Soci 100 Exam 5 Study Guide
How might Americans play an indirect role in supporting slavery elsewhere in the world?
Americans play an indirect role in supporting slavery elsewhere in the world by means of our material appetites and the type of labor utilized in certain countries to satisfy our varied consumer demands.
In 2015 what was the poverty threshold for an individual?
$11,770
In 2015 what was the poverty threshold for a family of two?
$15,930
In 2015 what was the poverty threshold for a family of three?
$20,990
In 2015 what was the poverty threshold for a family of four?
$24,250
What is the median annual income for those with high school diplomas?
$33,852
What is the median annual income for those with bachelor's degrees?
$57,616
What is the median annual income for those with master's degrees?
$69,108
What is the median annual income for those with doctoral degrees?
$84,396
According to a 2014 report by the US Department of Labor, what is the median annual income for those with advanced professional degrees?
$89,128
In the 1970s in South Africa, consider a son being born to a white father and a black mother. Following laws based on hypodescent, the child would be categorized within which racial group?
African American
What is the conflict theorists approach to race and ethnicity?
Racial and ethnic differences create intergroup conflict; minority and majority groups have different interests and may find themselves at odds as they attempt to secure and protect their interests.
How would the conflict theorists explain poverty?
Social welfare programs that assist the poor are funded by tax dollars, which some wealthy citizens may be reluctant to provide because taxes reduce their net income. This can create conflict between rich and poor groups in society.
How would the conflict theorists explain racial inequality?
Some members of majority groups (whites and men in particular) object to affirmative action programs that assist underrepresented groups. this can create conflict among racial groups in society.
What does much of the rhetoric surrounding welfare programs stem from?
Stems from concerns about federal spending. (pg. 201)
caste system
a form of social stratification in which status is determined by one's family history and background and cannot be changed (page 183)
simplicity movement
a loosely knit movement that opposes consumerism and encourages people to work less, earn less, and spend less, in accordance with nonmaterialistic values (page 208)
socioeconomic status (SES)
a measure of an individual's place within a social class system; often used interchangeably with "class" (page 184)
wealth
a measure of net worth that includes income, property, and other assets (page 188)
assimilation
a pattern of relations between ethnic or racial groups in which the minority group is absorbed into the mainstream or dominant group, making society more homogenous (page 236)
relative deprivation
a relative measure of poverty based on the standard of living in a particular society (page 199)
racism
a set of beliefs about the claimed superiority of one racial or ethnic group; used to justify inequality and often rooted in the assumption that differences among groups are genetic (page 220)
status inconsistency
a situation in which an individual has differing levels of status in terms of wealth, power, prestige, or other elements of socioeconomic status (page 187)
open system
a social system with ample opportunities to move from one class to another (page 198)
closed system
a social system with very little opportunity to move from one class to another (page 198)
ethnicity
a socially defined category based on a common language, religion, nationality, history, or some other cultural factor (page 216)
race
a socially defined category based on real or perceived biological differences between groups of people (page 216)
meritocracy
a system in which rewards are distributed based on merit (page 207)
fuedal system
a system of social stratification based on a hereditary nobility who were responsible for and served by a lower stratum of forced laborers called serfs (page 187)
social class
a system of stratification based on access to such resources as wealth, property, power, and prestige (page 184)
What group of Americans is more likely to never marry or to be divorced?
african americans
What is the federal poverty line?
an absolute measure, calculated annually -- indicates the total annual income below which a family would be impoverished.
Upper class
an elite and largely self-sustaining group who possess most of the country's wealth; they constitute about 1 percent of the U.S. population (page 185)
situational ethnicity
an ethnic identity that can be either displayed or concealed depending on its usefulness in a given situation (page 218)
symbolic ethnicity
an ethnic identity that is only relevant on specific occasions and does not significantly affect everyday life (page 218)
prejudice
an idea about the characteristics of a group that is applied to all members of that group and is unlikely to change regardless of the evidence against it (page 220)
race consciousness
an ideology that acknowledges race as a powerful social construct that shapes our individual and social experiences (page 222)
color-blind racism
an ideology that removes race as an explanation for any form of unequal treatment (page 222)
absolute deprivation
an objective measure of poverty, defined by the inability to meet minimal standards for food, shelter, clothing, or health care (page 199)
What are "identity challenges"?
are usually accusations that one is not "really" black or not black enough, or that one is a "Tom" (a derogatory reference to a servile slave from Harriet Beecher Stowe's 1852 novel Uncle Tom's Cabin) or a racist.
