Semester 2 Biology EOC Review

What is cholesterol and how can it affect the circulation of blood throughout the circulatory system?

Cholesterol: is an organic chemical substance classified as a waxy steroid of fat. It is an essential structural component of mammalian cell membranes and is required to establish proper membrane permeability and fluidity. In addition to its importance within cells, cholesterol is an important component in the hormonal systems of the body for the manufacture of bile acids, steroid hormones, and vitamin D. Cholesterol is the principal sterol synthesized by animals; in vertebrates it is formed predominantly in the liver. Although cholesterol is important and necessary for human health, high levels of cholesterol in the blood have been linked to damage to arteries and cardiovascular disease.

Tumor Suppressor Genes

Genes whose protein product inhibits mitosis. When mutated, the mutant allele behaves as a recessive; that is, as long as the cell contains one normal allele, tumor suppression continues.

Genetic Drift

Genetic drift or allelic drift is the change in the frequency of a gene variant (allele) in a population due to random sampling.[1] The alleles in the offspring are a sample of those in the parents, and chance has a role in determining whether a given individual survives and reproduces. A population's allele frequency is the fraction of the copies of one gene that share a particular form.[2] Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely and thereby reduce genetic variation.

What evidence supports the concept of the universal genetic code?

Geneticists have studied the genomes of many different species and their studies have shown that the genetic code is very similar in all species, with minor differences. The more closely related different species are, the more similar their genetic codes. The genetic code is said to be universal because the same codons are assigned to the same amino acids in the majority of genes.

Template Strand

Guides the formation of a DNA complementary strand - not an exact copy of itself.

List all the levels of Linnaeus' classification system from largest to smallest.

Life, Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

How have vaccines and antibiotics changed the patterns of infectious disease?

Misuse of medicines has created resistant strains of old diseases and new viruses have evolved because of increased interaction.

Oncogenes

Mutated and/or overexpressed version of a normal gene that in a dominant fashion can release the cell from normal restraints on growth and thus convert a cell into a tumor cell

Behavioral Isolation

Potential mates meet, but choose members of their own species. Involves species or mate recognition through cues such as visual stimuli (plumage, courtship displays), auditory stimuli (calls), and chemical stimuli (pheromones). Behavioral isolation: form of reproductive isolation in which two populations have differences in courtship rituals or other types of behavior that prevent them from interbreeding.

Explain the term semiconservative replication.

Semiconservative replication describes the mechanism by which DNA is replicated in all known cells. This mechanism of replication was one of three models originally proposed[1] [2] for DNA replication: • Semiconservative replication would produce two copies that each contained one of the original strands and one new strand. • Conservative replication would leave the two original template DNA strands together in a double helix and would produce a copy composed of two new strands containing all of the new DNA base pairs. • Dispersive replication would produce two copies of the DNA, both containing distinct regions of DNA composed of either both original strands or both new strands.

Single-Strand Binding Protein

Protein that binds to single-stranded DNA usually near the replication fork to stabilize the single strands.

Genetically Modified Organisms

Refers to living organisms, at all levels, where portions of the DNA from one organism is generally introduced into and made part of the DNA of another organism

Transfer RNA

Small RNA molecules that carry amino acids to the ribosome for polymerization into a polypeptide.

Taxonomy

Taxonomy is the science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a classification. The field of taxonomy, sometimes referred to as "biological taxonomy", revolves around the description and use of taxonomic units, known as taxa (singular taxon). A resulting taxonomy is a particular classification ("the taxonomy of ..."), arranged in a hierarchical structure or classification scheme.

Inversion

The replacement of a section of a chromosome in the reverse orientation.

Substitution

The replacement of a specific nucleotide pair by a different pair

Translation

The ribosome-mediated production of a polypeptide whose amino acid sequence is derived from the codon sequence of an mRNA molecule.

Universal Genetic Code

The same codons are assigned to the same amino acids and to the same START and STOP signals in the vast majority of genes in animals, plants, and microorganisms

Reading Frame

The succession of codons determined by reading nucleotides in groups of three from a specific initiation codon (AUG).

Genetically modified organisms can be used to produce large quantities of medicine like insulin. This is an example of the use of _____ _____ _____ _____ to improve human quality of life.

genetic engineering or biotechnology

Geographic Isolation

geographic speciation is speciation that occurs when biological populations of the same species become isolated due to geographical changes such as mountain building or social changes such as emigration. The isolated populations then undergo genotypic and/or phenotypic divergence as: (a) they become subjected to different selective pressures, (b) they independently undergo genetic drift, and (c) different mutations arise in the populations' gene pools.

List the steps of protein synthesis in the correct sequence.

1. Transcription -before a protein can be synthesized, the DNA information or code must first be copied or transcribed to a type of RNA called mRNA (messenger RNA). Bothe the codes in DNA and mRNA are carried as units called codons. 2. Translation -in the ribosome, the code carried by the mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids that will form the protein molecule dictated by the DNA.

Polypeptide

A chain of linked amino acids; a protein.

Deletion

A chromosome abnormality in which part of a single chromosome has been lost.

Clade

A clade is a group consisting of a species (extinct or extant) and all its descendants. In the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a single "branch" on the "tree of life". The idea that such a "natural group" of organisms should be grouped together and given a taxonomic name is central to biological classification. In cladistics (which takes its name from the term), clades are the only acceptable units.

Cladogram

A cladogram is a diagram used in cladistics which shows relations among organisms. A cladogram is not however an evolutionary tree; many evolutionary trees can be inferred from a single cladogram. A cladogram uses lines that branch off in different directions ending at groups of organisms. There are many shapes of cladograms but they all have lines that branch off from other lines. The lines can be traced back to where they branch off and these branching off points are where a common ancestor is believed to have existed. Although traditionally such cladograms were generated largely on the basis of morphological characters, DNA and RNA sequencing data and computational phylogenetics are now very commonly used in the generation of cladograms.

What is a fruit and how does it form?

A fruit is a ripened ovary that protects the seeds of an angiosperm. It forms after fertilization occurs within the ovary. Fruits also help with seed dispersal.

Proto-Oncogenes

A gene that, when mutated or otherwise affected, becomes an oncogene that can release the cell from normal restraints on growth and thus alone or in concert with other changes, convert a cell into a tumor cell

Codon

A section of DNA (three nucleotide pairs in length) or RNA (three nucleotides in length) that codes for a single amino acid.

