SF Exam 8 & Final
Repolarization
A change in the membrane potential toward the normal resting membrane potential (after a depolarization)
Androgens to estrogens
Aromatase enzyme catalyzes the conversion of?
Tubuli recti (straight tubules)
Connect the seminiferous tubules to the rete testis. Initially lined by sertoli cells and then by simple cuboidal epithelium
Osmotic pressure
Defined as a pressure equal to the pressure required to prevent the osmotic movement between two compartments and is directly proportional to the solute concentration
Extravasation and sweating
During a prolonged exercise, the effective circulatory volume decreased due to BLANK and BLANK
thermoregulation mechnaisms
During exercise, BLANK functions to keep the core body temperature steady by increasing blood flow to the skin and sweat production
Growth and development of breast alveolar lobules but estrogen and progesterone inhibit milk production (lactopoiesis)
During pregnancy, estrogen, progesterone, PRL, GH, and glucocorticoids promote?
CYP11A1, 3beta-HSD, and CYP17
During the follicular phase, LH stimulates the theca cells to synthesize androgens from cholesterol by increasing the expression of what steroidogenic enzymes?
ACTH
During the stress of surgery, the body releases stress hormones to maintain homeostasis. In panhypopituitarism patients, which is the most important hormone requiring supplementation during surgery?
Fibroelastic tunica albuginea which also binds the three cylinders together
Each cylinder in the penis is surrounded by a?
Infundibulum of the oviduct
Funnel-shaped open ended segment next to the ovary and the fimbriae
Inactive state
Glandular component is sparse, composed mostly of ducts and some glandular tissue, adipose tissue, and fibrous connective tissue (mammary glands)
Negatively
Gonadotropins (LH and FSh) BLANk feedback to inhibit GnRH release from the hypothalamus
Growth factors; regulate pituitary gonadotropins secretion
Gonads produce activins and inhibin which are ? and regulate?
oocyte maturation inhibitor
Granulosa cells secrete BLANK to halt growth of the primary oocyte in the secondary/vesicular follicle
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
In pregnancy, BLANK from placenta binds to LH receptor and prevents corpus luteum from degradation
Hydrolyzed yielding energy which the cell uses to transport a solute across the membrane
In primary active transport ATP is directly BLANK
More reliance on carbohydrate metabolism
Increase in exercise intensity results in?
Oligomenorrhea
Infrequent menstruation
Inhibits FSH release through a feedback loop with the anterior pituitary gland
Inhibin secreted by sertoli cells functions to?
Theca interna
Inner layer of steroid producing cuboidal shaped cells that secrete androstenedione (pertaining to the ovary follicles)
Cremaster muscle
Innervated by the genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve, and plays a role in regulating temperature of the testis by contraction/elevation of the testis towards the superficial inguinal ring during cold temperatures
LH
Involved in sex hormone production and release, in females corpus luteum formation and males testosterone production from testis
Granulosa lutein
Large centrally located cells derived from the granulosa that secrete progesterone and convert androgens produced by the theca lutein into estrogen
Energy stores and can promote the synthesis and release of GnRH by hypothalamus
Leptin reflects the amount of?
Spermatogonia
Round cells located adjacent to the basement membrane. Only germ cells present until puberty and they are diploid. Have two types
Emission
SNS is responsible for BLANK, which activates a spinal reflex arc that involves both smooth and skeletal muscle of the genital duct and leads to ejaculation
Inhibits
Sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone) BLANK the release of both GnRH and gonadotropins
Collagen fiber
Side-by-side crosslinking of collagen fibrils forms
Androgen receptors and results in a change in the transcription of various genes
Testosterone (or DHT) acts by binding to BLANK
The sequence of bone resorption followed by bone formation
The term "bone remodeling" refers to
dihydrotestosterone (DHT); aromatase
Testosterone is converted to the more potent BLANK by the enzyme 5 alpha-reductase and estrogens by BLANK in target tissues
Hymen
The BLANK is transverse folds of the mucosa that partially separates the vagina from the vestibule
Principal piece; end piece
The BLANK piece and the BLANK piece form the flagellum
The body's energy store
The GnRH neurons are sensitive to ?
-Cervical mucous -Vaginal transudate -mucous glands from the greater and lesser vestibular glands
The Vagina is lubricated by?
Tunica albuginea; epididymis
The efferent ductules pierce the BLANK and leave the testis to empty into the BLANK
Peroxisome
The organelle that oxidizes long-chain fatty acids and generates hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is the BLANK
Influx of fluid from enteral (drinking) or parenteral (intravenous infusion) routes or an efflux of fluid via kidney, skin, GI tract, etc.
What can cause a change in ECF?
Sustained high levels of estrogen, which positively feedback
What causes the LH surge in ovulation?
Flow increases to active skeletal muscles, mainly because of local vasodilator metabolites
What changes to blood flow occur during strenuous endurance exercise?
Interstitial cells of Leydig which produce testosterone
What component of the testis are endocrine glands
Seminiferous tubules which produce spermatozoa
What component of the testis are exocrine glands
The water inside the cells, comprises about two-third of the TBW, and has high levels of K+ but low levels of Na+
What is intracellular fluid (ICF)
Nurture infants postnatally through the process of lactation
What is the general function of mammary glands?
-Oogenesis (produce ova) -Produce estrogen and progesterone
What is the general function of the ovary?
Facilitate meeting of ova and spermatozoa, assisting in fertilization and transport of the fertilized product
What is the general function of the uterine tubes?
Maintain an implanted conceptus throughout the gestation period
What is the general function of the uterus?
Corpus luteum
What is the main estrogen and progesterone producer in the luteal phase?
Developing follicle
What is the main estrogen producer in the follicular phase?
Estradiol (E2)
What is the main estrogen? And has the highest potency?
Progesterone
What is the main progestin?
Weakness
What is the most likely symptom of demyelination in motor nerves?
Phagocytosis
"cell eating" which internalizes larger particles and is often used by cells in the immune system
Hyperpolarization
A change in the membrane potential from in a more negative value than the normal resting membrane potential
androstenedione into testosterone and estrone into estradiole-17beta
17beta-HSA converts? (found in both theca and granulosa cells)
Depolarization
A change in the membrane potential from in a more positive value than the normal resting membrane potential (towards 0 and beyond)
January 21st
A female patient has regular menstrual cycle that lasts approximately 35 days. If her last menses started on January 1st, when did the ovulation most likely occur?
Rete testis
A labyrinth of tubules in the mediastinum testis that connect the tubuli recti to the efferent ductules. Lined by simple cuboidal to low simple columnar epithelium
Hypokalemia and hyperpolarization
A patient develops a hypersecreting adenoma of the adrenal cortex and has very high levels of aldosterone. What is the most likely major effect on the patient's excitable cells?
1100 mL
A patient has the following respiratory volumes and capacities: Tidal volume = 400 mL; Inspiratory Reserve Volume = 3200 mL; Vital Capacity = 5500 mL; Total Lung Capacity = 6600 mL. What is this persons residual volume?
Her mean arterial pressure would drop by much more than half
A patient is given a drug that doubles the diameter of all the arterioles in her body. What effect would that have on her hemodynamics (assuming heart function is unaffected)?
Human placental lactogens (hPL) / human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS)
A peptide hormone with a structure similar to those of growth hormone and prolactin with functions overlapping both hormones (both diabetogenic and lactogenic
Some solutes across the membrane
A semipermeable membrane does not allow movement of?
Diffusion
A type of transport that occurs due to the movement of each solute molecule due to its inherent energy
Opposite to the electrochemical gradient of the substance being transported
Active transport occur in a direction that is?
Capacitation
After ejaculation, sperm cells undergo further maturation aka BLANK, that allows them to be able to penetrate the zona pellucida of the egg
The rete testis is located in the mediastinum testis
All of the following is correct concerning the testis?
Sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG)
All sex steroids are transported in the bloody by?
