SMG 408 Final Exam
Five Social and Economic Condition which promote growth in sport
1. More prevalent in markets which athletes, owners, and sponsors value material rewards 2. Exist in densely populated cities with many potential spectators 3. More common in wealthy, urban, industrial societies for people who have time and resources to watch events 4. Requires large amounts of capital, whether private or public. 5. More prevalent in cultures that value material status and consumption- sell symbols and experience to audience then sell audience to sponsors.
Consequences of consuming
1.) Active Participation in Sports Consuming sports through media may be connected with activity in different situations and with different people. (more research needed) 2.)Attendance at Sport Events Those who consume media sports tend to attend games as well - especially true for elite level competition. 3.) Betting on Sports Gambling on sports has been done for centuries Constitutes a threat to sport because of potential "point shaving" or fixing games
Christian use of sport
1.) Promote spiritual growth Sport participation develops moral character and there is a connection between physical and spiritual dimensions 2.)Recruit new members and promote religious organizations Used to attract boys and men to churches and religious organizations Also used to recruit to certain colleges and universities Major sport events are used for evangelizing 3.) Promote fundamentalist beliefs and evangelical orientations Use sport to promote their beliefs
Sports and different religions -Protestant work ethic and 7 key virtues
1.)Worldly Asceticism Self-denial, self-control, and self-discipline leads to spiritual redemption 2.) Rationalization Virtue is expressed through measurable achievements 3.)Goal Directedness Spiritual salvation depends on achievement and succes 4.) Individualism Salvation is a matter of individual responsibility, initiative and choice 5.) Achieved Status Success=goodness and salvation; failure=sin and damnation 6.)The Work Ethic Work is a calling from God; people honor God through working hard 7.)The Time Ethic Wasting time is sinful and a sign of weak moral character
Ideological Themes -Race, Ethnicity, and Nationality
-Athletes of different races were once described differently -Black athletes - natural abilities, good instincts, unique physical attributes -White athletes - hard-working, intelligent, highly disciplined -Commentators try to be "color blind", but this also denies the racial different background of athletes -Minorities are encouraged to "be like whites" and are often accused of "playing the race card"
Has media corrupted sport?
-Connections between media and sport are grounded in complex and ever changing sets of social, economic and political relationships. Therefore not capable of corrupting sport alone. Why?: -Sports are not shaped primarily by the media -Commercial sports have been created over time by a diverse number of people from athletes to owners to sponsors to media -Media do not exist in a political and economic vacuum -Those who control media are also influenced by the social, political and economic context in which they do business BUT remember - most CEO's or owners are rich, White, males from English speaking countries trying to promote entertaining sports for people to consume - they do have considerable power.
Sports and Global political process -Olympic games
-Creating open lines of communication between nations -Highlighting the shared interest of sport among cultures -Demonstrate friendly international relationships are possible -Foster cultural understanding and eliminate the use of national stereotypes -Create a global model for cultural, economic, and political relationships -Establish processes for developing effective leaders -Reduce the resources gap between wealthy and poor nations Nationalist themes go beyond respectful expressions of patriotism - nations use this event to promote own military, economy, political, and cultural agendas and ideologies Examples: Boycotts of 1980 and 1984 Olympic games during the Cold War Bribes, gifts, and other financial incentives to IOC members for get vote to Host (2002 Salt Lake Winter Games) 1968 Mexico City Olympics and the massacre of hundreds of student protestors Global Media use these types of political controversies to hype games and boost ratings
Ideological Themes -Gender
-Masculinity rules in media sports -Coverage of women's events tend to trivialize female athletes or to sexualize coverage -Often insert "women's" into the title of event or team which reflects a lower priority compared to the male version -Homosexuality is carefully erased from coverage -"Homosexuality doesn't sell" - heterosexuality is promoted Female sport reporters often have "sideline" duty not in the booth
Influence of media
-Newspapers, magazines, books, film, TV, the internet, ,mobile phone, hand held devices, and video games have become a pervasive part of US culture. -Media gives meaning to events, images, stories -We may not be told what to think, but we are greatly influenced on what we think about
