Social Psych 2 Experiments

Individualism and collectivism (cultural dimensions):

): Cultural dimensions are the perspectives of a culture based on its values and norms. Culture is a dynamic set of rules that are implicit and explicit, they provide guidelines and a set of norms for generations of people. Cultural dimensions work on a continuum, when discussing individualism and collectivism, a culture is never 100% collectivistic or individualistic. Individualism is seen often in the Western world and its cultures, it is the concept that people focus mainly on independence, self-reliance and self-assurance. In collectivistic countries on the other hand, the individual is tied to the group. Social harmony, modesty and helping the group are values that many people in those societies share.

BBC Prison Experiment

15 men placed in a guard and prisoner hierarchy where guards were given no guidance. Aimed to examine under which conditions collective action happens and the relationships between power, identity and organisation. On Day 3 a Union experienced leader was introduced into the prison and joined the prisoners. The identity of Ps was measured everyday and at the beginning, guards showed higher social identity than prisoners, however after the incorporation of a Union leader the prisoners began to identify more with their roles. Where possible, members will try and succeed by leaving the group. Only where this is impossible will they start identifying with the group and joining with others to change the system. Second, for members of valued groups (the Guards), much depends on accountability. Where members are aware that others, beyond the immediate context, will disapprove, punish or even exclude them for taking on a role, they will be less willing to identify with it. In conclusion, if youre going to address social inequality you need to address social identity. Leaders are entrepreneurs of identity.

Why do people engage in CA in terms of efficacy (Supports SIMCA) : Martin, Brickman & Murray, 1984

: 90 female workers, Study on pay levels at California Oil Company (Cal Oil), Manipulation of inequality: Large inequality condition, only 2% of the female sales executives were receiving financial benefits equal to those of comparable males, Moderate inequality condition, the percentage was 12%, Small inequality condition, the percentage was 88, Manipulation of efficacy: present vs absent, Collective action intentions are strongest when there is a possibility to act (efficacy) → Three possible manippulations of inequality 88% were receiveing equal pay in small Effciacy: manager can actually do something or not. Women Ps would engage in colective action depending on what hse saw in materials à if there was efficacy present then PS were likely to act o Role of efficacy (general: r = .34; Van Zomeren, et al., 2008): o East Germans and the Germany Unification (Mummendey, Kessler, Klink & Mielke, 1999) o Students participation in protests (Tausch & Becker, 2013) o Women workers and fighting for a pay increase (Martin, Brickman & Murray, 1984)

• Objectification leading to dehumanization: Vaes et al 2011

: Vaes et al 2011 Same targets as BErnard study for objectification but presented in a sexualised or non sexualised way. Asked to aassocaite human or aniaml words. Objectified women were attributed with less huamn traits than when presented with clothes on. This did not happen when target was a man. Wanted to see if men and women dehumanise targets for different reasons. Found that women ps dehumanised sexualsied women bcs they eprceived them as superficial or vulgar, wanted to distance themselves from that group. Wanted to say that those owmen do not represent majority of women and they do not identify with these sexualised women. Men dehumasnied sexualised women because they found them atttractive. Researchers tried to explore the aspect of sex in this. Primed ps with seuxal goals. Then performed same task. Found that only men exposed with priemd and sexual goals dehumanise women. Women did not dehumanise based on sexual goals. Process of dehumanisation is different depending on sexual goals and gender.