Pinocytosis
Also known as cell drinking, and is the nonspecific endocytosis of extracellular fluid and solutes into the cell
Amenorrhea
An abnormal absence of menstruation
Hemidesmosome
An anchoring junction found at the basal surface of some epithelia where abrasion or mechanical forces would tend to separate the epithelium from the basement membrane
Oxytocin
An endocrine hormone acts in a positive feedback loop, wherein the fetus' head stretches the uterine wall causing the release of that hormone, leading to uterine contractions and further stretching. The name of the hormone is
Cardiovascular system
An increase in ECF volume will affect the BLANK and trigger the excretion of excess volume and salt, proportionally, through the kidney
Spot desmosome (maculae adherens)
Anchoring junction that looks like spot welds on the lateral aspect of the epithelial cells. Intercellular gap is wider than the zonula adherens and has a dark bar in the middle. Strongest anchoring junction and more basally located
Pubic and axillary hair growth
Androgens are responsible for?
Primary Spermatocytes
As soon as they are formed they migrate toward the lumen and occupy the middle third of the seminiferous epithelium. They are the largest spermatogenic cell. Have a large spherical nucleus with mitotic figures.
Fatty-acid utilization
As the duration of exercise lengthens, glucose utilization decreases while BLANK increases
Zero
At equilibrium, even though there are movements of molecules the net flux equals BLANK
Fat
At rest, the main energy source of muscle is?
-seminiferous or germinal epithelium composed of sertoli cells and spermatogenic cells (modified stratified cuboidal epithelium) -basement membrane -tunica propria (peritubular tissue)
At sexual maturity each seminiferous tubule has?
Increase in O2 demand resulting in the discrepancy between the energy utilization and O2 consumption (O2 deficit)
At the beginning of an exercise, the cardiovascular and respiratory systems might not yet catch up with BLANK
Granulosa cells
BLANk cells produce both estrogens and progesterone, depending on the phase of the ovarian cycle
Excess postexercise O2 consumption (EPOC)
At the end of the exercise, O2 consumption is disproportionately higher than the level of activity
Inhibins
BLANK act as a negative feedback regulator to inhibit FSH from the pituitary, and inhibit folliculogenesis
Pores
BLANK always open and connect the outside to the cytoplasm
Sertoli Cells
BLANK are columnar cells that extend from the basement membrane to the lumen of the seminiferous tubule. Nucleus is clear/pale and oval/oval-triangular with one or more prominent nucleoli. Spermatogenic cells are embedded in the sides and luminal surface
Collagen fibrils
BLANK are composed of overlapping and staggered tropocollagen molecules with a gap between their ends
Tropocollagen
BLANK are composed of three polypeptide chains wrapped in a triple helical configuration.
Gonads (ovaries and testes)
BLANK are endocrine glands under the control of hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis
Intermediate filaments
BLANK are rod-like proteins that are composed of a tetramer, ULF, and tight associations between them
Positive feedback loops
BLANK are useful in generating a rapid change in one direction but could be detrimental in pathological conditions (heart failure)
Androgen Binding Hormone (ABH); Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
BLANK binds to testosterone to concentrate testosterone to a level required for spermiogenesis. Promoted by BLANK
Phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5)
BLANK breaks down cGMP, reducing its levels inside the smooth muscle cells, and causes vasoconstriction which leads to flaccidity of the penis
Transcytosis
BLANK comprises endocytosis on one side of the cell and exocytosis on the opposite side, resulting in the transport of the substance through the cell, transcellular transport
Transcellular fluid compartment
BLANK consists of fluid inside epithelial-lined space in the body such as joints and body cavities and is usually negligible volume
Myoid cells
BLANK contract creating peristaltic waves to move spermatozoa/sperm and testicular fluid
Secondary active transport
BLANK couples the movement of solutes traveling along its gradient, usually Na+ to other traveling against their gradient
Plasma membrane
BLANK determines the structural and functional boundaries of the cell. Consists of phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol, proteins, and glycoproteins
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
BLANK from the hypothalamus stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone from the gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary
Caveolin
BLANK is a component of lipid rafts, involves in the formation of caveolae which are responsible for pinocytosis
Fertilization
BLANK is a multistep process that results in the union of two gametes to form a zygote
Clathrin
BLANK is a type of coat protein, binds to and causes invagination of the cell membrane into a vesicle
Plasma or Intravascular fluid
BLANK is contained within the cardiovascular system (cardiac chambers and blood vessels) and accounts for a fifth of the ECF
Oxidative phosphorylation
BLANK is crucial for prolonged activities and can sustain as long as enough oxygen is provided?
Total-body water (TBW)
BLANK is divided into compartments each of which has certain characteristics and regulations
Corpus luteum
BLANK is formed at ovulation as the granulosa and theca cells collapse together and forma seal on the surface of the ovary
Osmosis
BLANK is the diffusion of water, the solvent, from a higher to lower water concentration
Cortical reaction
BLANK is the hardening of the zona pellucida and preventing the penetration by other spermatozoa
Spermatogenesis
BLANK is the process in which stem cells of the germinal epithelium differentiate into spermatids
Exocytosis
BLANK is the release of substances from the vesicle to the extracellular space which can be used secrete substances produced by the cells such as enzymes or hormones, among other uses
Suckling
BLANK is the strongest stimulus for PRL secretion
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
BLANK is the targeted endocytosis of specific molecules; such as cholesterol via low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor, and iron via transferrin receptor
Interstitial fluid (ISF)
BLANK lies between blood vessels and surrounds most cells in the body except blood cell. Contains approximately three quarters of the ECF
Negative feedback loops
BLANK maintain certain regulated parameters at their specific levels by sensing and responding to any changes
Activins
BLANK promote folliculogenesis
Mediated transport
BLANK relies on pathways formed by integral membrane proteins, transport solutes along its electrochemical gradient, does not require ATP, specific and saturable, competition can occur
Basal Lamina; lamina densa
BLANK results from the self-assembly of type IV collagen, laminin, entactin, and proteoglycans. The BLANK is attached to the underlying lamina reticularis by type VII collagen
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
BLANK stimulates the conversion of the ruptured follicle into a corpus luteum and also maintains the corpus luteum
Acrosomal reaction
BLANK which results in the release of acrosomal enzymes and penetration of the zona pellucida by the spermatozoon
Starvation, anorexia, strenuous exercise, and stress
BLANk can inhibit GnRH release and cause abnormal menstrual cycle in females
Theca cells
BLANk cells are the main source of androgens, which act as precursors for estrogens
Belt Desmosome (Zonula adhernes)
Band-like anchoring junction around the lateral aspect of the epithelial cells below the zona occludens. The intracellular actin filaments are attached to a membrane plaque composed of proteins with cadherins in the gap between the cells
Nissl body
Basophilic clumps of polyribosomes and RER in a neuron
Smooth muscle --> inner circular layer and outer longitudinal layer, with an outer fibrous coat
Beneath the connective tissue of the seminal vesicles is?
Periurethral mucosa and submucosal layers
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) / Nodular hyperplasia is associated with what glandular layers?
Sight, smell, and taste
Bipolar neurons are important for?
Conversion of progesterone to androstenedione in the theca cells
CYP17 is required for?