Control of Professional athletes
-Reserve system which limits and determines the movement of players (prior to free agency) -In other businesses would violate anti-trust laws -Owners: needed to maintain competitive balance -CBA's have added free agency and increased salaries -Some issues within CBA's *Percentage of league revenues dedicated to player's salaries and benefits *Revenue sharing among teams *Salary limits for rookies, veteran players, and minimum salary *Free Agency conditions *Salary cap *Salary floor- minium team payroll *Conditions of arbitration *rule changes Not true in minor leagues where pay is much less
Sport and media: two way relationship
-Sports depend on media -Need media to provide a combination of coverage and news, which fills the need for knowledge for the sports fan. -All to generate and maintain intrest -Television rights have sky rocketed (NBC Olympic coverage through 2020 for $4.38 Billion) -Television rights fees have in turn enabled higher salaries and potential to be global celebrity
Media images and their narratives
-Sports telecasts are a symbolic construction, which presents ideas certain people have about the game, values, social life, and the characteristics of the audience.
Sportainment
-The way television constructs sports and viewer experiences -Like a TV show that was "based on a true story" -We see the event as a capitalist corporation wants it shown to create consumers loyal to capitalism and to generate profits
Authority
A form of power that comes with a recognized and legitimate status of office in a government, an organization, or an established set of relationships
Sports and different religions -Shinto
A traditional Japanese religion, it consists of a system of rituals and ceremonies designed to worship nature Sumo wrestling has a strong tie to Shinto Not a religious activity Religious symbols are present in the Dohyo (rings) as well as referees dressed as priests who ask Gods to bless the sites Much of the bouts are steeped in religious ceremony Entering the Dohyo
Ideological Themes -Consumption
Advertisements and commercials are present in TV and newspapers -- Even the ads are being rated "You are what you buy"
Power
An ability to influence people and achieve goals, even in the face of opposition from others
Government Involvement in sport -maintain health and fitness
Because research demonstrates that not all sport activities can lead to health benefits, government officials are more careful in sponsoring sports for health purposes. Choose noncompetitive physical activities with clear aerobic benefits than sports with high injury rates Also, due to the concern that young people might emulate professional athletes who take drugs (MLB in particular), the U.S. government (Congress) formed a committee to investigate PED's in pro sports
Government Involvement in sport -increase support for political leaders and governments
Being connected to successful athletes or teams can boost a politician's legitimacy and support Ex: Photo ops with the President at the White House Former athletes use their sport personas to help get elected to public officers Rely on characteristics like "hard-working", "decisive under pressure", "proven leaders" and "winners". Examples? politicians
Sports and different religions -Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism
Body and physical exercise are seen as important parts of nature with the goal of movement to seek harmony with nature - not to dominate others Tai Chi is a form of exercise based on this cultural approach as well as some other martial arts
Sports as religion: similarites
Both have places or buildings for communal gatherings and special events (stadiums and churches) Both emerge out of a disciplined quest for perfection in body, mind, and spirit (disciplined physical performance and disciplined moral purity) Both are controlled through structured organizations and hierarchical systems of authority (Coaches and Priests/Pastors) Both have events that celebrate widely shared values (hard work and commitment) Both have rituals before, after, and during the event (initiations, pep talks and baptisms, sermons) Both have heroes and heroic accomplishments (hall of fame and sainthood) Both evoke intense emotions and give meaning to people's lives (inspired performances of human potential and inspired to contemplate meaning of existence) Both can be used to distract attention away from important social, political and economic issues- "opiates" for the masses (attention on celebrity, championships and everlasting life rather than here-and-now matters)
Government Involvement in sport -Facilitate economic and social development in a community or society
Cities bid to host major sports events(Super Bowl, Olympics, etc.) with the promise of generating a positive economic impart on their area businesses and economy. Also host events to foster social bonds and relationships created by sports such as professional networking Benefits of these concepts can be overstated as economic impact may be less than anticipated and increased sport involvement may have a negative impact in other areas of life.