Corneille & Judd

Accentuation and Sensitization Effects in the Categorization of Multifaceted Stimuli. Categorization affects perceptions in ways that are assumed to underlie social stereotypes. Research on categorization, however, has focused either on very simple stimuli or on judgmental tasks that focus attention only on single dimensions. To more fully understand the role of categorization in social perception, it is important to examine its effects in the case of multifaceted stimuli and holistic judgments. In 3 studies, participants formed an impression of a focal category of multifaceted stimuli either by itself or in the context of another category. They then judged the typicality of exemplars to the focal category. Results showed that categorization in the presence of a context produced both accentuation and sensitization effects: Participants accentuated between-category differences on relevant dimensions, and they were less sensitive to exemplar differences on irrelevant dimensions. Because our basic interest in categorization results from our belief that categorization processes are fundamentally involved in social stereotyping and because we are convinced that person impressions are integrated constructions that are not easily reducible to a sum or average of discrete features, it seems to us that the present findings significantly extend our knowledge about between category accentuation effects and how they may affect social categorization. A second question was whether the presence of a context would increase the perceived homogeneity of exemplars that are members of the focal category (accentuation of within-category similarities). In the presence of multifaceted stimuli, this question must be refined to take into account that some dimensions differentiate the focal category from a context category, whereas others do not. It is at this point that one appreciates the relationship between the accentuation and attentional sensitization hypotheses. The sensitization hypothesis argues that perceivers attend more to those dimensions that are relevant for differentiating a focal category from its context than they do to those dimensions that are not. The accentuation hypothesis argues that this sensitization is not uniform across the values of the relevant differentiating dimensions; rather, differences between categories along those dimensions are particularly sensitized, whereas differences within categories receive relatively less attention.

Von Hippel, Sekaquaptewa and Vargas 1997

Aimed to investigate whether consequences of linguistic integroup bias will affect interactions. Expsoed Ps to different types of language and loked at whether in order to maintain a negative perception of outgroup, if their positive behaviorus were described in a concrete way. Ps that described negative ingrp behvaiour ith concrete langauge and postivie ingrp with abstract meant they engaged more with linguistic intergroup bias, thus had a more negative perspective on outgroup.

o Violence as a consequence of dehumanization: Goff, Eberhardt, Williams, & Jackson (2008)

Black minorities and idea that in a metaphorical way black people are associated with apes. Ps were primed to words w either apes or big cats. Subliminal prime - computer task, you see an image or photo for a few milliseconds. This has an effect on your reaction. Then showed video of police brutlality. Victim was either black or white. Then Ps were asked how they would justify the violence they've seen in the video. Only Ps who had been primed with apes and also saw a video of a black victim, they jsutified the violence more. Dehumanisation was primed, therefore violence was jsutified.

Seka & Espinoza further on stereotype explanatory and low status groups

Also found that the lower the status of the group, the more likely biased cognitive processing will occur if the group has engaged in stereotype inconsistent behaviour.

• Modern Racism McConahay 1983

At the start undergrads filed out mdoern racism scale and then a few weeks later now ps had to go through a hiring exercise . They provided ps with cvs that included pictures of balck or white men and changed order of presentation (ps presented first with black candidate and then white or other way) . Did this bcs they knew that if black ps goes first then they might evaluate it in terms of prejudice, but if white person first and then black then you have an anchor and you cant rate just bcs race (ehtnicity became salient). Asked how much would you like to hire this person?. When first white person exposure ps who were high on modern prejudice did not show any type of prejudice bcs they knew they shouldn't discriminate based on ethnicity. But if first black candidate then Ps low on prejduice did not show any bias at all.

• Objectification: Bernard et al 2012 "From Human to Objects"

Bernard et al 2012 "From Human to Objects" Study in relation to how we perceive people as objects btu also how we dehumanise them. • Sexualised body inversion hp: we are very good at recognising objects regardless of how theyre presented. If you have a task on computer then you have to be fast at categorising an object as an object, regardless of how object is rpesented. But this is not the case with human faces. if face is inverted then were slower a trecognising it as a human face. Were good at recognising objects inverted but not humanf aces. If this is the case, then what is happening when we have sexually obejctified individuals - if eprceived as objects then we should perceive them the same way when inverted. If these targets (sexualized men and women) are perceived as objects then people should be able to categorise them as men or women the same speed Women regardless of how picture was presented were equally categorised as a woman. = if you portray a woman in a sexuallised way then you perceive them as an object? Same was not found for men. Sexualised men portrayed as inverted then ppl had more trouble in categorising them as men, so objectificaiton was clear for women but difficult for men. This suggests that the way men and women are objectified are differnet. Basically: no matter if inverted or not women were categorized the same, whereas men were categorized less if inverted → women are more objectified! The way we obejctify men may deal more with power?