Myocardium
Cardiac muscle held together by connective tissue. The inner portion of this layer contains specialized cardiac muscle fibers and Purkinje fibers that are part of the impulse conduction system of the heart
Simple columnar epithelium
Cell height exceeds the width, the nucleus is oval and usually at or below the midpoint of the cell. Height may vary from low to high
Simple Squamous Epithelia
Cell width is greater than the height and the nucleus is flattened. Cells have an irregular outline and the center bulges due to the nucleus
Simple cuboidal epithelia
Cell width, depth and height are approximately the same, the nucleus is spherical and centrally located. Height may vary from low to high
ECF
Changes in body fluid always occurs first in the BLANK
Channels
Channels are BLANK and alternate between open and closed states
Gap Junctions
Communicating junctions that permit the direct passage of signaling molecules from one cell to another. Present where the activity of adjacent cells must be coordinated
Dense regular elastic connective tissue
Composed of branching elastic fibers with sparse collagen fibers. The elastic fibers are arranged parallel to one another to form either sheets or fenestrated membranes
Functional layer of endometrium
Composed of simple columnar epithelium, with a connective tissue stroma with simple branched tubular endometrial glands and spiral arteries. This is the layer sloughed off during menstruation
Reticular lamina
Composed of type III collagen (reticulin) and fibronectin
Stratified columnar epithelium
Consists of lower layers of cuboidal cells with a surface layer of columnar cells
Loose connective tissue
Consists primarily of a variety of cells (fibroblasts, mast cells, adipose cells, macrophages, and plasma cells), ECM (lots of ground substance and variety of collagen and elastic fibers)
Dense regular connective tissue
Consists primarily of fibers with some ground substance and cells. The fibers are arranged in densely packed parallel bundles of collagen fibers to provide strength primarily in one direction. Rows of fibroblasts are located between the bundles of collagen fibers
Cortex of the ovary
Contains developing ovarian follicles in dense and loose connective tissue
Endocardium
Covers the inner surface of the heart and consists of an endothelium and subendothelial connective tissue
Epicardium
Covers the outer surface of the heart and is composed of a mesothelium (visceral layer of serous pericardium) and underlying connective tissue containing the blood vessels and nerves to the heart
Growth that occurs from the inner cellular layer of the perichondrium. Occurs primarily in adult cartilage. Chondroblast derived from the inner cellular layer of the perichondrium undergo mitosis and secrete matrix adding new cartilage to the surface
Describe appositional growth of cartilage
An intake of hypertonic solution (drinking sea water) will increase the plasma volume and the ECF volume. ECF osmolality is increased causing outward shift of water from the ICF shrinking the cells. Eventually ECF is increased, ICF is decreased and both compartments have increased osmolality
Describe hypertonic gain
An intake of hypotonic solution (drinking plain water) will increase the plasma volume and the ECF volume. The increase in volume also decreases ECF osmolality which causes osmotic movement of water into the cells. The end result is that both ECF and ICF have higher volume but lower osmolality
Describe hypotonic gain
During embryogenesis growth occurs on the inside of young cartilage. Chondrocytes undergo mitosis forming cell nests. As chondrocytes secrete their territorial matrix they become separated into their own lacuna
Describe interstitial growth of cartilage
A mature follicle is large and bulges on the surface of the ovary due to a surge in LH. The primary oocyte completes the first meiotic division resulting in a secondary oocyte and the first polar body. Cells of the corona radiata separate from other granulosa cells. The pressure in the liquor folliculi increases and the follicle ruptures releasing the ovulated product from the ovary
Describe ovulation (in terms of ovary)
Estrogen stimulates further growth of ducts and progesterone stimulates the growth of alveoli. At birth prolactin (PRL) stimulates milk secretion and oxytocin stimulates milk ejection
Describe pregnancy postnatal mammary development
The complete duct system develops and there is proliferation of the connective tissue stroma in response to estrogen, progesterone, prolactin, glucocorticoids, and somatotrophin
Describe puberty postnatal mammary development
The nucleus condenses, flattens and elongates. The cytoplasm is displaced posteriorly. And the mitochondria form a sheath around the flagellum
Describe the acrosome phase of spermiogenesis
-blood flows into the cavernous spaces via helicine arteries -blood drains from the cavernous spaces via veins located just beneath the tunica albuginea -normally most of the blood bypasses the cavernous spaces via arteriovenous anastomoses from the helicine arteries to the deep dorsal vein of the penis
Describe the blood flow in the penis
Formed by tight junctions between adjacent Sertoli cells. It divides the seminiferous epithelium into a basal compartment and a luminal compartment. Also protects the spermatogenic cells from immune components of the plasma.
Describe the blood-testis barrier
An acrosomal vesical binds to and spreads over the nuclear envelope of condensing nucleus forming the acrosomal cap
Describe the cap phase of spermiogenesis
-primary oocyte enlarges -follicular cells initially become cuboidal then columnar and then stratified (now granulosa cells) -glycoprotein layer forms between the primary oocyte and granulosa cells (zona pellucida) -stroma surrounding the granulosa cells differentiates into a connective tissue sheath (theca folliculi)
Describe the development of a primary follicle
-Increase in the stratification of the granulosa cells -Fluid-filled spaces (filled with liquor folliculi) form between the granulosa cells -Spaces coalesce to form a single cavity (antrum) -Growth of primary oocyte is halted by granulosa cell secretions -with formation of antrum, primary oocyte becomes enclosed in a cumulus oophorus. primary oocyte and its zona pellucida are located within the cumulus oophorus -the layer of the granulosa cells immediately outside zona pellucida is the corona radiata -granulosa cells of the corona radiata send microvilli to communicate with the microvilli of the primary oocyte
Describe the development of secondary follicle
-maturation of secondary follicles results in a single dominant follicle -has all the same features of the secondary follicle except that there is one single antrum and oocyte migrates to the edge of the ovary
Describe the development of the mature/graafian follicle
Mucosal lining composed of a functional layer (stratum functionale) and a basal layer (stratum basale). Layer that undergoes cyclic changes in the menstrual cycle
Describe the endometrium
Alveoli secrete into intralobular ducts, which flow into interlobular ducts, which flow into lactiferous ducts. Lactiferous ducts open into the nipple, which have smooth muscle for nipple erection
Describe the flow in the mammary glands
Occurs between days 5-14. The ovarian follicles are developing under the influence of FSH. Secretion of estrogen by the developing follicles causes proliferation of the uterine endometrium. Coincides with the proliferative phase of the uterus
Describe the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle
Produced early after the fertilization by the cells surrounding the embryo called syncytiotrophoblasts and then later by the chorion of placenta. It binds to LH receptors on the corpus luteum and rescues the corpus luteum from degeneration, especially in the first trimester. Later on, the placental production of estrogen and progesterone is high enough to sustain the pregnancy on its own.
Describe the function of hCG in detail
A acrosomal vesical formed from the golgi complex which contains hydrolytic enzymes. Centrioles migrate to opposite side of the vesicle and start forming the microtubular arrangement of the tail (flagellum)
Describe the golgi phase of spermiogenesis
Nucleus covered by the acrosomal cap
Describe the head of the spermatozoa
Has a star shaped lumen lined by pseudostratified epithelium with stereocilia. A lamina propria of connective tissue rich in elastic fibers, and a thick muscularis consisting of an inner longitudinal, middle circular, and outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle
Describe the histological structures of the ductus deferens
Occurs just before the menstrual phase, the arteries in the basal layer of the endometrium constrict and the endometrium becomes pale and shrinks
Describe the ischemic or premenstrual phase of the uterine cycle
Occurs on days 15-28 (usually on 14 days in length), and corresponds to the secretory phase of the uterus. There will be secretion of progesterone and estrogen by the corpus luteum, which causes the secretory phase of the uterus
Describe the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle
Excess cytoplasm is removed by the sertoli cell and the mature sperm is released into the lumen
Describe the maturation phase of spermiogenesis
Occurs between days 1-5. The ischemic functional layer degenerates and along with blood and uterine fluid is discharged through the vagina
Describe the menstrual phase of the uterine cycle
The water will move toward the area with a higher total concentration of non-penetrating solutes
Describe the movement of non-penetrating solutes
Composed of non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and a lamina propria with a lot of elastic fibers and small veins
Describe the mucosa layer of the vagina
Highly folded simple columnar epithelium with ciliated cells and secretory (peg) cells, with a basement membrane and lamina propria
Describe the mucosa of the oviduct
-consists of a pseudostratified to simple columnar epithelium lying over fibroelastic connective tissue -columnar cells of the epithelium secrete seminal fluid rich in fructose that is nutritive for the spermatozoa and prostaglandins
Describe the mucosa of the seminal vesicles
Poorly defined inner circular and outer longitudinal layers of smooth muscle
Describe the muscularis of the oviduct
Composed of two poorly defined layers of smooth muscle (inner circular and outer longitudinal) and the deep transverse perineal muscle, which forms a sphincter near the opening into the vestibule
Describe the muscularis of the vagina
Occurs on day 14 of a 28-day cycle (can vary depending on the follicular phase length). Result of a surge in LH
Describe the ovulation phase of the ovarian cycle
A parasympathetic stimulation which causes relaxation of smooth muscle in the trabeculae and helicine arteries (vasodilation), leading to increased blood flow into the cavernous spaces, arteriovenous constriction and increased blood flow in the cavernous spaces that compress the veins against the tunica albuginea blocking the outflow of the blood
Describe the penile erection
An outer fibroelastic capsule containing myoid cells on the inner cell
Describe the peritubular tissue of the seminiferous tubules
Spermatozoa undergo capacitation in the female reproductive tract, which allows sperm to pass through the corona radiata and bind to the zona pellucida. They then undergo an acrosome reaction, which enables them to penetrate the zona pellucida and come in contact with the ovulated product. Once it contacts the secondary oocyte, it undergoes a cortical reaction prevent polyspermy. The nucleus of the spermatozoa enters the secondary oocyte and forms the male pronucleus. The secondary oocyte completes the second meiotic division, which result in a mature ova with a female pronucleus and a second polar body. The male and female pronucleus fuse to form a zygote
Describe the process of fertilization
Occurs between days 6-14. Under the influence of estrogen the remaining basal layer of the endometrium rebuilds the functional layer of the endometrium
Describe the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle
Fick's first law of diffusion
Describe the relationship between the rate of diffusion to the factors affect it. Generally the concentration gradient is the main determinant of diffusion.