Biotechnology

A set of biological techniques developed through basic research and now applied to research and product development. In particular, the use by industry of recombinant DNA, cell fusion, and new bioprocessing techniques.

What is a vaccine and what is it used for?

A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism, and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as foreign, destroy it, and "remember" it, so that the immune system can more easily recognize and destroy any of these microorganisms that it later encounters. Vaccines can be prophylactic (example: to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by any natural or "wild" pathogen), or therapeutic (e.g. vaccines against cancer are also being investigated

Which groups of organisms are more closely associated: all of the organisms in the same Kingdom, or all of the organisms in the same Genus. Explain your answer.

All organisms in the same genus are more closely associated since they are of the same genus (closely related), whereas, Kingdoms are a very large group of related organisms.

Allele Frequency

Allele frequency or Gene frequency is the proportion of all copies of a gene that is made up of a particular gene variant (allele). In other words, it is the number of copies of a particular allele divided by the number of copies of all alleles at the genetic place (locus) in a population. It can be expressed for example as a percentage. In population genetics, allele frequencies are used to depict the amount of genetic diversity at the individual, population, and species level

Messenger RNA

An RNA molecule transcribed from the DNA of a gene, and from which a protein is translated.

What is an antibiotic and for what types of infections is it useful?

An antibiotic is a drug that kills or slows the growth of bacteria. Antibiotics are one class of antimicrobials, a larger group which also includes anti-viral, anti-fungal, and anti-parasitic drugs. Antibiotics are chemicals produced by or derived from microorganisms (i.e. bugs or germs such as bacteria and fungi). The first antibiotic was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928 in a significant breakthrough for medical science. Antibiotics are among the most frequently prescribed medications in modern medicine. Antibiotics are used to treat many different bacterial infections. Antibiotics cure disease by killing or injuring bacteria. Bacteria are simple one-celled organisms that can be found, by the billions, all around us: on furniture and counter-tops, in the soil, and on plants and animals. They are a natural and needed part of life. Bacteria cause disease and infection when they are able to gain access to more vulnerable parts of our bodies and multiply rapidly. Bacteria can infect many parts of the body: eyes, ears, throat, sinuses, lungs, airways, skin, stomach, colon, bones, genitals. Some antibiotics are 'bactericidal', meaning that they work by killing bacteria. Other antibiotics are 'bacteriostatic', meaning that they work by stopping bacteria multiplying.

Promoting Factors

An enzyme that drives both the mitotic and meiotic cycles in all eukaryotic organisms.

Ligase

An enzyme that seals nicks in one strand of double stranded DNA created where the discontinuous segments of DNA were formed on the lagging strand.

Helicase

An enzyme that unwinds the DNA helix at the replication fork, to allow the resulting single strands to be copied.

What is an antibody?

Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins, abbreviated Ig) are gamma globulin proteins that are found in blood or other bodily fluids of vertebrates, and are used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects, such as bacteria and viruses. They are typically made of basic structural units—each with two large heavy chains and two small light chains—to form, for example, monomers with one unit, dimers with two units or pentamers with five units. Antibodies are produced by a kind of white blood cell called a plasma cell or B-cells.

Hominid

Any of the modern or extinct bipedal primates of the family Hominidae, including all species of the genera Homo and Australopithecus.

Artificial Selection

Artificial selection (or selective breeding) describes intentional breeding for certain traits, or combination of traits. The term was utilized by Charles Darwin in contrast to natural selection, in which the differential reproduction of organisms with certain traits is attributed to improved survival or reproductive ability ("Darwinian fitness"). As opposed to artificial selection, in which humans favor specific traits, in natural selection the environment acts as a sieve through which only certain variations can pass.

What is atherosclerosis and how does it affect blood flow through the cardiovascular system?

Atherosclerosis (also known as arteriosclerotic vascular disease or ASVD) is a condition in which an artery wall thickens as a result of the accumulation of fatty materials such as cholesterol. It is a syndrome affecting arterial blood vessels, a chronic inflammatory response in the walls of arteries, caused largely by the accumulation of macrophage white blood cells and promoted by low-density lipoproteins (plasma proteins that carry cholesterol and triglycerides) without adequate removal of fats and cholesterol from the macrophages by functional high density lipoproteins (HDL). It is commonly referred to as a hardening or furring of the arteries. It is caused by the formation of multiple plaques within the arteries. This condition leads to high blood pressure which can cause either a heart attacks or stroke.

Replication

Before a cell can divide, it must duplicate all of its DNA. In eukaryotes, this occurs during S phase of the cell cycle.

Binomial Nomenclature

Binomial nomenclature (also called binominal nomenclature or binary nomenclature) is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages. Such a name is called a binomial name (which may be shortened to just "binomial"), a binomen or a scientific name; more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs; the second part identifies the species within the genus. For example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. The introduction of this system of naming species is credited to Linnaeus, effectively beginning with his work Species Plantarum in 1753

Compare and contrast xylem and phloem.

Both are vascular tissue xylem transports water upwards from roots to shoots, phloem transports the food made in photosynthesis (sugars) from the source (leaves) to the sink (where it is needed)

What are the steps of replication in the correct sequence?

DNA replication is an important process resulting in the production of another copy of the DNA strand. Learn about the DNA replication steps to better understand the process. DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is considered as the blueprint or the hereditary molecule of all living organisms. There are two DNA strands bounded by four nucleotide bases called purines and pyrimidines. The two purines are known as adenine (A) and guanine (G), and the two pyrimides are thymine (T) and cytosine (C). The DNA strands appear as a double helix. They contain the genes and the genetic code which are passed from generations to generations. This is made possible through a process known as DNA Replication. DNA replication therefore, is an essential process in the perpetuation of the species. Steps of DNA Replication DNA replication occurs before cell division and it goes through a series of steps to duplicate new DNA molecules. These steps are as follows: Step 1: The Separation of DNA Strands The steps of DNA replication always begin by separating a twisted strand into two untwisted molecular strands. It happens in the specific area of a chromosome known as the "origins". The origins contain a series of codes that attract the helicase, a protein that aids in the separation of the strands. Once the helicase locates the origins, it sends out signals inside the cell for other replication initiator proteins to help out in the separation. DNA strands are being separated by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotide base pairs, such as those of adenine (A) and thymine (T), and guanine (G) and cytosine (C). Step 2: Replication Fork Formation Splitting the original double helix into two strands visually presents a Y-shaped formation known as the replication fork. Each prong appears as an elongated line that requires an identical half to match in order to form a new pair of strands. One of the separated strands is called the leading strand, which is constantly utilized for DNA synthesis while the lagging strand is responsible for the complimentary strand's synthesis. Step 3: Binding of Bases to Each Strand Both leading strand and lagging strand already has base patterns from the start and it serves as the template for the corresponding strands. For each strand, the bases match with the free floating nucleotides present inside the cell following the nucleotide base pairing rules to establish the hydrogen bonding between a separated strand and a new matching strand. It is made possible by the DNA polymerase, an enzyme that functions like a sewing machine in matching and zipping both strands together. The replication process does not result to a brand new chain of DNA. It is always a mixture of both the original strand that is conserved as a partner all throughout the continuous steps of DNA replication process and the recently made strand. This process is recognized as the semiconservative replication. Step 4: The Termination of the Replication Process The termination process occurs as soon as the DNA polymerase enzyme arrived at the edge of the strands where no more possible replication could occur. But before the process is completed, it goes through the process of repair to correct errors such as mismatching of nucleotides. After this step, the DNA replication is completed.

