SOC 102 Exam #2
Recognize how Taylorism (scientific management) pertains to sport
"Taylorism" or scientific management Originally a way of thinking about workplace (especially factories/manufacturing) Attempt to promote maximum efficiency through close measurement of production Athletic performance and potential is summarized an qualitative data
Know about the general features of the "death boost" in Parsons and Stern
"When a player dies, that draws attention to him, and also sympathy" (James, 1995) Dying increases one's chances of being on the ballot and thus, being on the Baseball Hall of Fame
Be familiar with various current women's professional leagues in North America
- Baseball (A League of Their Own 1940s-1950s) - Basketball (WNBA 1997-Present) - Golf (since 1950) - Soccer (NWSL 3 diff. leagues on and off since 2001 in US, growing European) - Softball (70s, reborn 1997) - Tennis (WTA since 1973 as sep. entity) - Ice Hockey (2007- present in Canada, 2017-Present in US) -Opportunities in horse racing and motor sport
Be able to briefly discuss the NFL concussion timeline presented in lecture notes and can be supplemented at PBS http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/sports/league-of-denial/timeline-the-nfls-concussion-crisis/ (with detailed information up through 2013) In general, are the number of concussions in the NFL rising or falling when we consider the game and practice data? Also be familiar with the recent development regarding how former players are tested for eligibility.
1944-NFL commissioner Paul Tagliabue announces the formation of the Mild Traumatic Brain Injury committee headed by the Jets team doctor who had no experience with brain injuries In December 1994, Tagliabue stated, "On concussions, I think this is one of these pack journalism issues...there is no increase in concussions, the number is relatively small... The problem is a journalist issue." March 1997- Guidelines from the American Academy of Neurology says that repetitive concussions can cause brain damage, and suggest that players be removed from the game if they lose consciousness or exhibit symptoms 15 minutes post-injury October 1999-NFL Retirement Board (a group that is independent of both the league and the union) ruled that former player Mike Webster was left "totally and permanently disabled as the result of head injuries he suffered as a football player." However, this ruling was not known until 2012 December 1999-MTBI announces that there are an average of about 180 concussions per year and the vast majority are minor injuries. May 2000-Survey research suggests that players who had experienced concussions reported more neurological symptoms including issues with memory, concentration, speech difficulties, etc May 2000-MTBI questions return-to-play guidelines citing lack of research evidence. October 2002-Mike Webster died in September and the Allegheny County Medical Examiner Bennett Omalu finds evidence of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) November 2003-A research paper is published suggesting that repeat concussions can lead to slower recovery of neurological function. anuary 2004-MTBI publishes a paper that emphasizes that the concussion problem in the NFL is relatively small and states that a "total of 92% of concussed players returned to practice in less than seven days. More than one-half of the players returned to play within one day." Late 2004—MTBI questions the research on repeat concussions and subsequently publishes a report that claims that NFL players are less susceptible to brain injury. 2005 and 2006—More research explores the linkages between concussions and depression as well as dementia. February 2007- Roger Goodell, the new NFL commissioner, responds to a claim that players were being forced to return to games despite symptoms by saying he did not believe that the teams did this as a practice, but that he was concerned June 2007- The NFL hosts a concussion summit with NFL team doctors as well as doctors who were not associated with the league January 2009- Dr. Ann McKee anda team of scientists hold a press conference in Tampa during Super Bowl weekend discussing evidence of former players with CTE May 2009- McKee meets the MTBI, but her team's findings are largely dismissed. She reported that "it was like 'Oh the girl talked. Now we can get back to some serious business'" NTBI co-chair reported that McKee's research did not specify a cause for CTE and the research was based solely on case studies of those who had the symptoms of CTE and did not consider those without symptoms Late 2009-Another research report claims that former players were 19 times more likely to get dementia than the general public. This report was challenged by MTBI Congress is briefed by the outside scientists Shakeup on the MTBI Committee In December, the NFL acknowledges long-term effects of concussions and develops new return-to-play protocols 2010—NFL provides $30 million for research into brain trauma 2011—Class action lawsuit brought by former player Ray Easterling (later joined by 4,500 others). Dave Duerson suicide by shot in the chest to preserve brain 2012—14% increase in concussions Easterling suicide Seau suicide NFL funds youth concussion awareness initiative 2013—NFL announces new concussion safety measures including having an independent neurologist on the sideline for each game. In August 2013, the NFL settled the lawsuit with retired players by agreeing to pay $765 million. The question about how to distribute the money is still unresolved. ESPN reported that retired players who died before 2006 would be excluded. March 2016-For the first time, an NFL official acknowledges a link between football and CTE. July 2016—NFL and NFL Players Association agree upon new concussion protocols July 2017—Medical journal report finds 99% of former NFL players studied had evidence of CTE September 2017—A study on Aaron Hernandez's brain showed severe CTE according to his attorney Recent Developments: It has come to light that although the litigation was finalized in early 2017 and former players could enroll as members of the "Settlement Program" (over 20,000 have been identified as members as of Monday) and get tested to see if they qualify to receive money under the terms of the lawsuit, many applications were denied, delayed, or received lesser settlements based on the some of the diagnostic restrictions placed on doctors that are "race-norming." The NFL agreed to end this practice last month