What does Edin (2000) argue concerning low-income women and marriage?
argues that low-income women of all ethnicities see marriage as having few benefits. (pg. 228)
just-world hypothesis
argues that people have a deep need to see the world as orderly, predictable, and fair, which creates a tendency to view victims of social injustice as deserving of their fates (page 203)
What is at the core of pluralism?
at the core of pluralsim, also referred to as multiculturalism, is tolerance of racial and ethnic differences.
everyday class consciousness
awareness of one's own social status and that of others (page 192)
structural mobility
changes in the social status of large numbers of people as a result of structural changes in society (page 199)
heterogamy
choosing romantic partners who are dissimilar to us in terms of class, race, education, religion, and other social group membership (page 192)
According to Davis (2001) what need to be "attacked" to reduce the risk of teens of color becoming pregnant?
davis believes that social policies aimed at punishing teenage mothers of color will be ineffective; only by attacking the racism inherent in the educational system and the workforce will these teens be at less risk of becoming mothers.
intergenerational mobility
movement between social classes that occurs from one generation to the next (page 198)
What is another term for pluralism?
multiculturalism
How is our identity constructed?
our identity is constructed in the negotiation between what we project and what others recognize.
What does the phrase "race and ethnicity are socially constructed categories" mean?
pg 216
What does "on the down low" or "DL" mean?
pg 225
middle class
social class composed primarily of white-collar workers with a broad range of education and incomes; they constitute about 30 percent of the U.S. population (page 186)
working class or lower-middle class
social class consisting of mostly blue-collar or service industry workers who are less likely to have a college degree; they constitute about 30 percent of the U.S. population (page 186)
Upper-middle class
social class consisting of mostly highly educated professionals and managers who have considerable financial stability; they constitute about 14 percent of the U.S. population (page 185)
minority group
social group that is systematically denied the same access to power and resources available to society's dominant groups though they are not necessarily fewer in number than the dominant groups (page 220)
How would the symbolic interactionists explain racial inequality?
some individuals (white ethnics and light-skinned nonwhites in particular) have the option to conceal their race or ethnicity in situations where it might be advantageous to do so. This may allow them as individuals to escape the effects of racial inequality but does not erase it from society at large.
cultural appropriation
the adoption of cultural elements belonging to an oppressed group by members of the dominant group, without permission and often for the dominant group's gain (page 222)
genocide
the deliberate and systematic extermination of a racial, ethnic, national, or cultural group (page 233)
social stratification
the division of society into groups arranged in a social hierarchy (page 182)
internal colonialism
the economic and political subjugation of the minority group by the dominant group within a nation (page 236)
population transfer
the forcible removal of a group of people from the territory they have occupied (page 234)
How would the structural functionalism explain racial inequality?
the functions of racial inequality and conflict for society could include the creation of social cohesion within both the dominant and minority groups.
residential segregation
the geographical separation of the poor from the rest of an area's population (page 204)
Although the reasons for dropping out of high school are complex, the highest rates are associated with what groups?
the highest rates are associated with those from economically disadvantaged and non-english-speaking backgrounds.