Viscous secretion that lubricates the urethra ejaculation and its alkalinity neutralizes the acidic environment from urine form the urethra
Describe the secretion from the bulbourethral glands and their function
Occurs between days 15-28. Under the influence of estrogen and progesterone, the endometrium almost double its thickness and the glands take on a sawtooth shape and are filled with fluid
Describe the secretory phase of the uterine cycle
Composed of a peritoneal covering of the oviducts (mesosalpinx) that is continuous with the broad ligament
Describe the serosa of the oviduct
Composed of compound tubuloalveolar glands surrounded by adipose and dense irregular connective tissue
Describe the structure of the mammary gland
-paired structures, about 3 cm in length and 1 cm in width -located on each side of the uterus along the lateral pelvic wall -attached to the broad ligament (visceral peritoneum) by the mesovarium -suspensory ligament attaches it to the pelvic wall -ovarium ligament attaches it to the uterus
Describe the structure of the ovary?
Has a main portion which is the body/corpus, a portion that is located above the entry of the oviduct (fundus), and a portion that projects into the vagina (cervix). The cervix has an internal and external os
Describe the structure of the uterus
Fibromuscular tube that is continuous with the cervix and opens into the vestibule
Describe the structure of the vagina
Composed of a neck, middle piece, and principal piece and a end piece. The neck connects the head to the middle piece. The middle piece is a mitochondria sheath and axoneme, and the principal piece is an axoneme
Describe the tail of the spermatozoa
Bulk Flow
Describes the movement of the whole solution (solvent and solutes) together as a result of a driving force
Mesenchymal connective tissue
Differentiate from mesoderm, and consist of mesenchymal cells ( stellate cells), ECM (ground substance with hyaluronic acid & reticular fibers)
Passive
Diffusion is a BLANK process, not requiring any external energy, and always occurs according to the molecule's electrochemical gradient
Active state
Ducts bud and form numerous alveoli, amount of fibrous connective tissue and adipose tissue decreases, increased pigmentation in the areola. After parturition milk is produced that is high in fat, sugar and protein (mammary glands)
Intercalated ducts
Ducts leading from the secretory unit lined with simple squamous epithelium
Intralobular and striated ducts
Ducts located within a lobule that are lined with simple cuboidal to low simple columnar epithelium and surrounded by little connective tissue
Lobar ducts
Ducts located within the connective tissue septa between lobes, lined by pseudostratified to stratified cuboidal to stratified columnar epithelium and, surrounded by abundant connective tissue. They connect to the main excretory duct
Interlobular ducts
Ducts within the connective tissue septa between lobules lined with tall simple columnar epithelium to pseudostratified epithelium, and surrounded by abundant connective tissue
Hematoxylin and other basic dyes (basophilic) such as methylene and toludine blue
Due to the rRNA of the ribosome they intensely stain with ?
-1-4 seminiferous tubules which produce spermatozoa -Connective tissue stroma with Leydig cells which secrete testosterone
Each lobule of the testis contains?
Coiled loop with each end opening into the tubuli recti (straight tubule)
Each seminiferous tubules is a BLANK
Fibroblasts (sheets) and smooth muscle cells (fenestrated membranes)
Elastic fibers are synthesized by?
Parasympathetic-caused vasodilation, and venous outflow restriction
Erection of the male penis occurs by
-coagulation (increase clotting factors) -bone growth (increase bone growth, decrease bone turnover, close epiphyseal plates) -fluid balance (increase salt and water retention)
Estrogens are involved in what non-reproductive effects?
-endometrial proliferation -sensitization of developing follicles to FSH and LH -sensitization of uterus to oxytocin -watery cervical mucus production -growth and differentiation of breast tissue -development of secondary sex characteristis
Estrogens are involved in what reproductive functions?
Development of male characteristics in females (virilization)
Excess androgens can cause?
Larger and prolonged EPOC
Exercise with higher intensity leads to
Corpus spongiosum
Expands distally forming the glans which covers the end of the corpora cavernosa. Contains the penile urethra
Involves invagination of the cell membrane which engulf the substance to be transported and forming a transport vesicle. The vesicle detaches from the cell membrane and moves into the cytoplasm
Explain endocytosis
LH receptor
FSH with the help of estrogen induces expression BLANK in the granulosa cells
Transport
Focuses on the movement of a specific type of molecules. This can occur within the same compartment or between two different compartments
Activin; FSH
Follicles develop under the influence of BLANK secreted by the primary oocyte and BLANK secreted by the pituitary and growth factors
Hypotonic volume increased Isotonic volume increased Hypertonic volume increased
For ECF what happens to the volume in fluid gain?
-Hypotonic osmolality decreased -Isotonic osmolality not affected -Hypertonic osmolality increased
For ECF, what happens to the osmolality in fluid gain?
Hypotonic osmolality decreased Isotonic osmolality not affected Hypertonic osmolality increased
For ICF, what happens to the osmolality in fluid gain?
Hypotonic volume increased Isotonic volume not affected Hypertonic volume decreased
For ICF, what happens to the volume in fluid gain?
Aerobic oxidation
For moderate-intensity exercise, fat is the preferred substrate for?
Reticular connective tissue
Formes the architectural framework of liver, bone marrow, lymphatic tissue, cardiovascular system, and lungs. Characterized by fibroblasts (reticular cells), type III collagen, macrophages, and ground substances. Requires silver salts to stain
Type VII collagen
Forms anchoring fibrils between the lamina densa and the lamina reticularis
Type II collagen
Found in hyaline and elastic cartilage. Consists of fine fibrils dispersed in ground substance
Type IV collagen
Found in the basal lamina of the basement membrane. Binds to laminin (adhesive glycoprotein)
Elastic cartilage
Found where structures must withstand repeated bending such as the external ear, auditory tube (eustachian tube) and epiglottis. Made up of type II collagen and elastic fibers
Proteoglycan aggregates and adhesive glycoproteins
Ground substance is composed of?
Keratinized stratified squamous
Has dead squamous cells at the surface which form a waxy protection against drying out, bacterial invasion, and friction. Dead cells on the surface have no nuclei and shed.
Pseudostratified epithelium
Has the appearance of being stratified because nuclei are observed at different levels. Consists of basal cells and columnar cells, and usually goblet cells
Epididymis
Highly coiled tube that lies on the superior and posterior surface of the testis. Divided into a head, body and a tail. Has a connective tissue coat and a coat of circularly arranged smooth muscle
Stimulate the neurons at a higher frequency
How can skeletal muscle achieve summation of force?
The placenta converts cholesterol into progesterone, which then in the fetal adrenal cortex converts pregnenolone into DHEAS & 16-OH DHEAS. The placenta can then use the DHEAS to synthesize estrogens, with estriol (E3) from 16-OH DHEAS
How is estrogen (estriol) synthesized between the placenta and the fetus?
The mean arterial pressure would decrease
If a supine person stands up, which of the following cardiovascular changes would be observed?
Corpus albicans
If fertilization does not occur then the corpus luteum last about 14 days and then degenerates as a BLANK
hCG; estrogen and progesterone
If fertilization occurs then the feedback of BLANK from the trophoblasts maintains the corpus luteum until the placenta can take over the secretion of BLANK and BLANK
Inversely proportional
In a closed system, the time needed to reach equilibrium is BLANK to the square of distance between two points
Erection by its vasodilatory action on penile arterioles via the release of nitric oxide (NO)
In males, the PNS acts as the main regulator of?