Identify the functions of the parts of the nerve.

Dendrites: A branched protoplasmic extension of a nerve cell that conducts impulses from adjacent cells inward toward the cell body. A single nerve may possess many dendrites. Nucleus: , the major functions of nucleus are to maintain the integrity of DNA and to control cellular activities such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction by regulating gene expression. It has three main components: the nucleolus, the chromatin and the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope has nuclear pores to control the movement of molecules between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm. Cell body: The largest part of a cell, the cell body holds all of the general parts of a cell as well as the nucleus, which is the control center. The nucleus contains the cell's genetic material (DNA, located in the chromosomes). The cell body also contains many other unique structures responsible for making energy and getting rid of cellular wastes. Myelin sheath: The cover that surrounds many nerve cells and helps to increase the speed by which information travels along the nerve. Node of ranvier: a gap occurring at regular intervals between segments of myelin sheath along a nerve axon. Axon: The usually long process of a nerve fiber that generally conducts impulses away from the body of the nerve cell. The process of a nerve cell along which impulses travel away from the cell body. It branches at its termination, forming synapses at other nerve cells or effector organs. Many axons are covered by a myelin sheath formed from the cell membrane of a glial or Schwann cell. Axon terminal: The somewhat enlarged, often club-shaped endings by which axons make synaptic contacts with other nerve cells or with effector cells.

Compare and contrast dermal tissue and ground tissue

Dermal tissue is the skin or outer covering of a plant. The cuticle and stomata are part of a plants dermal tissue. Ground tissue makes up most of a plant. It is found in roots, stems and leaves. If it isn't dermal, Meristematic, or vascular tissue it is ground tissue.

Classify man from Domain to Species.

Domain: Eukarya Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria Order: Primates Suborder: Anthropoidea Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo sapiens Species: sapiens

DNA Polymerase

Enzyme that matches DNA nucleotides to the template strand of a DNA molecule during replication

What are the 6 kingdoms of life as they are now identified and the major characteristics of each.

Eubacteria: (Unicellular, prokaryotic) Archaebacteria: (Unicellular, prokaryotic) Protista: (Eukaryotic, unicellular and multicellular) Plantae: (Multicellular, eukaryotic) Animalia: (Multicellular, eukaryotic) Fungi: (Multicellular, eukaryotic) Organisms are classified into three Domains and into one of six Kingdoms of life. These Kingdoms are Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Organisms are placed into these categories based on similarities or common characteristics. Some of the characteristics that are used to determine placement are cell type, metabolism, and reproduction. Below is a list of the six Kingdoms of life and information on a few organisms in each category. Six Kingdoms of Life I. Archaebacteria Organisms: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermophiles, Psychrophiles Cell Type: Prokaryotic Metabolism: Depending on species - oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, sulfur, sulfide may be needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Depending on species - nutrition intake may by absorption, non-photosynthetic photophosphorylation, or chemosynthesis. Reproduction: Asexual reproduction by binary fission, budding, or fragmentation. II. Eubacteria Organisms: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria(blue-green algae), Actinobacteria Cell Type: Prokaryotic Metabolism: Depending on species - oxygen may be toxic, tolerated, or needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Depending on species - nutrition intake may by absorption, photosynthesis, or chemosynthesis. Reproduction: Asexual reproduction III. Protista Organisms: Amoebae, green algae, brown algae, diatoms, euglena, slime molds Cell Type: Eukaryotic Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Depending on species - nutrition intake may be by absorption, photosynthesis, or ingestion. Reproduction: Mostly asexual reproduction. Meiosis occurs in some species. IV. Fungi Organisms: Mushrooms, yeast, molds Cell Type: Eukaryotic Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Absorption Reproduction: Asexual or sexual reproduction occur. V. Plantae Organisms: Mosses, angiosperms (flowering plants), gymnosperms, liverworts, ferns Cell Type: Eukaryotic Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Photosynthesis Reproduction: Some species reproduce asexually by mitosis. Other species exhibit sexual reproduction. VI. Animalia Organisms: Mammals, amphibians, sponges, insects, worms Cell Type: Eukaryotic Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism. Nutrition Acquisition: Ingestion Reproduction: Sexual reproduction

Most of a plant consists of meristematic tissue (ground)

False

Stomata can give leaves a fuzzy appearance and can help protect the plant from predators.

False

Mutation

Faulty deletions, insertions, or exchanges of nucleotides in the genetic material

Homologous Structures

Homologous structures are body parts that are alike because the species in question share a common ancestor. These structures may serve the same or different functions. For example, the wing of a bird and the arm of a human serve very different functions, but are considered homologous structures because of the evolutionary relationship between birds and humans. Body parts that are alike in that they serve similar functions (regardless of evolutionary relationship) are analogous structures.

Compare and contrast humoral and cell mediated immunity.

Humoral immunity is affected by antibodies produced by plasma cells toward a specific foreign antigen. Cellular immunity does not directly involve antibodies, but refers to cellular destruction of alien cells/tissues by production of cytotoxins locally; typically the latter are produced by T-lymphocytes and natural killer cells.

What is hypertension and how does it affect blood flow through the cardiovascular system?