Be familiar with the definitions of aggression and violence
Aggression Verbal or physical actions grounded in an intent to dominate, control, or do harm to another person Aggression is not the same as trying hard or being assertive and achievement is oriented Intimidation refers to words, gestures, and actions that threaten violence or aggression Violence The use of excessive physical force, which causes or has obvious potential to cause harm or destruction
Be generally familiar with the tenets of colorblind racism and some of its tenets and frames
Binilla-Silva Abstract liberalism- ideas about equal opportunities for individuals. Race-based remedies may represent preferential treatment Naturalization- ideas about human behavior deriving from biological, genetic, innate factors- segregation 9perhaps Reskin/Simmel) Cultural racism- idea that minority groups may have cultural behaviors that prevent members from being successful in the workplace, shool, and other institutions of mainstream culture Minimization of racism- discrimination is less significant than in the past (Wilson)
Be able to discuss how fair play and sporting behavior is an ideal associated with social class
Bourdieu Fair play is "characteristic of those who don't get so carried away by the game as to forget that it is a game" Don't care about outcome Fair play is upper and middle class idea Guttmann Fair play is a class ideal The ruling class makes the rules Compares cricket to baseball Rules relatively unchallenged in cricket, but many instances of cheating in baseball
As presented in lecture, what is meant by the term "policing the boundaries of masculinity"? Be able to provide at least one example
Certain types of sports and ways that we participate go against gender norms When that happens, there is a price to pay People call you out Social enforcement Norms get managed within the social institution in which they're occurring In sports, athletes start to police each other Always groups involved within sports, no one does anything by themselves In replacement of exclusion and segregation (still there though) Discussions of expectations Feels odd to compare sports such as cheerleading and basketball Roles taken on Gender roles When we come across something unexpected, there usually is a comment or talk about it Grabs attention Comment because it makes us uncomfortable In sport, there is a history of people that seem to violate what we expect Ex: Jackie Robinson breaking color barrier in baseball Serena and Venus Williams Black quarterback in 1960s-1970s Celebration by Brandi Chastain After winning World Cup Girl dunking in basketball All unexpected and stand out Tom Dempsey Kicker for the Saints, Rams, etc. Had record for longest field goal made Only had half of a foot Specially made shoe No advantage Make him known at the time Hasn't trickled down over the years Referees Booed Abuse Perception is that they don't really belong because they're not on one team or the other Uncle Drew Old guy playing basketball Larry Johnson Commercial Old guy playing basketball, turned out to be super good Murder Ball
Be familiar with the general trends regarding leadership opportunities in sports for African-Americans and women including specific information about this year's men's and women's March Madness tournament
College Coaching and Leadership Athletic Directors about 18% POC in D1 About the same breakdown for FBS Associate Athletic Directors only about 14.7% POC Coaching Football Head Coach 11.9% black in D1 (10% in FBS) student -athletes are 62% POC Men's Basketball Head Coach 25.8% black in D1 Student-athletes are 52.8% POC Women's Basketball Head Coach 24.6% black in D1 (64% women) Student-athletes around 50% POC College Coaching and Race Sweet 16 coaches-Men's 5 out of 16 head coaches are black Three in 2021 and in the five years before that, never more than 2 Sweet 16 Coaches- Women's 2 out of 16 Three black female coaches in 2021 None out of 16 teams coached by women (10 women in 2021)
Be familiar with the idea of conspicuous consumption, what it means, and who developed the idea
Conspicuous Consumption Participation in certain sports was used as a sign of status among the wealthy (unlike previous times) Outwards expressions of social class Also expressed through manners, gait, and good form These became part of the body See cultural capital Bourdieu Thorstein Veblen came up with the idea in 1899
Know the sports that have the highest percentage of positive drug tests
Cycling Weightlifting Boxing Triathlon Baseball
Be familiar with the definition of hegemonic masculinity
Dominate, largely unquestioned Ideas about masculinity that have become so dominant within society that people rarely question them More important in sport than society Society is ahead, there is a greater acceptance How does it tie to... Heroic vs aesthetic Cult of manliness in 1890s (and muscular Christianity)
Know some of the statistics presented in lecture about the death of football and basketball athletes before their career ended
Dwayne Haskins has now joined about 80 NFL players (including 16 who joined the military and died in action) who died before career ended Mostly non-competition, but a couple of player illnesses have inspired major motion pictures including Ernie Davis and Brian Piccolo 12 NBA players (only 2 competition-related including Reggie Lewis) and over 100 male college basketball players (very few competition-related, but famously Hank Gathers of Loyola Marymount) > died on the court during the WCC tournament Boxing- 86 deaths related to competition since 1894 "Amateur" Football Deaths 1905-At least three players died as a result of injuries during games on the last day of the season 2017-Two college football players died on the day (both competition-related) Recent study of deaths in High School and College football from 1990-2010 found 243 (about 3 times as many in college compared to high school) Leading causes: cardiac failure, heat stroke, brain injuries 2018 Jordan McNair death
Be generally familiar with the timeline for increased female sport participation and the reasons behind the increase.