Osteoclast
In osteoporosis (low bone density), which bone cell undergoes a decrease in apoptosis?
They differentiate into theca-lutein and granulosa-lutein cells. The granulosa-lutein cells will synthesize progesterone and allow access to plasma cholesterol and LH-induced increase in the expression of related steroidogenic hormones.
In the luteal phase, the theca and granulosa cells differentiate into? what is a difference between them and the follicular phase cells?
Jejunum
In which of the following locations would one fine a simple columnar epithelium with microvilli?
Medulla of the ovary
Is the central portion that contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics in connective tissue
Hypothalamus
Just before and during ovulation, estrogen provides positive feedback to what organ?
Type III collagen
Known as reticulin or reticular fibers. Found in reticular connective tissue and reticular lamina of the basement membrane. Synthesized during wound healing and then replaced by Type I. Stains wil silver salts
Leydig cells
LH stimulates BLANK to synthesize androgens (mainly testosterone) from cholesterol
Perimetrium
Layer of the uterus that is considered serosa or adventitia
Transitional epithelium.
Like a stratified cuboidal epithelium but the surface cells change between squamous and cuboidal in shape
Efferent ductules.
Lined by epithelium that alternates from simple cuboidal to ciliated columnar for the absorption of fluid and ciliary action moves the sperm towards the epididymis. This gives the epithelium a scalloped appearance. Also have a smooth muscle coat to aid in the movement of sperm
Fibrinolysin (part of the prostate secretory product)
Liquefies coagulated sperm in female reproductive tract
Hyaluronic acid
Liquor folliculi is rich in?
Zonula occludens (tight junctions)
Located at the apical region of the lateral surface, and encircles the cell. Consists of a fusion of transmembrane junctional proteins (claudins & occludins) of the adjoining plasma membrane reinforced by cadherins. Do not resist mechanical stress. Defines cell polarity and controls the passage of substances between adjacent cells
Interstitial Cells of Leydig
Located in the loose connective tissue between seminiferous tubules. They are large round cells with a pale, centrally located nuclei, prominent nucleoli, and may have eosinophilic cytoplasm
Prostate Gland
Located inferior to the urinary bladder, composed of 30-50 tubuloalveolar glands that are enclosed with a capsule of dense irregular connective tissue interspersed with smooth muscle cells
Testis
Located outside the body in the scrotum, which allow for 2-3 degree below body temperature which is necessary for spermatogenesis
Fibrocartilage
Located where dense connective tissue blends into hyaline cartilage, like IV discs, articular discs, and the pubic symphysis. Made up of type I collagen
Ampulla of the oviduct
Longest segment, with folds of the mucosa forming convoluted channels. Location of fertilization
By properties of transporter proteins (specificity, saturation), which changes the kinetic relationship of the transport (biphasic, saturable)
Mediated transport is affected by?
Microfilaments
Main component is actin, which is composed of a globular monomer with G-actin polymerizing to form long double-stranded helical filaments (F-actin)
Integrins (calcium independent molecules)
Mainly for establishing a link between the internal cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix. Function in cell adhesion to the basement membrane, cell movement and shape, leukocyte extravasation, cell growth, and differentiation and embryonic cell migration
Testosterone.
Morphology and secretory function of the seminal vesicles is controlled by?
Facilitated diffusion protein that uses a downhill glucose gradient
Most cells in the body (except brain, kidneys, intestine, and red blood cells), transport glucose across their plasma membranes by a transporter using what kind of energy?
Hyaline Cartilage
Most prevalent type of cartilage, located in synovial joints, tracheal ring, bronchi, nasal septum, laryngeal and costal cartilages in adults. Consists of type II collagen
Isthmus of the oviduct
Narrow segment just outside the uterus
Isotonic; hypotonic
Normal saline solution is BLANK, while the 5% dextrose solution is BLANK
Seminal vesicles
Paired glands located posterior to the bladder and lateral to the ampulla of the vas deferens. Highly coiled tubular structures, with a mucosa convoluted to form many folds to increase secretory surface
Atresia; Atretic follicles
Once ovulation occurs those follicles not reaching maturity undergo BLANK and become BLANK which are eventually phagocytosed by macrophages
Total number of solute molecules and the presence of a semipermeable membrane
Osmosis is dependent on?
Its alkaline content neutralizes the acidic environment of the urethra and vagina
Other than fertilization, what is the function of semen?
Theca externa
Outer layer with collagen fibers and some smooth muscle (pertaining to the ovary follicles)
Tunica vaginalis (mesothelium)
Outermost covering of the testis
Efferent ductules
Outside the mediastinum the BLANK connect the rete testis to the epididymis
Contraction
Oxytocin causes BLANK of the myoepithelial cells which results in milk release
Menopause
Painful menstruation
Intramural of the oviduct
Segment within the wall of the uterus
Uterine tubes/oviducts/fallopian tubes
Paired tubes that extend from the uterus to the ovaries
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium at the glans it becomes stratified squamous epithelium
Penile urethra is lined with?
290 mOsm/L
Physiological levels of both the intracellular and the extracellular fluid osmolarity equal
Two chromatids prior to the first meiotic division
Primary spermatocytes replicate their DNA to 2N/46 chromosomes and 4C/92 chromatids. Each chromosomes consists of?
Primary oocytes arrested at prophase I of meiosis I, surrounded by a single layer of squamous to cuboidal cells (follicular cells)
Primordial follicles consist of?
Blastocyst
Prior to placenta formation, what secretes hCG?
Relaxin
Produced by corpus luteum, placenta, and the decidua. It relaxes the uterus to prevent contraction during pregnancy and also softens and dilates the cervix and the pubic symphysis during labor
Menorrhagia
Profuse menstrual bleeding
FSH and LH
Progesterone and estrogen secreted by the corpus luteum and placenta inhibit the secretion of?
The conversion of endometrium from proliferative to secretory endometrium, the thickening of cervical mucus, and the increase in body temperature, as well as inhibits uterine contraction
Progesterone stimulates?
Type I collagen
Prominent type (90% of all collagen), found in dermis, bone, tendons, ligaments, capsules or organs, and fibrocartilage. Consists of fibrils and fibers for tensile strength
Peripheral main glands
Prostate cancer is associated with which glandular layer?
Dihydrotestosterone
Prostatic secretion is regulated by?
Tonicity
Refers to the behavior of solutes movement into account
Osmoticity
Refers to the concentration of solute in a solution which can be described as osmolarity or osmolality
-fluids and spermatozoa from seminiferous tubules -secretions from the epididymis and vas deferens -secretion from the seminal vesicles -secretions from the prostate -secretion from the bulbourethral glands -prostaglandins
Semen contains
Polarization
Separation of charges on two different poles, resulting in electrical potential difference (voltage)
Theca lutein
Smaller peripherally located cells derived from the theca interna that secrete progesterone, and androstenedione
myoepithelial cells
Smooth muscle surround alveoli BLANK and ducts of the mammary glands
Sertoli cells, and transformed into a spermatozoa
Spermatids undergo spermiogenesis with the assistance of?
FSH
Stimulates the development of gametes, in females follicle growth and in males spermatogenesis
Postganglionic parasympathetic neurons
Submucosal myenteric plexuses contain
Endocytosis
Substances not suitable for transport across the cell membrane can enter the cell by BLANK
Neural reflex arc (let-down reflex)
Suckling activates a BLANK which inhibits DA release hence increases PRL secretion
Oxytocin (OT) from their nerve endings in the posterior pituitary
Suckling also stimulates hypothalamic neurons to release?
Ejaculatory duct
The ampulla is joined by the duct of the seminal vesicle to form the BLANK which enters the prostatic urethra
Capacity to perform work
The body adapts to regular exercise by increasing ?