Hypertension is the term used to describe high blood pressure. Blood pressure is a measurement of the force against the walls of your arteries as your heart pumps blood through your body. Blood pressure readings are usually given as two numbers -- for example, 120 over 80 (written as 120/80 mmHg). One or both of these numbers can be too high. Many factors can affect blood pressure, including: • How much water and salt you have in your body • The condition of your kidneys, nervous system, or blood vessels • The levels of different body hormones You are more likely to be told your blood pressure is too high as you get older. This is because your blood vessels become stiffer as you age. When that happens, your blood pressure goes up. High blood pressure increases your chance of having a stroke, heart attack, heart failure, kidney disease, and early death.

Gene Flow

In population genetics, gene flow (also known as gene migration) is the transfer of alleles or genes from one population to another. Migration into or out of a population may be responsible for a marked change in allele frequencies (the proportion of members carrying a particular variant of a gene). Immigration may also result in the addition of new genetic variants to the established gene pool of a particular species or population.

Describe the relationship between extinction and speciation.

In simple terms, speciation results in branching of the tree, and extinction prunes a part of the tree. Genetic change/variation leads to speciation. No genetic change or loss of variation can lead to a diminished gene pool and result in extinction (e.g., the Florida Panther)

Chromosome

In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins called histones that support its structure.

Temporal Isolation

Isolation due to population groups reproducing at different times

Natural Selection

Natural selection is the gradual, nonrandom process by which biological traits become either more or less common in a population as a function of differential reproduction of their bearers. It is a key mechanism of evolution.Variation exists within all populations of organisms. This occurs partly because random mutations cause changes in the genome of an individual organism, and these mutations can be passed to offspring. Throughout the individuals' lives, their genomes interact with their environments to cause variations in traits. (The environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic environment.) Individuals with certain variants of the trait may survive and reproduce more than individuals with other variants. Therefore the population evolves. Factors that affect reproductive success are also important, an issue that Charles Darwin developed in his ideas on sexual selection, for example. Natural selection acts on the phenotype, or the observable characteristics of an organism, but the genetic (heritable) basis of any phenotype that gives a reproductive advantage will become more common in a population (see allele frequency). Over time, this process can result in populations that specialize for particular ecological niches and may eventually result in the emergence of new species. In other words, natural selection is an important process (though not the only process) by which evolution takes place within a population of organisms. As opposed to artificial selection, in which humans favors specific traits, in natural selection the environment acts as a sieve through which only certain variations can pass.

Trace the path and development of the egg from fertilization to implantation.

Ovulation releases an egg from an ovarian follicle. The egg is swept into the fallopian tube and begins to descend. Spermatozoa (millions are represented here by one) begin ascending. Fertilization of the egg by a single sperm occurs in the ampullary portion of the fallopian tube about a day after ovulation. The fertilized egg begins to develop into the blastocyt on descent into the endometrial cavity, where implantation occurs on the wall of the fundus about a week after ovulation.

Speciation

Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. The biologist Orator F. Cook seems to have been the first to coin the term 'speciation' for the splitting of lineages or "cladogenesis," as opposed to "anagenesis" or "phyletic evolution" occurring within lineages.[1][2] Whether genetic drift is a minor or major contributor to speciation is the subject matter of much ongoing discussion. There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to which speciating populations are geographically isolated from one another: allopatric, peripatric, parapatric, and sympatric. Speciation may also be induced artificially, through animal husbandry or laboratory experiments.

What are the body's specific defenses against pathogens and what is their function?

Specific immunity a. Specific immunity is that aspect of your body's defenses against pathogens (and other foreign material) that acts against specific molecules, usually requiring that your immune system "learn" the properties of specific molecules over a number of days or weeks before mounting an effective response against the foreign material b. Typically a specific immune response against one pathogen will be ineffective against a different pathogen, sometimes even a closely related but still different pathogen c. Specific immunity is that aspect of immunity that is primed when individuals are vaccinated against, for example, pathogens or their toxins d. Specific immunity includes humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity e. A number of body organs, tissues, and cell types are involved in effecting each of these forms of specific immunity f. We can additionally describe specific immunity as being i. (i) Naturally acquired versus artificially acquired ii. (ii) Actively acquired versus passively acquired Antigen g. Another way of defining specific immunity is that it is a means by which a body defends itself against the presence of specific antigens associated with, for example, pathogens h. Antigens are the protein or polysaccharide components of pathogens i. The reason that specific immunity is specific to specific pathogens (and their molecules) is because these molecules (antigens) are somewhat unique going from pathogen to pathogen (e.g., proteins with different amino acid sequences and therefore different structures, or polysaccharides made up of different sugars in different orders) j. For example, antibodies work by interacting with (binding to) specific structures found on specific antigens

Describe the relationship between stomata and guard cells.

Stomata are pores found on the underside of leaves that allow for gas exchange (carbon dioxide, oxygen); water exits through transpiration. Guard cells surround the stomata and help to regulate the gas exchange. They swell with water to open the stomata and relax (close) when there is not enough water to prevent water loss.

What is endosymbiosis and what is the evidence that supports it?

The endosymbiotic theory concerns the mitochondria, plastids (e.g. chloroplasts), and possibly other organelles of eukaryotic cells. According to this theory, certain organelles originated as free-living bacteria that were taken inside another cell as endosymbionts. Mitochondria developed from proteobacteria (in particular, Rickettsiales, the SAR11 clade, or close relatives) and chloroplasts from cyanobacteria. Evidence that mitochondria and plastids arose from bacteria is as follows: • New mitochondria and plastids are formed only through a process similar to binary fission. • In some algae, such as Euglena, the plastids can be destroyed by certain chemicals or prolonged absence of light without otherwise affecting the cell. In such a case, the plastids will not regenerate. This shows that the plastid regeneration relies on an extracellular source, such as from cell division or endosymbiosis. • They are surrounded by two or more membranes, and the innermost of these shows differences in composition from the other membranes of the cell. They are composed of a peptidoglycan cell wall characteristic of a bacterial cell. • Both mitochondria and plastids contain DNA that is different from that of the cell nucleus and that is similar to that of bacteria (both in their size and their having a circular form). • DNA sequence analysis and phylogenetic estimates suggest that nuclear DNA contains genes that probably came from plastids. • These organelles' ribosomes are like those found in bacteria (70S). • Proteins of organelle origin, like those of bacteria, use N-formylmethionine as the initiating amino acid. • Much of the internal structure and biochemistry of plastids, for instance the presence of thylakoids and particular chlorophylls, is very similar to that of cyanobacteria. Phylogenetic estimates constructed with bacteria, plastids, and eukaryotic genomes also suggest that plastids are most closely related to cyanobacteria. • Mitochondria have several enzymes and transport systems similar to those of bacteria. • Some proteins encoded in the nucleus are transported to the organelle, and both mitochondria and plastids have small genomes compared to bacteria. This is consistent with an increased dependence on the eukaryotic host after forming an endosymbiosis. Most genes on the organellar genomes have been lost or moved to the nucleus. Most genes needed for mitochondrial and plastid function are located in the nucleus. Many originate from the bacterial endosymbiont. • Plastids are present in very different groups of protists, some of which are closely related to forms lacking plastids. This suggests that if chloroplasts originated de novo, they did so multiple times, in which case their close similarity to each other is difficult to explain. • Many of these protists contain "primary" plastids that have not yet been acquired from other plastid-containing eukaryotes. • Among eukaryotes that acquired their plastids directly from bacteria (known as Archaeplastida), the glaucophyte algae have chloroplasts that strongly resemble cyanobacteria. In particular, they have a peptidoglycan cell wall between the two membranes. • Mitochondria and plastids are similar in size to bacteria. • That a symbiotic relationship developed between primitive prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells over time. Microscopic evidence exists that show mitochondria and chloroplasts share many features of free-living bacteria (Lynn Margulis, Boston University)