Slavery
the most extreme form of social stratification, based on the legal ownership of people (page 182)
vertical social mobility
the movement between different class statuses, often called either upward mobility or downward mobility (page 199)
intragenerational mobility
the movement between social classes that occurs during the course of an individual's lifetime (page 198)
horizontal social mobility
the movement of individuals or groups within a particular social class, most often a result of changing occupations (page 198)
social mobility
the movement of individuals or groups within the hierarchical system of social classes (page 198)
segregation
the physical and legal separation of groups by race or ethnicity (page 236)
underclass
the poorest group, comprising the homeless and chronically unemployed who may depend on public or private assistance; they constitute about 12 percent of the U.S. population (page 186)
racial assimilation
the process by which racial minority groups are absorbed into the dominant group through intermarriage (page 236)
cultural assimilation
the process by which racial or ethnic groups are absorbed into the dominant group by adopting the dominant group's culture (page 236)
disenfranchisement
the removal of the rights of citizenship through economic, political, or legal means (page 204)
prestige
the social honor people are given because of their membership in well-regarded social groups (page 188)
apartheid
the system of segregation of racial and ethnic groups that was legal in South Africa between 1948 and 1991 (page 183)
cultural capital
the tastes, habits, expectations, skills, knowledge, and other cultural assets that help us gain advantages in society (page 191)
social reproduction
the tendency of social classes to remain relatively stable as class status is passed down from one generation to the next (page 191)
homogamy
the tendency to choose romantic partners who are similar to us in terms of class, race, education, religion, and other social group membership (page 192)
digital divide
the unequal access to computer and Internet technology, both globally and within the United States (page 205)
social inequality
the unequal distribution of wealth, power, or prestige among members of a society (page 182)
embodied identity
those elements of identity that are generated through others' perceptions of our physical traits (page 226)
What group experiences the most difficulty in terms of social mobility?
those who live at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder.
privilege
unearned advantage accorded to members of dominant social groups (males, whites, heterosexuals, the physically able, etc.) (page 222)
What typically generates a strong sense of community identity and solidarity among members of minority groups?
unequal and unfair treatment, as well as lack of access to power and resources, typically generates a strong sense of common identity and solidarity among members.
discrimination
unequal treatment of individuals based on their membership in a social group; usually motivated by prejudice (page 220)
Why is California considered a "majority minority" state?
whites are less than half the population but still remain the dominant group in terms of power, resources, and representation in social institutions.
What is meant by the term "precarious labor"?
work that is uncertain, unpredictable, and unprotected, such as contract labor, temporary work, or part-time work.
In 2013, what percent of Whites were without health insurance?
9.8%
hypergamy
marrying "up" in the social class hierarchy (page 193)
According to Lane and Tabak (1991) what percent of inmates on death row could not afford to hire a lawyer when they were tried (that is when they went to trial)?
90%
What are the five categories of the Hindu (majority) religion caste system?
1.) Brahman: scholars and priests 2.) Ksatriya or chhetri: rulers and warriors 3.) Vaisya: merchants and traders 4.) Sudra: farmers, artisans, and laborers 5.) The untouchables: social outcasts
What are the four basic principles of social stratification?
1.) First it is a characteristic of society, rather than a reflection of individual differences. 2.) Second, social stratification persists over generations. 3.) Third, while all societies stratify their members, different societies use different criteria for ranking them. 4.) Fourth, social stratification is maintained through beliefs that are widely shared by members of society.
What are the three ways that people can move among social classes?
1.) through intergenerational mobility 2.) intragenerational mobility 3.) structural mobility
In 2013, what percent of Asians were living in poverty?
10.5%
In 2014, what percent of Whites over the age of 18 earned advanced degrees?
10.6%
In 2014, what percent of African Americans made up the total workforce?
11.4%
In 2011, what percent of federal government spending went to welfare/unemployment?
13%
In 2013, what percent of males were living in poverty?
13.1%
In 2014, what percent of Hispanics over the age of 18 earned bachelor's degrees?
13.2%
In 2013, what percent of people aged 18-64 were living in poverty?
13.6%
In 2013, what percent of Asians were without health insurance?
14.5%
In 2013, what percent of the US population fell below the poverty line?
14.5%
In 2013, what percent of females were living in poverty?
15.8%
In 2013, what percent of Blacks were without health insurance?
15.9%
In 2014, what percent of Hispanics made up the total workforce?
16.1%
In 2014, what percent of Asian Americans over the age of 18 earned advanced degrees?
18.8%
In 2014, what percent of African Americans over the age of 18 earned bachelor's degrees?
19.5%
In 2013, what percent of people under age 18 were living in poverty?
19.9%
According to the video what percentage of registered nurses in Britain from 1993 to 2003 were trained in other countries?
1993- 10% 2003-43%
In 2011, what percent of federal government spending went to military (defense)?
20%
In 2011, what percent of federal government spending went to Social Security?
21%
In 2013, what percent of Hispanic were living in poverty?
23.5%
In 2013, what percent of Hispanics were without health insurance?