How media changed sport
Commercial sports have had to change scheduling and rules to be more "telegenic"
Branding sports and limits to corporate branding
Corporations buy the right to have their name or logo (mark) displayed throughout sport venues or as naming rights LIMITS -Some cases of resistance *CBS journalist wore Nike logo on jackets *MLB cancelled deal with Columbia Pictures to paint spider webs on bases, pitching mound, and on-deck circles prior to Spiderman 2 -Branding is seen as normal to younger generations *If "normal", then this ideology of commercial sport and corporate power has become deeply entrenched into our social worlds
Sports and different religions -Native Americans
Diverse religious beliefs due to various cultures Many native cultures religious beliefs emphasize the spiritual integration of material elements(such as earth, wind, sun, moon, plants, and animals) Historically, physical games and running races are included in religious rituals to reaffirm social connections and gain skills needed for survival
Sports and different religions -Buddhism and Hinduism
Emphasize physical and spiritual discipline Does not lead to seeking competitive success in physical activities as an expression of their religious beliefs Christian athletes use mediation and rituals from these religions to improve sport performance. Historically, Hinduism influenced by a "caste system" which was similar to a social class system. You were born into a specific caste (upper to lower) and remained in that caste for life. Women are to be secluded and veiled What role the caste system or the beliefs for women plays on sports participation has yet to be studie
Ideological Themes -Success
Emphasizes individual effort, competition, self-control, aggression, teamwork, following rules, effective strategies, winners, records, and final scores Less emphasis on learning, enjoyment, compromise, sharing resources, empathy, autonomy, and intrinsic satisfaction.
Sports and different religions -Islam
Every action is done to please Allah (God), so little distinction between secular and sacred Muslims have long participated in sport, but little has been studied In general, the tradition of sport participation and quest for excellence is not as strong in Muslim countries as in secularized Christian-Protestant countries. Females may be restricted in access to participation depending on what part of the world. Dress code required when males are present. Muslim Ramadan
religion and sport a cultural practice
Focus on social relations and issues of power among different religious beliefs Examine ways religious beliefs influence movement, physical activity, sport participation, and sport organization Ask why sports are male dominated spheres of life and study gender ideologies and religion Investigate ways people combine religious beliefs and sport participation a
Production of sports equipment by low wage earners
Free trade agreements allows companies in wealthy nations to use inexpensive labor of poorer nations Human rights activists forced many corporations (Nike, Adidas, Reebok, Puma) to create anti-child labor policies and allow their factories to be monitored Sweatshops continue to exist despite bad publicity and the work of activists Unless consumers become concerned enough to take action (boycott products) change will come slowly.
Government Involvement in sport -Ensure fairness and protect human rights
Government may intervene in sports by passing laws, establishing policies, or ruling on cases that protect the rights of citizens Examples: Title IX ADA applications in sport Amateur Sports Act of 1978
Critical issues in government involovement
Governments often are involved in sport for the "public good" All types of sports or programs are not promoted equally Those who benefit the most are the ones who are capable of directly influencing policy makers Elite sports are highly organized compared to recreational sports, therefore elite sports tend to have stronger backing Sports are connected with the power relations in society as a whole.