List the 5 conditions necessary for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium.

The Hardy-Weinberg formulas allow scientists to determine whether evolution has occurred. Any changes in the gene frequencies in the population over time can be detected. The law essentially states that if no evolution is occurring, then an equilibrium of allele frequencies will remain in effect in each succeeding generation of sexually reproducing individuals. In order for equilibrium to remain in effect (i.e. that no evolution is occurring) then the following five conditions must be met: 1. No mutations must occur so that new alleles do not enter the population. 2. No gene flow can occur (i.e. no migration of individuals into, or out of, the population). 3. Random mating must occur (i.e. individuals must pair by chance) 4. The population must be large so that no genetic drift (random chance) can cause the allele frequencies to change. 5. No selection can occur so that certain alleles are not selected for, or against. Obviously, the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium cannot exist in real life. Some or all of these types of forces all act on living populations at various times and evolution at some level occurs in all living organisms. The Hardy-Weinberg formulas allow us to detect some allele frequencies that change from generation to generation, thus allowing a simplified method of determining that evolution is occurring. There are two formulas that must be memorized: p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 and p + q = 1 p = frequency of the dominant allele in the population q = frequency of the recessive allele in the population p2 = percentage of homozygous dominant individuals q2 = percentage of homozygous recessive individuals 2pq = percentage of heterozygous individuals

Ribosomal RNA

The RNA molecules which are essential structural and functional components of ribosomes, the organelles responsible for protein synthesis.

Nucleotides

The building blocks of DNA and RNA. Individual nucleotide monomers are linked together to form polymers, or long chains. DNA chains store genetic information, while RNA chains perform a variety of roles integral to protein synthesis.

Fitness

The concept of fitness is central to natural selection. In broad terms, individuals that are more "fit" have better potential for survival, as in the well-known phrase "survival of the fittest". However, as with natural selection above, the precise meaning of the term is much more subtle. Modern evolutionary theory defines fitness not by how long an organism lives, but by how successful it is at reproducing. If an organism lives half as long as others of its species, but has twice as many offspring surviving to adulthood, its genes will become more common in the adult population of the next generation. Though natural selection acts on individuals, the effects of chance mean that fitness can only really be defined "on average" for the individuals within a population. The fitness of a particular genotype corresponds to the average effect on all individuals with that genotype. Very low-fitness genotypes cause their bearers to have few or no offspring on average; examples include many human genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis. Since fitness is an averaged quantity, it is also possible that a favorable mutation arises in an individual that does not survive to adulthood for unrelated reasons. Fitness also depends crucially upon the environment. Conditions like sickle-cell anemia may have low fitness in the general human population, but because the sickle-cell trait confers immunity from malaria, it has high fitness value in populations that have high malaria infection rates.

Protein Synthesis

The creation of proteins by cells that uses DNA, RNA and various enzymes.

Cell Cycle

The cycle of cell growth, replication of the genetic material and nuclear and cytoplasmic division.

How is a leaf's structure related to its function?

The function of a leaf is to act as a solar panel to capture light for photosynthesis, so the more surface area on a leaf allows for greater absorption of sunlight thus more photosynthesis.

Molecular Clock

The molecular clock (based on the molecular clock hypothesis (MCH)) is a technique in molecular evolution that uses fossil constraints and rates of molecular change to deduce the time in geologic history when two species or other taxa diverged. It is used to estimate the time of occurrence of events called speciation or radiation. The molecular data used for such calculations is usually nucleotide sequences for DNA or amino acid sequences for proteins. It is sometimes called a gene clock or evolutionary clock.

What is a molecular clock and how is it used?

The molecular clock (based on the molecular clock hypothesis (MCH)) is a technique in molecular evolution that uses fossil constraints and rates of molecular change to deduce the time in geologic history when two species or other taxa diverged. It is used to estimate the time of occurrence of events called speciation or radiation. The molecular data used for such calculations is usually nucleotide sequences for DNA or amino acid sequences for proteins. It is sometimes called a gene clock or evolutionary clock. comparing stretches of DNA over a passage of evolutionary time. Scientists use mutation rates in DNA to estimate the time two species have independently evolved

Phenotype

The physical appearance or biochemical characteristic of an organism as a result of the interaction of its genotype and the environment.

Identify the milestones in each of the trimesters of pregnancy.

