a randomly selected pool of participants
If You Don't Know The Answer.. (For Presentation)
-"I'm not sure; I'll have to look into it. Thank you for the suggestion" -"I haven't studied that specific issue. Do you have any insight?"
What makes a high-quality sample?
-A good sample is of adequate size -A good sample is unbiased
If You Aren't Sure What Person Is Asking (For Presentation)
-"Could you rephrase that? I'm not exactly sure what you're asking?" -"I'm not sure I understand, but let me say this and see if it gets at your question." ... -then, "Did that answer your question?"
Anything I should avoid doing as I write my literature review?
1. Avoid writing a series of abstracts (one summary of one article followed by another) 2. Instead of writing about articles serially, what can I do? -Organize your review by ideas not by author -Use group references
Each variable should have categories that demonstrate what two characteristics?
1. Exhaustive 2. Mutually exclusive
Name three common sources of biased sampling
1. Failure to identify 2. Biased against those who are not identified 3. Limits generalizability
What are the steps involved in formulating an idea for a literature review?
1. Identify a broad problem area 2. Examine the literature about the problem area 3. Decide to either replicate an existing study or arrive at a creative idea that is not an extension of the research 4. Plan a study designed to resolve a conflict
Apart from identifying the purposes of future research, what are some other additional benefits of reviewing published research?
1. Identify measuring tools Those that were successfully used and those that were seriously flawed 2. Identify and avoid dead ends Find and avoid areas of research that have already been thoroughly investigated and shown to be successful 3. Get ideas on how to organize and write research reports
If researchers say that they conducted an experiment, this implies that their study design will be characterized by what two features
1. Introduction of an independent variable 2. Observing whether the variable results in a change in the condition
Replication; if you choose replication you have two options
1. Strictly replicate the study Mimic the original study in all important aspects Purpose: is to see if the same type of results will be obtained as those that were observed in the original study This step should only be taken when the implication of the original study has important implications 2. Perform a modified replication This method entails conducting a replication with a few major modifications Purpose: is to see if the same type of results will be obtained as those that were observed in the original study This step should only be taken when the implication of the original study has important implications
What are the four purposes of style guides?
1. To provide answers to problematic questions 2. Specify the contents and organization of manuscripts 3. Address issues faced by authors when using specialized technical vocabulary and jargon 4. Review the basics of grammar
Mean: An Example
10 People fill out the Beck Depression Scale (BDI-II) Their scores can range from 0-63 All scores fall in a qualitative range: -Minimal: 0-13 -Mild: 14-19 -Moderate: 20-28 -Severe: 29-63 What is your sample of participants' mean score on the BDI? -Participants' Scores: 5,1,2,5,10,5,1,16,5,12 -Step 1: Add all numbers together -Step 2: Divide by the number of observations -Step 3: Write down the number you get (6.2 in this case) How can you be sure you calculated the true zx
DSM-V's Operational Definition of Depression
5 or more of the following symptoms have been present during the same 2-week period and represent a change from previous functioning; one of the symptoms are either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure -Don't include symptoms from medical conditions, mood-incongruent delusions or hallucinations -Depressed mood for the day or majority (e.g. feeling empty or sad or appears tearful) -Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or most, activities -Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain (e.g. a change of more than 5% of body weight in a month), or decrease/increase in appetite nearly every day -Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day -Psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly every day (observable by others) -Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day -Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt (may be delusional) nearly every day -Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, nearly every day (subjective account or observable by others) -Recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), recurrent suicidal ideation without a specific plan, or suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing suicide
Census
A group of people that includes every member of a population
What is a variable?
A trait or characteristic on which people can vary
What is a variable?
A variable is a trait or characteristic on which people can vary -Each variable has categories that are: ~Exhaustive ~Mutually exclusive -Example: ~Research area: Gender's association with first-year retention in college ~Variable: Gender ~Trait: Male, Female, Transgendered ~Variable: First-year college retention ~ Trait: Retained, passing grades; Retained, not passing grades; Not-retained, failing grades; Not-retained, passing grades
In order to reduce bias in publication of journal articles, should you use active voice or passive voice?
Active voice
A high quality sample will posses what two characteristics?
Adequate size and Low level of bias or no bias
Name the dependent variable(s) in the following research question: Does having child care available and money for transportation influence how often women attend grief counseling?
Attendance at grief counseling
Is there anything I should avoid when creating a research synthesis?
Avoid extensive explanations of methodology Don't use block quotes Rarely use direct quotes Exceptions: -Well-crafted definitions of key terms -Presenting concepts that are explained particularly well with specific words -Clarifying differences of opinions in the literature in an instance when seeing specific wording would be helpful to a reader
How are samples used in scientific research?