24.3%
In 2013, what percent of Blacks were living in poverty?
27.2%
In 2014, what percent of Whites over the age of 18 earned bachelor's degrees?
29.8%
In 2014, what percent of Hispanics over the age of 18 earned advanced degrees?
3.8%
In 2014, what percent of Asian Americans over the age of 18 earned bachelor's degrees?
48.2%
What percent of reported hate crimes in 2013 were attributed to racial discrimination?
48.5%
According to research by Baum, Ma and Payea (2013), what percent of those with high school diplomas had access to health insurance?
55%
In 2014, what percent of African Americans over the age of 18 earned advanced degrees?
6.5%
What is the top taxation rate in Sweden and who pays those rates?
60% for the wealthiest Swedes.
What percent of reported hate crimes in 2013 targeted blacks?
66.4%
In 2014, what percent of Hispanic students age 18 and over earned a high school diploma?
68.1%
What percent of those with bachelor's degrees had access to health insurance?
69%
What percent of those with advanced degrees had access to health insurance?
73%
In 2014, what percent of Hispanics constituted all management, professional, and related occupations?
8.7%
In 2014, what percent of African Americans constituted all management, professional, and related occupations?
8.8%
In 2014, what percent of African American students age 18 and over earned a high school diploma?
85%
In 2014, what percent of White students age 18 and over earned a high school diploma?
88.1%
In 2013, what percent of people over age 65 were living in poverty?
9.5%
In 2013, what percent of Whites (non-Hispanic) were living in poverty?
9.6%
What does Krueger (2001, 2012) state about the social mobility of "around half of all children"?
Around half of all children will wind up with the same SES as their parents, despite efforts to climb the social class ladder.
What is the incident known as the Trail of Tears?
Between 1838 and 1839, in one of the most well known examples, the state of Georgia and the federal government forcibly marched 17,000 Cherokees westward over 800 miles, a grueling journey known as the Trail of Tears.
If the current trends in educational attainment and access to employment continues, what is the likely outcome?
Fewer and fewer jobs will be available to those without college degrees, and of those jobs, fewer will support middle-class lifestyles.
What is referred to as the "forgotten genocide"?
From 1915 to 1923, during and after WW1, the Turkish government massacred 1.5 million Armenians in what is often referred to as the "forgotten genocide." (pg 234)
What did Marx believe about social class and social inequality?
He believed that the classes would remain divided and social inequality would grow; that wealth and privilege would be concentrated among a small group of capitalists and that workers would continue to be exploited.
What did Goffman (1956) note about how we "read" different aspects of identity?
He noted that we "read" different aspects of identity by interpreting the behavior of others and that we become accustomed to others "reading" our behavior in the same way.
Historically, what were the ways that a person could become enslaved?
Historically, a person could become enslaved in one of several ways. 1.) one way was through debt; a person who couldn't repay what he owed might be taken into slavery by his creditor. 2.)Another way was through warfare; groups of vanquished soldier might become slaves to the victors, and the women and children of the losing side could also be taken into slavery. 3.) a person who was caught committing a crime could become a slave as a kind of punishment and as means of compensating the victim. 4.) And some slaves were captured and kidnapped, as was the case of the transatlantic slave trade from africa to the americans.
In 2003, what changes to the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (1996) did Congress approve?
In 2003, congress approved changes to the act, requiring an even larger percentage of recipients to take jobs and work longer hours.
Based on the example in the video of a poverty trap, be able to identify a poverty trap from a list of examples.
In the health sectors is one of those traps
What country is most closely associated with the caste system?
India
What are some examples/forms of slavery that continue today?
It continues today in the form of child soldiers, serfdom, forced and bonded laborers, human trafficking, and sex slaves.
What does the evidence suggest that moving from welfare to work does, or does not do?
It does NOT increase income levels. (pg. 201)
How did the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (1996) end the concept of "entitlements"?
It ended the concept of "entitlements" by requiring recipients to find work within two years of receiving assistance and imposing a limit of five years as the total amount of time in which families could receive assistance.
What is an example of a more indirect form of population transfer?