The pregnancy trimester is like a goal each pregnant woman has. Make it from pregnancy trimester one to two and things are a bit safer. Move from pregnancy trimester two to three and the pregnancy is nearing the exciting day of birth. During each pregnancy trimester there are milestones women achieve in their pregnancy. Pregnancy Trimester One Many expecting women often spend the first pregnancy trimester coming to terms with the fact that motherhood is now a reality. It does not matter whether this is baby number one or five, new motherhood is still new motherhood every time. Pregnancy trimester one is an active time for baby too. During this time baby grows rapidly, moving from a zygote (just the egg and the sperm) to a fetus the size of a peach. By the 8th week of the first pregnancy trimester, baby is moving her limbs around ready to take on the world. Hair, nails, vocal cords and muscles all grow during the first pregnancy trimester. Pregnancy Trimester Two This is the time when most expecting women have come to terms with being pregnant. Morning sickness is likely fading away and that pregnancy glow is just beginning. The second pregnancy trimester is an active time for baby. Those little details that transform the alien-like fetus into a baby are now taking place. Hair continues to grow, eyes start to shift toward their final position and ears move too. Baby can now hiccup and yawn in utero. The senses are also starting to develop so soon baby will be able to taste, smell, hear and see. Pregnancy Trimester Three This is the fun time of pregnancy, at least for the first month or two. The expecting mom is feeling fantastic and the baby bump is out and about for everyone to enjoy, though mom may not enjoy all the attention. Baby showers and birth plans are being made during the third pregnancy trimester so this is a busy time for mom. Inside, baby is growing by leaps and bounds. The third pregnancy trimester is the time for fine tuning and weight gain. The lungs are already practicing and the uterus starts to prepare for childbirth with Braxton Hicks contractions. Changes in the baby are dramatic when compared to that first ultrasound picture when it was difficult to pick out the face, body and legs

Binary Fission

The process in which a parent cell splits into two daughter cells of approximately equal size. Simple cell division in single-celled prokaryotic organisms.

Transcription

The synthesis of RNA using a DNA template. The process whereby RNA is synthesized from a DNA template.

Gene Pool

The total number of genes of every individual in an interbreeding population. A large gene pool indicates high genetic diversity, increased chances of biological fitness, and survival. A small gene pool indicates low genetic diversity, reduced chances of acquiring biological fitness, and increased possibility of extinction. Gene pool increases when mutation occurs and survives. Gene pool decreases when the population size is significantly reduced (e.g. famine, genetic disease, etc.). Some of the consequences when gene pool is small are low fertility, and increased probability of acquiring genetic diseases and deformities. Gene pool gives an idea of the number of genes, the variety of genes and the type of genes existing in a population. It can be used to help determine gene frequencies or the ratio between different types of genes in a population.

Transformation

The transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another through the liquid in which the bacteria live.

List the primary replication enzymes and describe the function of each.

Topoisomerase is the enzyme that relieves tension to the DNA molecule by nicking and cutting certain placed on the phosphate backbone. Helicase is the next enzyme that is involved in "unzipping" the DNA to produce two single strands of DNA. RNA polymerase lays down the RNA primer DNA polymerase III uses the RNA primer to start laying down new nucleotides on the single strand of DNA. DNA polymerase I replaces the RNA primer with DNA DNA ligase creates joins the backbone of the newly formed DNA strands Helicase DNA replication begins at places called origins, within the DNA molecule and the creation of replication forks. The process of strand separation is made possible because of the enzyme Helicase which separates the two strands using the energy that is derived from ATP hydrolysis. DNA Primase One of the most crucial DNA replication enzymes is DNA Primase. After the DNA strands are separated, to begin the creation of new DNA molecules, through addition of complementary bases to the templates, a short RNA segment, called a 'primer' is required. These primers are synthesized by DNA primase enzymes, thus initiating the DNA replication process. That is why DNA Primase is one of the most important DNA replication enzyme. DNA Polymerase The most important DNA replication enzymes, that carry out the main task of aligning the complementary bases with template strands of 'unzipped' DNA, are the DNA polymerases. They are a large family of enzymes that carry out the task of adding complementary base nucleotides by reading the template strands. Besides the task of elongating the DNA molecule, they also carry out DNA proofreading and repair. Exonuclease (DNA Polymerase I) The main function of Exonucleases like DNA polymerase I is to remove the RNA primer segments from the template strand. It is always involved in the 'Search and Remove' operation of RNA primers. DNA Ligase While Helicase works to unwind the DNA molecule, DNA Ligase is the DNA replication enzyme that binds the DNA fragments together by addition of phosphates in the gaps that remain in the phophate-ribose sugar backbone. These DNA replication enzymes are the crucial parts of replication assembly line. The precision with which every single segment of the complementary strand is aligned is mind-boggling. No man-made assembly line can match the efficiency, detailing and brilliance of the DNA replication mechanism that makes biological inheritance possible.

The cuticle helps decrease water loss by slowing evaporation.

True

Water and minerals are transported from the roots by xylem tissue.

True

Cloning

Using specialized DNA technology to produce multiple, exact copies of a single gene or other segment of DNA to obtain enough material for further study.

Semiconservative

When the replication process is complete, two DNA molecules — identical to each other and identical to the original — have been produced. Each strand of the original molecule has remained intact as it served as the template for the synthesis of a complementary strand.

Identify the three domains and identify the major characteristics of each.

a. Archaea Domain - prokaryotic, no nuclear membrane, distinct biochemistry and RNA markers from eubacteria, possess unique ancient evolutionary history for which they are considered some of the oldest species of organisms on Earth; traditionally classified as archaebacteria; often characterized by living in extreme environments • Kingdom Archaebacteria Examples: o Methanogens - metabolize hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane o Halophiles - thrive in salt o Thermoacidophiles - thrive in acid and high temperatures (up to 110 degrees Celsius) b. Bacteria Domain - prokaryotic, no nuclear membrane, traditionally classified as bacteria, contain most known pathogenic prokaryotic organisms (see [3] for exceptions), studied far more extensively than Archaea. • Kingdom Eubacteria • Examples: o Cyanobacteria - photosynthesizing bacteria o Spirochaete - Gram-negative bacteria that include those causing syphilis and Lyme disease o Firmicutes - Gram-positive bacteria including Bifidobacterium animalis which is present in the human large intestine c. Eukarya Domain - eukaryotes, nuclear membrane • Kingdom Fungi or fungi Examples: o Saccharomycotina - includes true yeasts o Basidiomycota - includes shiitake mushrooms • Kingdom Plantae or plants Examples: o Bryophyta - mosses o Magnoliophyta - flowering plants • Kingdom Animalia or animals Examples: o Arthropoda - includes insects, arachnids, and crustaceans o Chordata - includes vertebrates and, as such, human beings • Kingdom Protista or protists (recognized to be paraphyletic, and thus subject to dissolution and/or redefinition) Examples: o Rhodophyta - red algae o Chromalveolata - includes dinoflagellates

Identify 3 basic trends in hominid evolution.

a. Bipedalism b. Increase in Brain Size and Complexity c. Use of tools and caring capacity d. Dentition

Give the major characteristics of each of the 4 major land plant groups and an example of each.

a. Bryophytes ____Non vascular, small, reproduce with spores______Mosses___ b. Pterophytes _vascular, seedless, sori Ferns_ c. Gymnosperms __Vascular, naked seed Plant, cones, pollen, Pine trees_ d. Angiosperms _Flowering plants, vascular, seeds protected by a ripened ovary or fruit,