Researchers study a sample's characteristics and then make inferences to the larger population
Prediction of the outcome of the study
Based on 1 of 2 things: An educated guess -Because exposure therapy is accepted as a highly efficacious treatment for the treatment of specific phobias..... A formal theory -Because exposure therapy is accepted as a a highly efficacious treatment, which was developed and tested based on the tenants of operant conditioning theory, it is expected that those patients diagnosed with a specific phobia will improve as a function of repeated pairings of a feared stimulus without the occurrence of a feared consequence
The most important results will demonstrate what type or types of significance?
Both practical and mathematical significance
Introduction (for Presentation)
Briefly tell the audience -What your study is about -What previous research has found related to topic -What is missing from previous research -How your study fills the gap Use (abbreviated) citations -Example: (e.g., Romaine et al., 2003) End with research purpose, RQs, and/or hypotheses
Independent variables are __________ or ______________ - _______________ variables whereas Dependent variables are _______________ or ___________________ variables
Casual or category-defining; Respondent or outcome
The term __________ is used if a researcher got responses from all the inhabitants of a particular town, area, or country
Census
What are demographics?
Demographics are background characteristics of participants in research -Age, gender, martial status, etc.
What makes a good literature review?
Depends on purpose; if you are writing for a journal, your literature review should integrate the literature into the introduction -Shows readers the context in which the researcher was working -justifies the study if the literature is used to establish the importance of a research topic -Shows how the research being reported on flows from past research
What type of hypothesis predicts which group will have more and which group will have less?
Directional Hypothesis
What type of hypotheses are there?
Directional Hypothesis Make specific assertions regarding the direction and strength of relationships Non-directional hypothesis Make general assertions that there will be a differential outcome
Which of the following variables were demonstrated to be statistically significant when the results were derived from p-hacking?
Eating raw tomatoes and Judaism
Failure to identify
If a researcher intends to get a simple random sample but fails to identify all members of the population, the sample is no longer unbiased -Biased against those who are not identified -Limits generalizability
What type of variables are there?
Independent Variables -Causal or category-defining variables -AKA predictor variable Dependent Variables -Respondent or outcome variable -AKA criterion variable Example: Gender (male, female, transgender) is an independent variable -Gender is a predictor -Was not manipulated or assigned by a researcher First-year retention (Retained, passing grades; Retained, not passing grades; Not-retained, failing grades; Not-retained, passing grades) is a dependent variable -Retention is the criterion or outcome variable
Length (for Presentation)
Intro and Method ~ 3-5 minutes Results and Discussion ~ 3-5 minutes Time for questions from audience ~ 2-4 minutes
What is the main take-away lesson from the video "Scientific Studies: Last Week Tonight with John Oliver?"
It is important to question and research the validity of research studies, even if they are published.
What media question guide do you need to study in order to adequately understand the impact of bias of scientific studies?
John Oliver Scientific Studies Question Guide
Non-Directional Hypothesis
Make general assertions that there will be a differential outcome -It is predicted that those patients who undergo exposure therapy will experience a DIFFERENT LEVEL OF SYMPTOMS at the end of treatment than those patients who undergo cognitive processing therapy
Directional hypothesis
Make specific prediction about the direction and strength of the relationship -It is predicted that those patients who undergo exposure therapy will experience SIGNIFICANTLY FEWER SYMPTOMS at the end of treatment than those patients who undergo cognitive processing therapy
A prediction about the outcome of the study is called what?
Research hypothesis
If results indicated that there was a significant relationship between the length of one's hair and GPA, what type of significance would best describe this finding?
Mathematical
What are mean, median, and mode?
Mean, Median, and Mode = numerical estimates of "the average" Average = measure of central tendency
Three measures of central tendency
Mean, median, mode
How does one go about creating a good synthesis?
Move from subtopic to subtopic (rather than study to study) while citing whatever studies are relevant to a given topic -Explicitly point out major trends or commonalities in research -Explicitly point out and explain any major discrepancies in research -Explicitly point out gaps in the research
What is the fewest number of independent and dependent variables that you could have for an experimental study?
One independent and one dependent (you have to have at least one of each)
How to begin a literature review?
Option 1: Identify the broad problem area and indicate why is is important -Use a sentence or two to make a statement that clearly identifies the problem and asserts that the problem is important -Cite statistics that indicate the scope of a problem Option 2: Start with a conceptual definition of a key variable -Follow the definition with the same type of statements you used for option 1 to indicate the importance of the problem area *See Appendix C for more examples re how to start a literature review*
Sample
Particular group or subset within a population -College students living in Dallas May also be representative of census
_______________ is a collection of all of the people who have a particular characteristic
Population
The term ___________ significance is used to refer to results that are deemed important because their results are impactful regardless of what mathematical tests deem these results
Practical Significance
What is a research hypothesis?