ESPN Data High school female participation increased by 1,079% between 1971 and 2010 Women playing varsity sports in college increased 622% in that same time period Coakley-Reasons for Increased Participation New opportunities Government equal rights legislation Global women's rights movement Health and fitness movement Increased media coverage of women in sports Somewhat washed out by a similar increase in male sports Sports and Society Single greatest change in sport in past 50 years is the astronomical increase in female participation in sports over the past 50 years Youth Sport According to a 2013 ESPN Magazine report, a survey found that almost 70% of girls age 8-17 have participated in an organized sport during the past year High School and College Female Participation High school 2017-3.4 million girls versus about 4.5 million boys Reflects an increase of nearly 1000% since mid 70s College (NCAA) 2018-216,000 women versus 284,000 men Reflects an increase of about 500% since 80s Olympics Pierre de Coubertin (founder of modern Olympics) believed women in sports destroyed feminine charm Went on to question if anyone wanted to watch women's sports Limited # of women's sports added in 1900 (second game) At past 2 summer games, 45% women and at past 2 winter 40% women 2012 London games, 1st time each team had at least 1 woman, and US was majority female (66% of US gold medals) various rare opportunities in "men's" sport Women are becoming more involved in men's college and professional sports Athletic trainers, refs, reporters, broadcasters, a few coaches, administrative rolls Some controversies with females on male teams Little league, wrestling, football
Know about the Goldman dilemma discussed in the Pisk reading
Goldman discussed the great danger athletes face if they use prohibited drugs Goldman surveyed athletes and asked them if they could take a magic drug that would allow them to win every sporting event for the next five years, but it had one minor drawback—it would kill you five years after you took it—would you still take the drug? 52% of the athletes said they would take it Athletes will go to the grave to win
Be familiar with the relationship between overconformity to the sport ethic and hubris (Coakley reading and lecture) and be able to discuss the differences between deviance related to overconformity compared to deviance that is related to underconformity.