Maintaining blood flow to vital organs
The body prioritizes maintaining BLANK by compensatory vasoconstriction
Mucous-like secretion
The cervix does not have the same endometrial structure but does have a BLANK that changes with the uterine cycle
Menopause
The cessation of menstruation, decreased estrogen levels, increased FSH and LH levels
Dense irregular connective tissue
The collagen fibers are arranged in large bundles interwoven in different directions to provide strength in various directions. Fibroblasts are scattered between the bundles of collagen fibers. There is also mast cells, macrophages, and blood vessels
Endothelial lined spaces (cavernous spaces/sinuses)
The corpora cavernosa and corpora spongiosum contain erectile tissue which consist of BLANK separated by trabeculae of connective tissue that contains smooth muscle cells
-Granulosa lutein -Theca lutein
The corpus luteum consists of
Fourteen days
The degeneration of the corpus luteum to a corpus albicans normally takes about BLANK days
Intensity of exercise
The degree and duration of EPOC are also dependent on the BLANK
Membrane potential (Vm)
The difference between the charges inside and outside the cell
Voltage
The difference in electrical potential between two points of interest
Progesterone
The endometrial glands become enlarged and very active under the influence of which of the following?
Holocrine
The entire secretory cell is discharged. Example sebaceous gland
Pseudostratified epithelium with stereocilia
The epididymis is lined with?
Non-keratinized stratified squamous
The epithelium of the vagina is which of the following?
-2 ovaries -2 uterine tubes (oviducts) -uterus -vagina -external genitalia -2 mammary glands
The female reproductive system is composed of?
Competing substances being transported by the same transporter
The flux in mediated transport can also be affected by?
Aromatase (CYP19) 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17beta-HSD)
The granulosa cells are under the influence of FSH which increases the expression and activity of?
Androstenedione
The granulosa cells use which molecule to produce estradiol?
Osmoticity.
The height of each compartment represents its BLANK (Darrow Yannet Diagram)
Human chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)
The hormone secreted by the placenta that stimulates the ovary to release large amounts of estrogen and progesterone is
Kidney to excrete water but not salt, resulting in dilute urine
The increase in ECF, like in isotonic infusion, will also trigger BLANK
Epithelial cells
The lamina lucida and lamina densa are produced by?
Fibroblasts in the connective tissue
The lamina reticularis is produced by?
Anaerobic threshold
The level of exercise that cannot be sustained by aerobic alone pass what threshold?
Corpora amylacea (prostatic concretion)
The lumen of the prostate glands build up with calcified glycoprotein masses called?
-Paired testes -Paired excurrent duct systems -Accessory sex glands -Penis
The male reproductive system is composed of?
The total number of transporter per unit area of the cell membrane (saturation)
The maximum flux through a specific transporter is limited by?
Resting membrane potential
The membrane potential of a cell in its resting (unexcited) state that stays at a steady value
-secondary oocyte -zona pellucida -corona radiata
The ovulated product consists of the
-two dorsal cylinders of erectile tissue (corpora cavernosa) -one ventral cylinder of erectile tissue (corpora spongiosum) that contain the urethra
The penis consists of
hCG, estrogens, progestins, human placental lactogen (HPL) and relaxin
The placenta acts as an endocrine gland, which produces?
Endometriosis
The presence and growth of endometrial tissue outside of the uterine cavity
Resistance
The property of a medium that resists movement of electrical charges
Transitional epithelium
The prostatic urethra is lined by?
Current
The rate of movement (flux) of electric charges past a point of interest
Type I and Type II collagen
The repair cartilage has a matrix composition of ?
Seminal vesicle
The secretion of which of the following is rich in fructose and is the major component of the ejaculate
Apocrine
The secretory product accumulates in the apical portion of the cell and is pinched off. Example is lactating mammary gland
Merocrine
The secretory product is formed and enclosed by a membrane which fuses to the cell membrane during discharge (exocytosis). Example salivary gland and pancreas
Tubuli recti (straight tubules); rete testis
The seminiferous tubules open into BLANK which in turn open into th eBLANk located in the mediastinum testis
Stratified squamous
The shape of the surface cells is squamous, there are two types
non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
The squamous surface cells have nuclei and are still living
Spermatic cord
The testis are suspended in the scrotum by?
High tensile strength and resistance to stretching, compression, twisting, and bending forces
The tight association between the tetramers and ULF provide?
Active transport
The transport of solute across cell membrane that requires energy is?
Simple columnar to pseudostratified epithelium
The tubuloalveolar glands of the prostate are lined by?
Mediastinum testis
The tunica albuginea is thickened posteriorly forming the BLANK
Volume
The width of the compartment represents its BLANK (Darrow yannet diagram)
-Ductus deferens -Testicular artery -pampiniform venous plexus -genital branch of genitofemoral nerve -ANS fibers -Lymphatic vessels
Ther spermatic cord contains?
Secondary spermatocytes
These are smaller than primary spermatocytes and they are haploid. They are difficult to identify in histological sections because they enter the second meiotic division right after they are formed. (equational division)
Bulbourethral glands
These are two glands located inferior to the connective tissue covering the urogenital diaphragm. They are tubuloalveolar glands that empty into the proximal part of the penile urethra. Lined by simple columnar epithelium
Tunica albuginea (male)
Thick capsule of dense irregular connective tissue surrounding the testis
Myometrium
This is a layer of the uterus that consists of very thick smooth muscle with inner longitudinal, middle circular, and outer longitudinal
Basal layer of endometrium
This is the deepest portion of the endometrium containing the bottoms of the simple branched tubular endometrial glands and spiral arteries that vascularize the endometrium
Tunica albuginea
This is the dense irregular connective tissue layer beneath the germinal epithelium of the ovary
Primordial follicles
This is the first to appear in the ovary around the 3rd fetal month. It is the smallest, and is the majority of follicles in the prepuberal ovary. In the mature ovary they are located in the cortex just below the tunica albuginea
Germinal epithelium of the ovary
This is the outer mesothelial covering of simple squamous to low cuboidal cells. It was once thought that the ova were derived from here
The permeability of the cell membrane, and describes the effective osmotic pressure of the solution
Tonicity is determined by?
Non-penetrating solutes between the inside and the outside of the cell
Tonicity of a solution can be predicted by comparing the concentration of BLANK
Linear
Transport across the cell membrane by simple diffusion has a BLANK relationship between the concentration gradient and the net flux
Transverse tubules are invaginations of the sarcolemma
What is correct concerning skeletal muscle?
Spermatids
Undergo the second meiotic division result in two spermatids that are haploid. They are small cells with a round dark nucleus and located at the luminal surface. Have abundant RER and mitochondria with a well developed Golgi Complex
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
Usually consists of a few layers of cuboidal cells
SNARE
Vesicle fusion (and exocytosis) requires formation of a protein complex called BLANK which involves proteins such as syntaxin and synaptobrevin
Cell adhesion molecules, which are a sheet of epithelial cells that form tight attachments of similar cells to one another
What are CAM's
-Glycocalyx (fuzzy coat of carbohydrate residues) attached to transmembrane proteins -Microvilli (cylindrical membrane-bound projections of a core of actin microfilaments that are embedded in a terminal web) -Stereocilia (giant microvilli that are non-motile_ -Cilia (motile, hair-like membrane-bound projections capable of moving mucus, fluid and particles)
What are apical surface modifications?
Pyramidal cell (cerebral cortex), and Purkinje cells (cerebellar cortex)
What are examples of multipolar neurons?
Protein, sodium, mannitol
What are examples of non-penetrating solutes
Dextrose, urea
What are examples of penetrating solutes
Non-living components of the cytoplasm that do not possess metabolic activity and are not bounded by a membrane
What are inclusions?
Organelles involved with ingestion & degradation of intracellular & extracellular substances. They are membrane bound organelles of heterogenous size, and contain acid hydrolases
What are lysosomes
Composed of tubular dimers, with two tightly bound tubulin molecules (alpha and beta-tubulin), 13 parallel protofilaments
What are microtubules?
Spherical structures that have a lipid bilayer membrane enclosing a dense matrix of metabolic enzymes. Contain oxidase, which are involved in beta oxidation and alpha oxidation. The catalase will breakdown peroxide and involved in the synthesis of bile acids, cholesterol and lipids
What are peroxisomes?
Small organelles that degrade old or damaged proteins. The damaged proteins are tagged with a polypeptide called ubiquitin, which is a signal for degradation.
What are proteasomes?
-Seminal vesicles -Prostate -Bulbourethral glands
What are the accessory sex glands
-Increased maximum O2 consumption due to increased maximum CO and increased O2 extraction -Increased O2 extraction -Increased total blood volume -Increased muscle strength, glycogen storage, insulin sensitivity, lean body mass -increased anaerobic threshold -decreased resting HR
What are the effects of exercise training
-Keratins -Vimentin -Desmin -Neurofilaments -Lamins
What are the five major types of intermediate filaments
-primordial follicle -primary follicle -secondary/vesicular follicle -mature/graafian follicle
What are the four types of follicles present in the ovary during the reproductive years?