What are the 3 common serious diseases of the circulatory system?

a. Coronary Artery Disease: Coronary artery disease is a silent killer whose initial damage may begin to occur early in life; smoking, hypertension, high cholesterol or diabetes all damage the artery walls. Plaque, fatty deposits in the blood, cling to the artery walls and build up until pieces break off. Clotting blood cells called platelets accumulate at the site in an effort to repair the artery; the buildup blocks blood flow to the heart. Myocardial infarction, more commonly known as a heart attack, is the result. Symptoms of coronary artery disease are few until serious damage is done; chest pain, known as angina, and shortness of breath may come and go. b. Hypertension: Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is a disease caused by narrow blood vessels. Because the vessels are narrowed, the heart has to pump harder to move blood through them. The overload of work can damage the heart and increase the risk of heart attack, abnormal heart rhythms, stroke, heart or kidney failure, or aneurysm, over distended blood vessels. Hypertension is measured by two numbers: the upper number, or systolic pressure, is the pressure exerted as the heart beats. The more narrow the vessel, the harder the heart must pump, and the higher the systolic blood pressure. The lower number is the diastolic blood pressure, which is the pressure between beats, when the heart is at rest. Headache, blurred vision and chest pain may occur when blood pressure is high, the University of Cincinnati reports. Blood pressure often rises with age as blood vessels become less elastic; African Americans typically have higher blood pressure generally than Caucasians. c. Cardiomyopathy: Cardiomyopathy means that the heart muscle itself is damaged. Heart muscle can be damaged in three ways, according to the Mayo Clinic: the muscle may become overly thick, or hypertrophic; the left ventricle of the heart may be enlarged, or dilated; the heart may be unable to fill with blood, or restrictive cardiomyopathy. Many problems can cause cardiomyopathy, high blood pressure, heart damage from drugs, alcohol or viral infections can all cause cardiomyopathy. Cardiomyopathy causes shortness of breath, fluid buildup in the lower extremities, fatigue, and feeling like your heart is pounding or beating irregularly, and lightheadedness. The treatment of cardiomyopathy depends on the cause, but drugs and pacemakers may be used. Severe cardiomyopathy may require heart transplant

What are 3 hypotheses about the origin of life on earth?

a. Extraterrestrial origin (panspermia): meteor, comet borne from elsewhere in universe i. evidence of amino acids and other organic material in space (but often both D & L forms) ii. questionable bacterial fossils in Martian rock b. Spontaneous origin on earth: primitive self-replicating macromolecules acted upon by natural selection ((macro)Evolution is one example of this) c. Special creation: religious explanations (Intelligent Design is one popular example of this.) These explanations contend that life was created by God (or perhaps some other Intelligent Designer). i. Proponents of Intelligent design suggest that the vast complexity of life could only have been intentionally designed while other creationists cite biblical support. d. Formation of microspheres e. Evolution of RNA and DNA f. Production of free oxygen

Identify and describe the 3 main phases of the menstrual cycle.

a. Flow Phase: (Menstrual period) On Day 1 of your cycle, the thickened lining (endometrium) of the uterus begins to shed. You know this as menstrual bleeding from the vagina. A normal menstrual period can last 4 to 6 days. Most of your menstrual blood loss happens during the first 3 days. This is also when you might have cramping pain in your pelvis, legs, and back. Cramps can range from mild to severe. The cramping is your uterus contracting, helping the endometrium shed. In general, any premenstrual symptoms that you've felt before your period will go away during these first days of your cycle. b. Follicular Phase: During the follicular phase, an egg follicle on an ovary gets ready to release an egg. Usually, one egg is released per cycle. This process can be short or long and plays the biggest role in how long your cycle is. At the same time, the uterus starts growing a new endometrium to prepare for pregnancy. The last 5 days of the follicular phase, plus ovulation day, are your fertile window. This is when you are most likely to become pregnant if you have sex without using birth control. c. Luteal (premenstrual) phase: This phase starts on ovulation day, the day the egg is released from the egg follicle on the ovary. It can happen any time from Day 7 to Day 22 of a normal menstrual cycle. During ovulation, some women have less than a day of red spotting or lower pelvic pain or discomfort. These signs of ovulation are normal. If the egg is fertilized by sperm and then implants in (attaches to) the endometrium, a pregnancy begins. (This pregnancy is dated from Day 1 of this menstrual cycle.) If the egg is not fertilized or does not implant, the endometrium begins to break down.

Explain how each of the following support the theory of evolution:

a. Fossil record: Fossils provide a record of species that lived long ago, and they supply some of the most significant evidence of evolutionary change. This record can show how ancient species are similar to current species. b. Comparative anatomy: Comparative anatomy has long served as evidence for evolution, it indicates that various organisms share a common ancestor. Also, it assists scientists in classifying organisms based on similar characteristics of their anatomical structures. Comparative anatomy supports Darwin's theory of descent with modification, also known as evolution. A common example of comparative anatomy is the similar bone structures in forelimbs of cats, whales, bats, and humans. All of these appendages consist of the same basic parts; yet, they serve completely different functions. The skeletal parts which form a structure used for swimming, such as a fin, would not be ideal to form a wing, which is better-suited for flight. One explanation for the forelimbs' similar composition is descent with modification. Through random mutations and natural selection anatomical structures gradually became better-adapted to the every organism's respective habitat.[1] Two major concepts of comparative anatomy are: 1. Homologous structures - structures (body parts/anatomy) which are similar in different species because the species have common descent. They may or may not perform the same function. An example is the forelimb structure shared by cats and whales. 2. Analogous structures - structures similar in different organisms because they evolved in a similar environment, rather than were inherited from a recent common ancestor. They usually serve the same or similar purposes. An example is the streamlined torpedo body shape of porpoises and sharks. So even though they evolved from different ancestors, porpoises and sharks developed analogous structures as a result of their evolution in the same aquatic environment. c. Comparative embryology: Comparative embryology is the branch of embryology that studies the similarities and differences among animal or plant orders. The embryonic stage for many animals is very similar. For example, fish, bird, rabbit, and human embryos are similar in appearance in the early stages. They all have gill slits, a two-chambered heart, and a tail with muscles to move it. Later on, as the embryos grow and develop, they become less and less similar. d. Biogeography: Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities vary in a highly regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area. Knowledge of spatial variation in the numbers and types of organisms is as vital to us today as it was to our early human ancestors, as we adapt to heterogeneous but geographically predictable environments. Biogeography is an integrative field of inquiry that unites concepts and information from ecology, evolutionary biology, geology, and physical geography. e. Molecular biology: Molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between the different types of DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis as well as learning how these interactions are regulated.In this field, scientists look at the proteins and other molecules that control life processes. While these molecules can evolve just as an entire organism can, some important molecules are highly conserved among species. The slight changes that occur over time in these conserved molecules, which are often called molecular clocks, can help shed light on past evolutionary events.