Prediction of the outcome study Based on 2 things: an educated guess and a formal theory
Which of the following is/are cited as reason(s) why the results of bad scientific studies are shown to the public?
Pressure to come up with impressive results
Taking Questions From The Audience (For Presentation)
Remember that: -your audience is interested, not there to judge -you are the expert, so answer confidently!
___________________ is the best guard against bad studies and _________________
Replication; it is rarely done
What was one solution that was identified by JH that would help viewers on the program discussed in #7 to determine whether the results were likely to be legitimate?
Requiring that scientists provide relevant sourcing and context
The term ____________ significance is used to refer results that are deemed meaningful because of the results of mathematical tests
Statistical significance
Name the term we use to refer to observations that have been turned into numbers What are the two reasons we would want to transform our observations into numbers?
Term: Data Reasons: Can be analyzed with statistics; To see if there are meaningful trends or differences in numbers
In the "Last Week Tonight with John Oliver" video, Mr. Oliver stated that replication studies are when other scientists redo your study and see if they can get similar results. Elizabeth Iorns PH.D. from the Science Exchange stated all of the following about replication studies, EXCEPT?
That they usually always get published
Which section of a journal article includes the literature review, empirical research details, outlines the research approach, and states hypotheses and/or aims?
The Introduction
If you were concerned that your observations may be affected by bias, which measure of central tendency would NOT be a good choice?
The Mean
What television program was identified as being particularly prone to featuring bad science?
The Today Show
Which of the following BEST summarizes the "Last Week Tonight with John Oliver" video?
The way new scientific studies are presented in the media often misinforms the general public
If you are calculating the mean correctly, what should be true of the sum of all deviations from the mean?
They add up to zero
What is the defining purpose of the Method section of a journal article?
To describe the procedures used to conduct investigation
What is the purpose of an Abstract section?
To provide a summary of each section of the paper
What is the purpose of a research synthesis?
To provide a whole picture of what is known and what is not known To fit together diverse pieces of information in a way that makes sense to a reader
Is there anything that I can use within my review to improve the overall flow of wiriting?
Use appropriate transitions within and at the beginning of paragraphs Place a brief summary of the literature review at the end of a review
How can I organize my description?
Use headings and subheadings
What can we do if our sample doesn't appear to be representative of the demographics characteristics of the true population?
Use special methods of analysis to make the sample more representative of the true population -Example: if 0.5% of a sample meets criteria for depressive disorder but we know that 5% of the population is depressed, we can assign a weight to our depressed participants that would make our sample characteristics more representative of the true population Report our sample's demographics characteristics honestly and allow a reader to make their own generalizations -If only 30% of a population (e.g. of a population of HIV-positive patients) were willing and able to participate, it could be that volunteers are quite different than non-volunteers -If surveys were mailed, there is a high likelihood of demographic bias -Certain types of neighborhoods and zip codes will have a high level of non-response
Six to more authors
Use the first author's last name followed by et al. every time you cite
Standard deviation is a measurement of _______________ within a sample
Variability
What do we use demographics information for?
We use it to allow readers to make informed judgements regarding the extent to which the results may apply to their own settings
After establishing the importance of research, what is the next step?
Write a topic description of relevant research
Are there alternatives to generating a hypothesis?
Yes, if your hypothesis is non-directional -Research purpose Explore a new area or topic, etc. BECAUSE THERE ARE A LIMITED NUMBER OF STUDIES EXPLORING the benefit of adding adjunctive treatments to increase compliance and adherence to exposure therapy protocols, THIS STUDY WILL EXPLORE whether the treatment outcome for those patients whose exposure therapy treatment includes the participation of a family member to act as a supportive coach between sessions is different from those patients whose exposure therapy treatment did not include a supportive coach. -Research question Ask a complex (e.g. not a yes-no) question WILL the treatment outcome for those patients whose exposure therapy treatment includes the participation of a family member to act as a supportive coach between sessions differs from that of patients whose exposure therapy treatment did not include a supportive coach?
P-hacking is defined as
collecting lots of data on a range of variables with the goal of finding any significant finding despite the meaningless of the relationship
What does John Oliver say P-Hacking is in the "Last Week Tonight" video?
collecting many variables and playing with your data until you find something that counts as statistically significant but is probably meaningless