-Form blood-testis barrier -Phagocytize residual cytoplasm -Secrete androgen binding hormone and Inhibin
What are the functions of the Sertoli Cells?
Glycosylation, synthesis of lysosomes and their enzymes, and sorting of proteins and phospholipids
What are the functions of the golgi apparatus
Paraurethral glands
What are the glands that produce a alkaline secretion in the penile tissue?
-Theca interna -Theca externa
What are the layers of the theca folliculi?
ATP Phosphagen System (creatine) Glycolysis Oxidative phosphorylation Beta oxidation
What are the major muscle fuel source?
Glycogen Lipids Melanin
What are the most common inclusions?
Glands of littre
What are the mucous glands in the penile tissue?
-Efferent ductules -Epididymis -Ductus deferens
What are the paired excurrent duct systems?
-Golgi phase -Cap phase -Acrosome phase -Maturation phase
What are the phases of spermiogenesis
-infundibulum -ampulla -isthmus -intramural
What are the portions of the oviduct?
1. spermatogonia 2. primary spermatocyte 3. secondary spermatocyte 4. spermatids
What are the stages of spermatogenesis?
Microfilaments Intermediate Filaments Microtubules
What are the structure of the cytoskeleton
-Endometrium -Myometrium -Perimetrium
What are the three layers of the uterus
-Tight junctions -Anchoring Junctions -Gap or Communicating Junctions
What are the three types of cell junctions?
-Periurethral mucosal glands -Periurethral submucosal glands -Peripheral main glands
What are the tubuloalveolar gland layers of the prostate gland?
Puberty and pregnancy
What are the two phases of postnatal mammary gland development?
-Type A (Stem cell) lighter stained -Type B (progenitor cell) have a round dark nucleus, undergo mitosis and produce primary spermatocytes that undergo meiosis
What are the two types of spermatogonia
-Cadherins (establish a link between the internal cytoskeleton of a cell and the exterior of another cell) -Selectins (bind to carbohydrates attached to proteins or a lipid)
What are the types of CAM's?
Hemidesmosome Belt desmosome Spot desmosome
What are the types of anchoring junctions?
Usually high in Na+ while low in K+ levels. Can be further divided into three subcompartments
What is extracellular fluid (ECF)
-Fibroblasts -ECM (hydrophilic) --> ground substances primarily hyaluronic acid and type I and III collagen fibers
What does Warton's Jelly consist of?
-Necessary for the proliferation and differentiation of spermatogenic cells -development of secondary male sex characteristics -growth and maintenance of the accessory glands -libido
What does testosterone affect?
CYP19
What enzyme is required in the granulosa cells to convert androstenedione into estrone?
Dopamin (DA) / PRL-inhibitor factor (PIF) from the hypothalamus
What inhibits PRL in men and non-pregnant women?
Maximum O2 consumption, which reflects the maximum power that the body can generated and is used as an index of the cardio-respiratory fitness
What is Vo2 Max
A visual representation of water and electrolytes in body fluid compartments
What is a Darrow Yannet diagram
A flagellum is formed by the centrioles
What is a correct statement concerning spermiogenesis?
It is a temporary endocrine organ that produces estrogen and progesterone
What is a correct statement concerning the corpus luteum?
In males and females, LH stimulates sex hormone productions
What is a correct statements about sex steroids is correct
They are 4N
What is a false statement about spermatogonia?
Excessive vomiting
What is a possible cause of metabolic alkalosis?
A parameter that is constantly being monitored by sensors and informs the controller of the current status. Examples include blood pressure, temperature, plasma glucose levels
What is a regulated parameter? Examples
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA)
What is a tumor marker that is used for diagnosis and follow up pertaining to the prostate
-Epithelium and Glands (epidermis & epidermal derivates such as hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands), melanocytes, mammary glands, anterior pituitary, enamel of teeth, lens of eye, adrenal medulla, retina and parotid gland) -Nervous Tissue (CNS brain and spinal cord, cranial and spinal ganglia, cranial and spinal nerves, posterior pituitary and pineal gland)
What is considered ectoderm?
-Epithelial lining of Respiratory Tract (trachea, bronchi, and lungs) -Epithelial lining of GI tract, liver, and pancreas -Epithelial lining of urinary bladder and urethra -Epithelial lining of pharynx, auditory tube, and tympanic cavity -Epithelial lining of tonsils, thyroid, and parathyroids -Submandibular and sublingual glands
What is considered endoderm?
-Epithelial lining of body cavities (mesothelium) -Epithelial lining of blood vessels, heart, and lymphatic vessels (endothelium) -Adrenal cortex -Connective Tissue (embryonic CT, CT proper, Adipose tissue, cartilage, bone, blood, dentin of teeth, lymphatic tissues) -Muscle Tissue (smooth, cardiac, skeletal muscle)
What is considered mesoderm?
Spaces are forming between the granulosa cells
What is correct concerning a secondary follicle?
hCG levels in plasma and urine
What is measured in pregnancy tests?
The type and structure of each transporter dictate which substances can pass through it and when the transport can occur
What is specificity
Dense irregular CT
What is the adventitia of the vagina composed of?
Diffuse basophilic cytoplasm (Ergastoplasm
What is the appearance of RER on staining?
Secrete testosterone for a short time during fetal development for the initial development of the male reproductive tract and genitalia. They remain inactive until puberty when they are stimulated by LH to secrete testosterone
What is the function of Leydig cells?
Increases intracellular cGMP and causes smooth muscle erection. The relaxed arterioles allow blood to fill the sinusoids of corpora cavernosa
What is the function of NO in erection?
-Stimulates the contraction of myoepithelial cells surrounding mammary alveoli and ducts resulting in ejection of milk from the mammary gland -Stimulates contraction of the uterine smooth muscle
What is the function of OT?
Synthesis of phospholipids, cholesterol and steroids, as well as detoxification. They are required for conversion of harmful lipid-soluble and water-insoluble substances into non-harmful water-soluble compounds for discharge by the kidney
What is the function of SER?
Functions in modulating membrane fluidity, restricts movement of phospholipids at high temperature. Major component of the cells membrane
What is the function of cholesterol in regards to the cell (general)
Prevents the degeneration of corpus luteum and maintains high progesterone levels required for maintenance of pregnancy during the first trimester
What is the function of hCG?
They are specific carrier proteins and channel proteins, and are needed to allow selective passage of molecules across the membrane
What is the function of membrane proteins
Provide structural support for neuron, act in anterograde and retrograde axonal transport of synaptic vessels and other molecules
What is the function of neurofilaments and neurotubules?
Functions as a physical barrier and involved in selective permeability
What is the function of phospholipids?
Engaged in substance degradation process (phagolysosome and autolysosome)
What is the function of secondary lysosomes?
It signals effector unit(s) to act and cause a change in the regulated parameter toward the desired value
What is the function of the controller?
A network of proteins in the cytoplasm that are for support and strength, movement, phagocytosis, cytokinesis and are either cell-cell or cell-extracellular matrix bound
What is the function of the cytoskeleton
A specialized endometrium of pregnancy that secretes immunosuppressants like prostaglandins, and interleukin-2 to help protect the embryo from maternal immune response
What is the function of the decidua?
Transport sperm, and contract to propel sperm during ejaculation
What is the function of the ductus deferens?
-Absorption of fluid -Phagocytizes remnants of cytoplasm from spermatozoa -Secretes factors for maturation of spermatozoa -Reservoir for sperm
What is the function of the epididymis
Facilitate fertilization through the deposition of spermatozoa in the female genital tract
What is the function of the excurrent duct system, accessory glands and penis (general)
Oxidative phosphorylation resulting in the production of ATP. Steroidogenesis Thermogenesis Initiation of Apoptosis
What is the function of the mitochondria
-Pick up the ovulated product from the ovary and transport it to the ampullary region -Provide the necessary environment for fertilization, and the development of the zygote into a morula
What is the function of the oviducts?
Storage site for lysosomal hydrolases
What is the function of the primary lysosome?