Name 3 uncontrollable risk factors for heart disease and stroke.

a. Increasing age b. Gender c. Heredity, including race.

What are 3 characteristics that all primates share?

a. Manual dexterity b. Senses c. Locomotion d. Complex brains and behaviors e. Reproductive rates

Identify the structures and functions of the labeled reproductive systems.

a. Ovary -produces an egg cell b. Uterus-prepares for embryo. Houses fetus for development c. Vagina-Birth canal and receptacle for sperm d. Urethra- tube for urine release e. Urinary bladder-Collection sac for urine prior to being expelled f. Fallopian tube-duct that egg travels to the uterus. Most fertilization takes place here g. Urinary Bladder- Collection sac for urine prior to being expelled h. Seminal vesicle-produces fluids to mix with sperm and form semen i. Bulbourethral gland- produces fluids to mix with sperm and form semen. Also produces pre-ejaculatory fluids for lubrication during intercourse. j. Epidydimis-Maturation and storage of semen prior to ejaculation k. Testes-Production and development of sperm l. Urethra-tube for urine release from the bladder. Also doubles as the final passage for release of semen m. Vas deferens-moves sperm to the urethra while collecting fluids along the way form semen

Name 3 nonspecific defenses against pathogens.

a. Physical barriers: i. Skin Barrier: first line of defense is unbroken skin and its secretions ii. Chemical Barriers: Salvia, tears and nasal secretions contain enzyme lysozyme, which breaks down bacterial cells walls, killing the pathogen. b. Nonspecific responses to invasion: i. Cellular defense: Cells of the immune system (Neutrophils, Macrophages, Lymphocytes) will destroy the microorganism. ii. Complement Proteins: Enhances phagocytosis. iii. Interferon: Viruses infected cells secrete interferon which will bind to neighboring cells and stimulate those cells to produce antiviral proteins.

What are 3 adaptations that allowed later hominid species to walk upright?

a. Skull attaches inferiorly b. S-shaped spine c. Arms shorter than legs and not used for walking d. Bowl-shaped pelvis e. Femur angled inward

Name 3 controllable risk factors for heart disease and stroke.

a. Smoking b. Physical Inactivity c. Obesity and Overweight

What are the 3 main functions of a stem

a. support for leaves and reproductive structures b. transport of nutrients, water and minerals c. storage of food or water

A mutation to a _____ forms an oncogene that changes normal cells into cancerous cells.

proto-oncogene

Vestigial Structures

refers to an organ or part (for example, the human appendix) which is greatly reduced from the original ancestral form and is no longer functional or is of reduced or altered function. Vestigial structures provide a clue to the evolutionary history of a species because they are remnants of structures found in the ancestral species.

A mutation that causes failure to control the cell cycle can lead to _____ _____ _____ _____ _____.

uncontrolled cell growth or cancer

Identify the function of each lobe of the brain.

• Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving • Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli • Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing • Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech

Identify the function of each part of the brain.

• Thalamus- a large mass of gray matter deeply situated in the forebrain at the topmost portion of the diencephalon. The structure has sensory and motor functions. Almost all sensory information enters this structure where neurons send that information to the overlying cortex. Axons from every sensory system (except olfaction) synapse here as the last relay site before the information reaches the cerebral cortex. • Hypothalamus- part of the diencephalon, ventral to the thalamus. The structure is involved in functions including homeostasis, emotion, thirst, hunger, circadian rhythms, and control of the autonomic nervous system. In addition, it controls the pituitary. • The Cerebrum: The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated with higher brain function such as thought and action. The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections, called "lobes": the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. • The Cerebellum: The cerebellum, or "little brain", is similar to the cerebrum in that it has two hemispheres and has a highly folded surface or cortex. This structure is associated with regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and balance. • Midbrain/ Mesencephalon- the rostral part of the brain stem, which includes the tectum and tegmentum. It is involved in functions such as vision, hearing, eye movement, and body movement. The anterior part has the cerebral peduncle, which is a huge bundle of axons traveling from the cerebral cortex through the brain stem and these fibers (along with other structures) are important for voluntary motor function. • Pons- part of the metencephalon in the hindbrain. It is involved in motor control and sensory analysis... for example; information from the ear first enters the brain in the pons. It has parts that are important for the level of consciousness and for sleep. Some structures within the pons are linked to the cerebellum, thus are involved in movement and posture. • deep furrow divides the cerebrum into two halves, known as the left and right hemispheres. The two hemispheres look mostly symmetrical yet it has been shown that each side functions slightly different than the other. Sometimes the right hemisphere is associated with creativity and the left hemispheres is associated with logic abilities. The corpus callosum is a bundle of axons which connects these two hemispheres. • Pituitary gland: Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland help control the following body processes: Growth (Excess of HGH can lead to gigantism and acromegaly.) • Blood pressure • Some aspects of pregnancy and childbirth including stimulation of uterine contractions during childbirth • Breast milk production • Sex organ functions in both males and females • Thyroid gland function • The conversion of food into energy (metabolism) • Water and osmolarity regulation in the body • Water balance via the control of reabsorption of water by the kidneys • Temperature regulation Pituitary gland also makes endorphin to relieve pain and alter mood

Trace the path of sperm from the testes through fertilization.

• epididymis - sperm are stored here • Vas deferens - is a tube covered with smooth muscle which contracts to propel the sperm along • seminal vesicles - adds fluids that makes up semen • prostate gland - adds fluids that make up semen • urethra - tube that carries urine and semen out of the body • Cowper's gland - secretes fluids that make up semen and lubricates the urethra • penis - the organ of copulation • vagina - is the female organ of copulation (receives the penis during sexual intercourse) • cervix - muscular neck leading to the uterus • uterine tubes/fallopian tubes - where the sperm and ovum meets (lower quadrant) • uterus -place where the fertilized ovum implants itself and fetus develops