Government Involvement in sport -Reproduce values consistent with the dominant ideology
Governments use sport to promote specific political values and ideas among their citizens Especially when reaffirming the idea that success is based on discipline, loyalty, determination, and hard work. Introduction Super Bowl XLV Example: Jessie Owens at the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games
Media construction of sports
Images and narrative are carefully selected to meet the perceived needs of the audience and sponsors. These images tend to : -exaggerate the spectacular (heroic efforts) -Invent or highlight rivalries -Tell us why events are important -Create celebrity athletes and teams. -Emphasize elite sport performances
New media: video games and virtual sports
Images are lifelike and can play as or against a "real" player. Can hold online sports tournaments for Cyberathletes-some are even sponsored. Provides a different experience than watching TV or playing sports. Users tend to be sport fans and regular consumers of standard sport media The games tend to highlight corporate brands, affirm traditional masculinity, and support the same values as traditional sport media
religion
Integrated and socially shared beliefs and rituals that people accept on faith and use as a source of meaning, guidance, and transcendence.
Government Involvement in sport -Safeguard pubic order
Laws set boundaries for where, when and under what conditions sports may be played Ideally these laws promote safety and reduce conflict between multiple users of a given space. Also involves policing certain events where the safety of the spectators or participants may be threatened Futbol riots in Egypt Use sport events to help maintain public order i.e. keep kids off the streets like Midnight basketball
Sports and different religions -Judaism
Link between Judaism and sports is weak, but the link between Jews and sport participation is strong Jews are an ethic population as well as a religious population and have faced much discrimination Stereotype was that Jews were "thinkers not doers- smart people with frail bodies. Maccabia Games are held every four years (year after Olympic Games) Maccabi Cultural rather than religious in purpose, but foster Jewish identity and relationships
Transnational corporations and poltics
Massive corporations now are among the largest economies in the world and they share the political stage This occurred because of deregulation, lifted trade restrictions, lowered tariffs which made the flow of capital, labor, and goods easier. Corporate sponsors now exert significant influence over sporting events. This influence can replace traditions and local culture with images used to increase consumption
Creating Spectator Interest -Media Coverage
Media promotes the commercialization of apart by covering events that sustain spectator interest. Camera angles focus on action and provide slow motion replays to enhance the excitement Commentators provide "insider" knowledge and background information on players and the action to maintain interest. TV provides the opportunity to "learn" a sport at home, which can lead to more spectators for consumption.
Athletes, Coaches and teams use sport
Mostly anecdotal evidence, but religion is used for one or more of the following purposes: -To cope with uncertainty -To stay out of trouble -To give meaning to sport participation -To put sport participation into a balanced perspective -To establish team solidarity -To reaffirm expectations, rules, and social control on teams -To assert autonomy in the face of power -To achieve personal and competitive success -To market games and sell tickets
Newspaper and TV dependence on Sport
NEWSPAPER Originally, newspapers only had a single page reporting on sports - today entire newspapers focus exclusively on sports. North American newspapers devote more space to sports than to any other single interest. The sports section is the most widely read section Many have established online sites as well TV Sports are a major part of programming for television networks Several Networks now exist exclusively for sports programs. ESPN's multiple networks, Fox Sports, CSTV MLB network, NBA TV, The Football network, Big ten network, etc. The major US networks mostly broadcast sports on the weekends, which are typically slower TV days. Media corporations sell advertising slots to corporations which target men. i.e. beer, life insurance, trucks and cars, computers, investment services, (similar to newspapers) PPV can provide coverage for special events
Creating Spectator Interest -Quest for excitement
People search for activities that offer tension-excitement and emotional arousal to escape the boredom of their lives Sport rules strive to balance enough action to be exciting while providing enough control (rules) to prevent uncontrolled violence. -If rules too loose- chaos and jeopardize health and safety -If rules too tight- boring to watch
Politics
Process of organizing power and making decisions that affect the lives of people in a social world Usually associated with formal governmental entities in a public arena. Occurs at all levels or areas in life: friendships, family relationships, work environments or local, state, national or global affairs
Sports as religion: differences
Religions beliefs and traditions are mystical and sacred whereas sport beliefs and rituals are clear-cut and secular Purpose of religion is to transcend the material world in pursuit of eternal life whereas purpose of sports is to embrace material reality in the pursuit of victories and physical performance Religion involves faith in one's beliefs whereas sport involves competition to establish superiority. Religion emphasizes humility whereas sport emphasizes involves personal achievement and conquest. Religious service highlight a collective process of acknowledging the sacred and supernatural whereas sport events highlight a collective commitment to a here-and-now outcome with secular significance
Challenges of combining sport ant religion
Research suggests that Christian athletes combine religious beliefs and sport participation in diverse ways Christianity is based on an ethic that emphasizes the importance of means over ends, process over product, quality over quantity, and caring for others over caring for self. Power and performance sports emphasize winning, domination, records, statistics, and self-display, and final scores. Do Christian football players who use intimidation and "take out" opponents with vicious hits which can cause injury see problems saying these behaviors are "acts of worship"?