Involved in the synthesis of proteins (membrane, secretory, and in organelles) carried out by the attachment of ribosomes.
What is the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
Deliver DNA to the ovum
What is the function of the spermatozoa
-produce spermatozoa (spermatogenesis) -produce androgens (steroidogenesis)
What is the function of the testis (general)
From the testes passes through the inguinal canal as part of the spermatic cord, then down the lateral pelvic wall and then posterior to the bladder where it enlarges as the ampulla
What is the path of the ductus deferens?
Provide points of anchorage for the myofibrils Provide for attachment to neighboring cells Permit extremely rapid spread of contractile stimulus from one cell to another
What is the purpose of intercalated discs?
Thin, milky, rich in citric acid, lipids, acid phosphatase, proteolytic enzymes and fibrinolysin
What is the secretory product of the prostate?
Two antiparallel coiled dimers, each monomer has a head and tail domain
What makes up a tetramer unit
8 tetramers associated laterally. Will join end to end in a tight association
What makes up a unit length filament (ULF)
Both minute ventilation and cardiac output rise
What occurs during moderate-intensity aerobic exercise?
Contraction of the internal urethral sphincter (under SNS control)
What prevents retrograde ejaculation?
Estrogens Progestins Androgens
What sex steroids does the ovary synthesize?
-O2 uptake from the lungs -O2 delivery to muscle -Extraction of O2 by muscle
What three components determine Vo2 Max?
-Fibroblasts -Smooth muscle -chondroblasts -osteoblasts -epithelial cells
What type of cells make collagen fibers?
PDE5 Inhibitor
What type of inhibitor is used in erectile dysfunction
Will increase the plasma volume and the ECF volume. The increase in volume will only affect the ECF
What would an intake of isotonic solution do to the ICF, and ECF compartments
ATP and creating phosphate pool
When exercise starts, the additional energy is first supplied by the ?
Reductional Division
When the primary spermatocytes complete the first meiotic division the result is 2 secondary spermatocytes that are haploid. This is known as?
Within the ovaries, skin, fat and adrenal glands
Where are androgens produced?
-microvilli of the intestinal and renal epithelial cells -stereocilia of hair cells from the inner ear -skeletal muscle associated w/myosin for contractile activity -beneath the cell membrane in most cells involved with cell shape changes during endocytosis, exocytosis, and locomotion -cytoplasm associated with the movement of organelles, vesicles, and granules (cytoplasmic streaming) -mitotic cells associated with myosin for cleavage of daughter cells
Where are microfilaments found?
-Lining of the body cavities (mesothelium) -Lining of blood and lymphatic vessels (endothelium) -Thin loop of Henle in the Kidney -Vestibular membrane in the cochlea -Alveoli of the lung -Bowman's capsule in renal corpuscles of the kidney
Where can you commonly find simple squamous epithelia?
Epidermis of skin
Where is Keratinized stratified squamous typically found?
Moist surfaces such as the oral cavity, esophagus, anus and vagina
Where is NK stratified squamous epithelium typically found?
-Sweat glands -Larger ducts of exocrine glands
Where is Stratified cuboidal epithelium found?
-Fibrous capsule of organs -Deep fascia -Dermis -Periosteum of bone -Perichondrium of cartilage
Where is dense irregular connective tissue commonly found?
-Tendons -Ligaments -Aponeuroses
Where is dense regular connective tissue typically found?
-Around muscles, blood vessels, nerves, organs, subcutaneous regions, beneath the epithelia of the digestive and respiratory tracts
Where is loose connective tissue commonly found?
-Trachea and bronchi of the respiratory tract -Efferent ductules, epididymis, and vas deferens of the male reproductive tract
Where is pseudostratified epithelium commonly found?
-Small ducts of exocrine glands -Thyroid gland -Germinal epithelium of the ovary -Choroid plexus of the ventricles of the brain -Kidney Tubules
Where is simple cuboidal epithelia commonly found?
-stomach -small intestine -large intestine -gallbladder -uterus
Where is simple cuboidal epithelium commonly found?
-Largest ducts of exocrine glands -Portion of the male urethra -Transition sites between stratified squamous and pseudostratified epithelia
Where is stratified columnar epithelium commonly found?
Yolk sac
Where is the ova derived from?
In the pelvic cavity and attached to the pelvic wall by visceral peritoneum (broad ligament)
Where is the uterus located?
Estrone (E1)
Which estrogen is highest in menopause
Estriol (E3)
Which estrogen is highest in pregnancy (especially the 1st-2nd trimester)
Secretin
Which gastrointestinal hormone has hydrogen ions as a secretagogue, and stimulates the production of ductal bicarbonate?
Insulin
Which hormone is decreased during a moderate-intensity exercise?
LH
Which hormone prevents the death of corpus luteum?
Insulin.
Which hormone stimulates glycogen synthesis?
Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)
Which is the most potent male sex hormone?
Androgen-binding hormone
Which molecule helps maintaining high levels of testosterone inside the seminiferous tubules?
Troponin
Which molecule in skeletal muscle binds calcium in order to trigger contraction?
Respiratory portion of nasal cavities - medial wall formed by nasal septum
Which of the following a correct match? -Respiratory portion of nasal cavities - medial wall formed by nasal septum -Olfactory epithelium - lines the superior surface of the inferior nasal conchae -Respiratory epithelium - ciliated simple columnar epithelium -vestibule - mucous secretions warm and humidify the air
Arteries have well developed tunica
Which of the following best describes the main difference between an artery and a vein?
Mesangial cells
Which of the following can be found in the renal corpuscle?
Ovulated product - includes a secondary oocyte
Which of the following is a correct match? -Fertilization - usually occurs in the fundus of the uterus -Ovulated product - includes a secondary oocyte -ovulation - results from a surge in progesterone -second polar body - produced during the first meiotic division -capacitation - reaction of the morula to the uterine endometrium
cortex of ovary - ovarian follicles in various phases of development
Which of the following is a correct match? -Germinal epithelium - outer epithelial covering of the oviduct -Primary oocytes - undergo mitosis from birth to puberty -cortex of ovary - ovarian follicles in various phases of development -tunica albuginea - loose connective tissue forming the medulla of the ovary -primary oocyte - decrease in size with follicle development
B lymphocytes - mature in bone marrow
Which of the following is a correct match? -Lymphocytes - largest percentage of white blood cells in peripheral circulation -Eosinophils - perform their function within the vascular system -Monocytes - develop from macrophages in bone marrow -B-lymphocytes - mature in bone marrow
Collagen fibers - produced by fibroblasts and osteoblasts
Which of the following is a correct match? -collagen fibers - produced by fibroblasts and osteoblasts -type II collagen fibers - predominant type -reticular fibers - only produced by smooth muscle cells -type VII collagen fibers - first collagen fibers formed during wound healing
Middle esophagus - muscularis externi has skeletal and smooth muscle
Which of the following is a correct match? -pyloric stomach - short pits and long glands -colon - plicae circularis -middle esophagus - muscularis externi has skeletal and smooth muscle -ileum - no intestinal glands
Form a luminal compartment by junctions with other Sertoli cells
Which of the following is correct concerning Sertoli cells?
Growth occurs in the matrix of the hair bulb
Which of the following is correct concerning hairs?
They are found in autonomic ganglia
Which of the following is correct concerning multipolar neurons?
Majority of cells are keratinocytes
Which of the following is correct concerning the epidermis?
The corpus spongiosum is surrounded by a fibroelastic tunica albuginea
Which of the following is correct concerning the penis?
Bone marrow
Which of the following lymphatic tissues is a site of lymphocyte proliferation and differentiation (cloning), into mature immunocompetent cells?
Can carry more than one types of glycosaminoglycan chains
Which of the following statements about proteoglycans is true?
PRL is from the anterior pituitary, but it is not a gonadotropin
Which of the following statements about the endocrine hormone prolactin (PRL) is correct?
PaCO2
Which parameter does the central chemoreceptor detect
Compact bone
Which portion of a long bone is composed primarily of cylindrical units called osteons or Haversian systems?
Pseudostratified columnar
Which type of epithelium lines the urethra that situated inside corpus spongiosum?
Fibroelastic connective tissue and smooth muscle
Within each layer of the prostate glands, they are embedded in?