Interactionist View of Deviance Some deviance in sports involves overconformity to established norms in sports Sport deviance must be understood in terms of the context of sport cultures and the norms of the "sport ethic" Dedication to the game Strive for distinction Overconformity and Hubris Hubris: pride-driven arrogance and an inflated sense of self-importance that leads one to feel separate from and superior to others Applies to a broad spectrum of social worlds—politicians and celebrities
Be familiar with great athletes of color of the early part of the 20th century including Johnson, Didrikson, Thorpe, Gibson, Owens
Johnson African-American heavyweight boxing champion in early 1900s Jim Jeffries the white champion refused to fight Johnson and chose to retire instead Next champion also refused to fight Johnson, but Johnson eventually shamed him into a fight Jeffries comes out of retirement to fight Johnson. Jeffries is labeled the Great White Hope and the fight was known as the Fight of the Century. Johnson easily defeated Jeffries in Reno Didrikson (NOT IN LECTURE) Mildred Ella "Babe" Didrikson Zaharias was an American athlete who excelled in golf, basketball, baseball and track and field. She won two gold medals in track and field at the 1932 Summer Olympics, before turning to professional golf and winning 10 LPGA major championships Jim Thorpe World's greatest athlete of 20th century He would compete in 8 events on the track team Later joined the football team He was able to watch something athletically and then do it himself All American Honors Carlile Team (Small Native American college) Entered Olympic Trials in New York, might be only person named to US decathlon team on basis of reputation rather than trials Althea Gibson First black Wimbledon champion Moves from tennis to golf, still successful there Her story gets lost to a certain degree Owens Jesse Owens' success in the track and especially the 1936 Olympics heighted efforts to find racial explanations for athletic success in age of eugenics There is no evidence showing that skin color is related to physically traits that essential for athletic excellence across sports or in any particular sport
Be familiar with labeling theory and stigma
Labeling Theory No act is inherently deviant Norms and rules are created by those in power and violators of rules and norms may be labeled as such which preserves the structure of relationships Stigma: once labeled as deviant, the negative view will often continue Can become part of identity (The Bad Boys)
Be able to discuss the concepts of massification and commodification from the Eitzen article on ethical principles. Also know the four ethical principles that Eitzen says are necessary for an ethical sporting environment
Massification: refers to the transformed social relations in society resulting from a more specialized division of labor, large-scale commodity production and consumption, the widespread use of technology to increase industrial and administrative efficiency, and an increasingly authoritarian state. Sports reflect this as they have become increasingly technocratic, specialized, controlled by elites, and impersonal (sports are a big business) Massification has led to increased unethical behavior due to anonymity Commodification: refers to the social, psychological, and cultural uses of social structures for the commercial needs of advanced monopoly capital Human beings are objects and are interchangeable parts in their roles as workers In sports, owners and administrators make decisions based on profit Sports are an activity of display, therefore encouraging violence Four Ethical Principles: Athletes must always be considered end and not means (treated with dignity and respect, outcome for participants is more important, no dehumanization) The competition must be fair (rules, no bias) Participation, leadership, resources, and rewards must be based on achievement rather than ascribed characteristics (must be characterized by equal opportunity) The activity must provide for the relative safety of the participants (rules of sports must protect athletes)
Be familiar with the structural strain theory posited by Merton and how it can be applied to sports.
Midrange (Functionalist) Views on Deviance-Merton and Structural Strain Culture provides goals for members of society Structure provides (or fails to provide) the means to attain goals IF goals and means aren't in balance, a strain created->behavior viewed as unacceptable or inappropriate by some members of society Five possible ways to adapt: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion
Be familiar with the approximate percentage of D1 schools that currently have at least one sports program on probation
NCAA 32 of the approximately 350 D1 schools have at least one of its sports programs currently on probation including 15 of the 130 FBS (upper part of the D1) schools Dirtiest Five Conferences in Football (Bleacher Report) Big 12: 39 football related major violations SEC: 32 football related major violations PAC 10: 26 football related major violations Big 10: 19 football related major violations ACC: 17 football related major violations Lou Holtz had four of his teams sanctioned NCAA Men's Basketball National Champion Kansas Jayhawks and runner-up UNC Tar Heels Investigation continuing
Be generally familiar with the data regarding how the arrest rates of NFL players compare with the national average for men 25-29
Off-field Deviance Research shows that many athletes have lower rates of delinquency than similar peers who do not play sports There are exceptions to this in the case of certain athletes (football players and wrestlers in one study) who are more likely to engage in serious fights than other athletes Off-filed Deviance and Violence In the wake of the American Hernandez story, experts looked at incidences of criminal behavior among professional athletes in the major team sports. Football players accounted for the majority of arrests. Of course, football rosters are the largest, but the numbers are still disproportionate In a study by fivethirtyeight, NFL player crime rate is lower than national average, but some are closer Compared to all other in age group, NFL arrest rate is only 13% of national average Diamond Article Should not focus on arrest rates versus peers as this disregards the effect of income and available resources to avoid arrest Domestic violence accounts for almost half of arrests for violent crimes among NFL players which leads to a conclusion than NFL players are four times more likely to be arrested for domestic abuse than expected
Know about the history of performance enhancing substances, including steroids, and some of the side effects presented in lecture and also be familiar with Toradol (ketorolac) which is discussed in Easterbrook.