social consequences of religion
Sociologists examine the ways that believers use religion as they give meaning to their social worlds and their own actions. The social consequences of religious beliefs vary widely but include the following: -Powerful forms of group unity (social integration) and devastating forms of group conflict (war) -A spirit of love and acceptance and forms of righteous rejection -A humble conformity with with prevailing social norms and a righteous rejection of prevailing norms -A commitment to social equity and a commitment to policies and practices that produce inequalities between men and women, racial and ethnic groups, social classes, hetero-and homosexuals and other.)
adapting sport and religion
Sport changes little when combined with religion Religious beliefs and rituals are called into service of sports or modified to fit the way dominant sports are defined. Sport has become muscularized: discipline, duty, self-righteousness over stewardship, social responsibility, and humility
Creating Spectator Interest -Class Ideology
Sport is used to reinforce the idea that success is achieved through hard work and skill(meritocracy). Sport commentators emphasize that teams succeed when they have talented players and work hard Successful athletes are used by corporate America to sell products because they represent this ideal Tiger Woods vs. Peyton Manning vs. Serena Williams
Government Involvement in sport -promote a sense of identity and unity
The emotional unity of fans and communities created by athletes and teams can be used to establish an identity that connects fans to their city or nation. The expectation is the reaffirming of national loyalty This unity and identity usually benefits one group more than another - it serves the interests of those in power
Goals of the media
The goals of media professionals are to at least do one of the following: 1.) Make financial profits 2.) Influence cultural values 3.)Provide a public service 4.) Enhance personal status/ reputation 5.) Express themselves in artistic/technical/personal ways
Media and power in society -TV commentaries
The narratives that accompany sports broadcast on TV highlight action, competition, aggression, hard work, and competitive outcome. -The commentary is designed to keep our interest by creating and focusing on drama and storytelling -Emphasis on rivalry games -Good guys vs. bad guys -Key injuries or status of players
Globalization of Commercial Sport
Two main reasons why globalization of commercial sport has occurred: 1.) Sport Organizations Look to Expand Markets and Maximize Profits -Most leagues now market outside of home countries -Develop various strategies to increase identification of league, teams, and players 2.) -Transnational corporations negotiate deals that promote their interests, increase their power, and create positive images of themselves as "global citizens and leaders". -Buy commercial time to promote the belief that pleasure and excitement depend on their products
Athletes as migrant workers
When athletes move from nation to nation for a variety of reasons (political asylum, recruited by an agent, or other personal reasons) the move raises issues: -Personal Adjustments of the athletes -New culture, different language, homesickness, prejudice, etc. -The rights of athletes as workers -Support system or on their own, wage differences working conditions -The impact on the precious and current nations -Recruit top talent depletes other countries' league revenues while reducing the need to cultivate homegrown talent -The impact of the move on identify of fans and athletes -Tend to identify with athletes from the same nation, could lead to prejudice or ethnic bigotry
Government Involvement in sport -Promote the prestige and power of a group, community, or nation
Whether the local, state, national, or international level, governments use sports to gain recognition and prestige Government officials use international sports to establish their nation's legitimacy On a local level, large cities fund professional teams and small communities boast of recent State Championships
idelolgies
focus mostly on secular, here-and-now, material worldly issues not linked to the supernatural