It is possible to make life so miserable in a region that a group of people will choose to leave "voluntarily." This was the case with early mormons, whose religious persecution in the East and midwest between 1846 and 1869 drove 70,000 to cross the country and settle in the great salt lake valley region of Utah. (pg 236)
How is the G.I. Bill of Rights (1944) an example of institutional discrimination?
It provided funding for college or vocational education and home loans to returning WW2 veterans. pg 221
What did Marx argue economic relationships were quickly becoming?
Marx argued that economic relationships were quickly becoming the only social relationships that mattered: the impersonal forces of the market were creating a new, rigid system of social stratification in which capitalists had every economic advantage and workers had none.
What is the popular myth about most people living in poverty?
Most people living in poverty are not unemployed; this is why they are often categorized as among the working poor.
According to Levinson (2002), how did education and income affect a respondent's reporting of feeling threatened by police?
People with lower SES are also more likely to feel at risk of harassment by the police. As both education and income decreased, respondents reported feeling more threatened to police; as education and income increased, they felt less threatened.
How would the symbolic interactionists explain poverty?
Poor and wealthy persons have differential access to the "props" used to project particular versions of self. In particular, professional clothing such as business suits can be too expensive for poor individuals to purchase, which can put them at a disadvantage in job interviews, where a professional image is necessary. Organizations like Dress for Success provide professional clothing for those who can't afford it, leveling the playing field a bit in terms of impression management.
According to Blau and Blau (1982) what variables are associated with high rates of violent crime?
Poverty is associated with higher rates of violent crime, variable such as dense population and anomie (a sense of alienation or lack of social connections) have an even greater impact on crime rates.
What did Weber suggest should be considered as part of the equation when measuring a person's class standing?
Power (the ability to impose ones will on others) (pg. 188)
What distinguishes the elements of property/wealth, power and prestige?
Property and wealth can be inherited or earned, power usually comes from occupying certain roles with organizations, and prestige is based on a person's social identity and is bestowed by others.
According to Phillips (2009), how does the intersection of race and SES dramatically affect the outcome of criminal sentencing?
Prosecutors are more likely to seek the death penalty if the killer is black or if the victim was white, while those who are able to hire legal counsel are less likely to be sentenced to death. (pg. 198)
After the Iran's Islamic Revolution in 1979, what became the primary influence on stratification?
Religion became a primary influence on stratification.
What does the Universal Declaration of Human Rights prohibit?
Slavery (pg 183)
What is the conflict theorists approach to social inequality?
Social inequality creates intergroup conflict-- poor and rich groups have different interests and may find themselves at odds as they attempt to secure and protect these interests.
What is the structural functionalism approach to social inequality?
Social inequality is a necessary part of society. Different reward structures are necessary as an incentive for the best qualified people to occupy the most important positions. Even poverty has functions that help maintain social order.
What is the symbolic interactionists approach to social inequality?
Social inequality is part of our presentation of self. We develop everyday class consciousness as a way to distinguish the status of others.
blue-collar
a description characterizing skilled and semi-skilled workers who perform manual labor or work in service or clerical jobs (page 186)
According to Sudnow (1972) what do we use to make split-second judgments about who people are and which social status/class they occupy?
Sundown argues that we make split-second judgments about who people are and which social status they occupy based on appearance. We take action based on what observe "at a glance."
How did the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (1996) decentralize the federal system of public assistance?
The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (1996) decentralized the federal system of public assistance, allowing individual states to design their own programs, some of which would deny or reduce certain benefits and impose their own criteria for eligibility.
What did Davis and Moore (1945) assume about the system of rewards that are unequally distributed among various roles?
The assumption is that some roles are more desirable than others and may require greater talent or training.
Who are the "bourgeoisie"?
The capitalists, who owned the means of production.
How would the structural functionalism explain poverty?
The functions of poverty for society include the facts that the poor take otherwise undesirable jobs and housing, purchase discount and secondhand goods, and provide work for thousands, including social service caseworkers and others who work with the poor.
What does Sweden's policy guarantee it citizens?
The government guarantees its citizens a high level of access to health care, education, child and elderly care, unemployment benefits, and public facilities like libraries and parks.
According to the ACLU (2003), what determines whether someone is sentenced to death?
The quality of representation, rather than the actual facts presented in a trial, determines whether someone is sentenced to death.
What was the rationale behind the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (1996)?