Performance Enhancing Substances The use of performance-enhancing substances has a long history in high-performance sports Elixir of Life 1889 Doping 1910 The use of performance-enhancing substances occurs regularly today in high-performing sports Much substance use can be seen as a form of deviant overconformity Such substances will be used as long as athletes believe they enhance performance and enable athletes to remain in the game they love Possible Side Effects Blood pressure->stroke and heart attack Liver damage Hair loss Mood and mindset->irritability, rage, delusions Aggression, violence, uncontrolled energy, addiction Stunted growth and disruption of puberty in youth
Be familiar with the Nika Riots—what were they, what sporting event are they related to and how significant were they
Rioting and Deaths Fan Rioting is very old phenomenon-Nika riots in 532 AD IN CONSTANTINOPLE It is not unusual for riots to take place following championship matches in the home cities of the participants Izzo before National Semifinal Occasional deaths and many injuries among fans related to sports, especially soccer. Less frequent in American sports Malice in the Palace
Be able to identify at least a few significant sport scandals both historically and in recent years
Scandals Gambling and point-fixing: Black Sox scandal, CCNY basketball 1950, University of Kentucky basketball, Pete Rose betting on baseball, Tim Donaghy as compromised NBA referee Illegal money and benefits to college athletes: SMU football and death penalty, University of Michigan basketball, Reggie Bush, OSU football, etc. Cheating and Scandals Steroid and Performance-enhancing substances Russian athletes leading to country ban and the OAR and then the ROC Lance Armstrong Marion Jones Baseball players from the steroid era (Bonds McGwire, Sosa, Clemens, A Rod) Olympic sprinters in the 80s and 90s Other Incidents Tonya Harding/Nancy Kerrigan Danny Almonte Little Leaguer two years too old Penn State sandusky and coverup Larry Nassar and US gymnastics New Orleans Saints Bounty USSR defeats US for basketball gold medal 1972 Spygate and deflategate Astros stealing signs
Be familiar with the Schneider-Eitzen theory about illegitimate violence in sport
Schneider and Eitzen Theories about Illegitimate Violence Believe that illegitimate violence can be predicted by the "structure" of a sport Specifically, Lower scoring leads to more violence Greater allowable body contact leads to less illegitimate violence More allowed players retaliation leads to less illegitimate violence More rewards available in a game leads to less violence
Be familiar with the sport associated with the scandal or set of scandals highlighted by John Oliver
Soccer and FIFA Top FIFA officials were arrested The US government accused FIFA of soliciting hundreds of millions of dollars in bribes
From lecture, be able to relate Foucault's ideas about surveillance and panopticism to sports and also be familiar with the some of the effects of surveillance upon the bodies who are being watched.
Surveillance and Panopticon Foucault believes that surveillance is a key aspect of modern society Draws upon Bentham's idea of panopticism in prisons (guard tower in the center of the grounds) that serves as a reminder that someone is always watching
Be familiar with the themes and topics of the TED Talk videos shown in lecture featuring Matt Roth and David Epstein
Ted Talk about childhood concussions Steady increase in the number of overuse injuries in children Ligament tears and stress fractures that used to be rare in children 10 year-old boy playing three sports league at once, elbow pain Parents wanted ligament reconstruction surgery to make it stronger Concussions can be devastating and shorten careers in adults teams Not acceptable for kids careers to end before they got started because of concussions Putting kids at risk for burnout, breakdown, and brain damage needs to change Solution 2-set limits on participation, schedule time off Solution 3-take actions that limit concussions (youth sports need to)
Be familiar with the history of helmets in sports and when different sports mandated their use
The Head and the Helmet The use of helmets in football, baseball, and hckjey took years to emerge College football required helmets starting in 1939 and professional football started in 1943 Batting helmets in MLB didn't start until 1941, but it wasn't mandated until 1958 Hockey helmets aren't mandatory until 1979 and even then players who were in the league weren't required to wear them Helmets in Auto Racing Initiality cloth or leather with goggles in early 1900s Development of harder metal helmets in 1950s Formula one mandates hard helmets in 1950s NASCAR mandates in 2001 after death of Dale Earnhardt
Know the norms of the sport ethic
The Sport Ethic (Coakley) Comprised of four norms that guide and evaluate attitudes and actions in high-level competitive sports Athletes are dedicated to the game above all other things Athletes strive for distinction Athletes accept risks and play through pain Athletes accept no obstacles in pursuit of success
Be familiar with how the main three Sociological theoretical perspectives discuss issues involving war
Theory and Violence in Society—War Functionalism War and terrorism serve several important functions For example, they increase social solidarity as a society unites to defeat a perceived enemy. Some wars have also helped preserve freedom and democracy Conflict Theory War and militarism primarily advance the interests of the military-industrial complex and take billions of dollars from unmet social needs Symbolic Interactionism Symbols such as the flag play an important role in marshaling support for war. Definitions of several concepts also play an important role in public opinion regarding war and terrorism
Know facts about Title IX including what is included in the text, the three tests to establish compliance, and a few of the efforts mentioned in lecture that have been attempted by universities to circumvent (cheat) the law
Title IX Fostered major changes in sport participation opportunities available to girls and women Evoked continuous resistance since it became law in 1972 (June 23rd marks 50th anniversary) Title IX and the Sociology of Law Demonstrated that laws and law enforcement don't exist in a social and cultural vacuum Demonstrated that when laws challenge the ideas and lifestyles of people with power, the legitimacy and enforcement of those laws will be questioned Is a portion of the Education Amendments of 1972 designed as an update to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 No person on the basis of sex should be excuded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discimcrimation under any educational program or activity receiving federal financial assistance Title IX Resistance It was not controversial as it was passed into law The application of its equity and provisions to high school and college sports was contested In 1979, the Office of Civil Rights created standards to establish whether or not a school was in compliance Its original intent had nothing to do with sports participation Title IX Compliance Standards The Proportionality Test A five percentage point deviation has been okay The history of progress test Judged by actions and progress over past 3 years The accommodation of interest test Programs and teams meet the interests and abilities of the underrepresented sex An ongoing struggle In 1984, the US Supreme Court ruled that only programs that received direct government funding were compelled to comply with Title IX Circumvention Many schools have sought to find loopholes in the law and the interpretation of equity Examples Claim an indoor track team despite never competing indoor (UCI) Undercounting male athletes while also overcounting female athletes (Oregon State track) Providing less equipment and lower quality facilities to women's tennis (university of new mexico) Counting non-existent female athletes on women's crew (Univ of Washington, USC)
Be familiar with the timeline of the University of Michigan varsity jacket scandal and the Harlem Globetrotters story
Varsity symbol now powerful symbol of equality Block M Womens sports used to be club sports Didn't get same jackets until 2016 Importance of the Globetrotters story Reflection of American ideas about race relations in the early to mid 20th century race/ethnic team formation The role of humor Victory over (white) professional league champs (the Lakers) comparable with Billie Jean King's victory Their approach was not a direct challenge to racial ideology
Be able to match all assigned readings to central focus
Wells & Darnell: "Caster Semenya, Gender Verification and the Politics of Fairness in an Online Track & Field Community" The importance of maintaining fairness in and through sex-segregated sport Anderson & Bullingham: "Openly Lesbian Team Sport Athletes in an Era of Decreasing Homohysteria" Rapid decline in homophobia since 1980s and 1990s Fink: "Female Athletes, Women's Sport, and the Sport Media Commercial Complex: Have We Really "Come A Long Way Baby?" 2012 London Olympics were called the "Year of the Woman" Sports participation among women is at an all time high However, female athletes and women's sport receive "starkly disparate treatment by the sport media commercial complex" compared to men's sports Lavigne: "College Athletes 3x More Likely to be Named in Title IX Sexual Conduct Complaints" Many colleges and universities "turn away" from information Wiggins: "'Black Athletes in White Mens Games': Race, Sport and American National Pastime" Efforts have resulted in a large number of African Americans participating in football, basketball, and track "Young African Americans view it as the only alternative to welfare, crime, and life on the streets." "For the largest majority of impoverished young African Americans, success in sport never comes to pass and the American Dream is ultimately never fully realized." Douglas: "Venus, Serena, and the Inconspicuous Consumption of Blackness: A Commentary on Surveillance, Race Talk, and New Racism(s)" "As the US population is becoming more diverse, new techniques of exclusion and marginalization are being employed in an effort to regulate the opportunities and progress available to racialized minority groups." White people limiting the range of available representations of Venus and Serena Williams
Have general knowledge of the injury statistics for youth sport and high school sports (estimated number of injuries, hospitalizations, concussions. Also be generally familiar with which college sports have relatively high injury rates and the approximate differences in injury rates in the four major men's professional sports leagues
Youth Sport Injuries Researchersfrom Stanford found that there are about 3.5 million sport-related injuries that result in some period of lost participation among youth sport participants annually About ⅓ of all injuries reported by youth (not just those who participate in sports) are sports-related injuries Although rare, the leading cause of death from youth sport-related injuries is brain damage USA Today reports that there are 1.35 million sport injuries among youth per year that required ER visits Over 150,000 of these visits involved concussions and about half of these were 12-15 year olds High school sports account for an estimated 2 million injuries including 500,000 doctor visits and 30,000 hospitalizations annually