The rationale was to encourage people on welfare to take responsibility for working themselves out of poverty.
According to Hays (2003) what is the reason given as to why moving from welfare to work has the effect of keeping families beneath the poverty line?
The reasons for this-- the increased costs of childcare, health insurance, and transportation-- make it difficult for former welfare recipients to succeed outside the system.
Who are the "proletariat"?
The workers, who owned only their labor.
What evidence do Chetty et al. (2014) provide concerning social mobility in the US?
There is evidence to suggest that social mobility in the United States remains stagnant; Americans today are more or less likely to climb the social class ladder than children born more than fifty years ago.
How are the figures for the federal poverty line derived?
These figures are derived from either the poverty thresholds established by the census bureau or the guidelines determined by the Department of health and human services.
What did Hunt and Satterlee (1986) find by studying the drinking habits in village pubs?
They found that pub interactions tended to reinforce class divisions in the larger society: the village men chose drinking and billiards companions based on the class divisions already in place outside the pub.
How does Twine's (2011) work identify the intersection of class, race and gender?
Twine's work identifies the intersection of class, race, and gender, by showing the ways in which "interracial intimacy and the racism that accompanies it is a gendered experience."
Who devised the concept of double-consciousness?
W.E.B. DuBois
double-consciousness
W.E.B. DuBois's term for the divided identity experienced by blacks in the United States (page 225)
What is meant by the term "underemployment"?
Working in a job that doesn't pay enough to support a persons needs, is seasonal or temporary, or doesn't make full use of their skills.
intersectionality
a concept that identifies how different categories of inequality (race, class, gender, etc.) intersect to shape the lives of individuals and groups (page 184)
pluralism
a cultural pattern of intergroup relations that encourages racial and ethnic variation and acceptance within a society (page 236)
white-collar
a description characterizing lower-level professional and management workers and some highly skilled laborers in technical jobs (page 186)
hypogamy
marrying "down" in the social class hierarchy (page 193)
individual discrimination
discrimination carried out by one person against another (page 221)
institutional discrimination
discrimination carried out systematically by institutions (political, economic, educational, and others) that affect all members of a group who come into contact with it (page 221)
culture of poverty
entrenched attitudes that can develop among poor communities and lead the poor to accept their fate rather than attempt to improve their lot (page 203)
What federal law that existed prior to 2007 didn't seem race based but still created racially differentiated outcomes?
federal law until 2007 handed out tougher sentences to crack users (who are more likely to be black) than to users of powdered cocaine (who are more likely to be white or hispanic). pg.231
In 2013, what teen group had the highest birth rate?
hispanics 42 per 1000 Pg 228
What is a "split labor market" and what does it do?
in which one group of workers (usually defined by race, ethnicity, or gender) is routinely paid less than those in other groups, keeps wages low for racial and ethnic minorities, compounding the effects of racism with those of poverty.
working poor
poorly educated manual and service workers who may work full-time but remain near or below the poverty line; they constitute about 13 percent of the U.S. population (page 186)
passing
presenting yourself as a member of a different group than the stigmatized group you belong to (page 225)
What is the symbolic interactionists approach to race and ethnicity?
race and ethnicity are part of our identity as displayed through our presentation of self.
Omi and Winant (1994) show how racial groups are created socially and historically by arguing what?
race can be understood as a fundamental dimension of social organization and cultural meaning in the US
What is the structural functionalism approach to race and ethnicity?
racial and ethnic differences are a necessary part of society. Even racial inequality has functions that help maintain social order.
According to Almaguer (2008), how did white supremacist ideology become institutionalized in California?
racists beliefs became a part of political and economic life during that period. Ideas like manifest destiny helped justify the taking of lands, and the notion that Native Americans were uncivilized heathens helped justify killing them. (Pg 224)
What does the term "colonialism" refer to?
refers to a policy whereby a stronger nation takes control of a weaker nation in order to extend the stronger nations territory or to exploit the colony's resources for the stronger nations own enrichment.
What does McCune's (2014) ethnographic study of a Chicago nightclub reveal?
reveals the ways in which race shapes the performance of both gender and sexuality for men on the DL.
miscegenation
romantic, sexual, or marital relationships between people of different races (page 226)