Why do people engage in CA in terms of injustice (Supports SIMCA) : Bernburg, 2015

Bernburg, 2015: Random sample of 968 individuals. Standardized interviews with 610, a response rate of 63%. Measures: Protest Participation and Support; Perceived Economic Loss. Likelihood of protests positively related to Relative Economic Loss. 3 state banks in iceland went bankrupt and ppl were protesting and wanted gov to reisgn. Several ppl were doing pots and pans protest. Likelihood of protest was dependent on how much ppl suffered due to this event when compared to toehrs

Culture influencing survival (through conformity): Berry (1967)

Berry (1967) aimed to investigate how conformity may be related to culture. A modification of Asch's (1951) experiment was used with adults from two different cultures, the Temne culture and an Inuit culture. The Temne people live in a collectivistic society, where the main source of food is agriculture. They must work together in order to farm enough crop to feed the whole community, therefore they learn compliance and conformity from an early age. The Inuit people on the other hand look at hunting for survival, they must learn to track and hunt food alone at a young age. It was found that the Temne people showed higher levels of conformity than the Inuit people, who showed barely any signs of conformity. This study has high ecological validity, is not ethnocentric, so there is no cultural bias. The temporal validity is questionable though, as the study was done a longer time ago. It demonstrates how conformity may vary with cultures and offers different factors that influence it. It also has a high degree of control so a cause and effect relationship is possible.

Brown and Kulik 1977

Brown and Kulik (1977) suggested the theory of flashbulb memory. Flashbulb memories are assumed to be highly resistant to forgetting and are very accurate, due to the high amount of arousal during the moment of encoding, however this claim is highly controversial. Flashbulb memories can be defined as an exceptionally vivid memory of the moment a first person hears or experiences a shocking event. It has been suggested that the FM is often rehearsed, since it is important to the individually, therefore this makes the memory more accessible over time. According to the theory there are six important aspects about FM's: the place, activity they were doing, how they learnt about it, how they felt, how other people felt and the aftermath. Brown and Kulik (1977) aimed to investigate whether shocking events are recalled more vividly and accurately than others. Questionnaires were given to participants, they had to recall circumstances of where they had learnt of shocking events. The participants had vivid memories of where they were, what they did and what they felt when they had heard of a shocking public event, such as the assassination of J. F. Kennedy. The participants had also said that they had FM's when they learnt of personal events, such as the death of a relative. The results indicated that flashbulb memories are more likely to occur for unexpected and personal events. Brown and Kulik suggested that the FM was caused by a heightened emotional arousal. The reliance on retrospective data in this study is questionable, therefore the reliability is quite low. Self-reporting also decreases this study's reliability.

• Social learning in prosocial behavior: Bryan and Test 1967

Bryan and Test 1967, modeling effect. People drove by a broken car but saw that others were helping out, at the end they saw another car and no one helping them • Wanted tos ee if priming by seeing others helping someone else affected likelihood to helpperson at end who was in need but had no help

• Kin selection theory: Burnstein et al. (1994)

Burnstein et al. (1994) found, consistent with kin selection theory but contrary to the norm of social responsibility, both Americans and Japanese reporting that in a "life-or-death" circumstance (e.g., saving someone from a fire) they would be more likely to help healthy relatives (who presumably were more likely to reproduce) than nonhealthy relatives. Thus, in this simulation participants helped their kin in a manner that maximized their own inclusive fitness. o They argued that our decisions to help or assist another individual should be influenced by the perceived degree of relatedness we share with an individual. o For example we should be more likely to assist another when they are close relatives (e.g. a sister) than when they are more distantly related (e.g. a cousin) or indeed if they are unrelated. o Other factors may also contribute to this decision making process. o For example age, sex, wealth, and health can influence inclusive fitness. o Procedure: presented 158 American and Japanese undergraduates with a series of social dilemmas in which the person had to rank-order individuals differing in their degree of relatedness in terms of help or assistance. o They found that tendency to help decreases the less of kinship is shared between potential helper and helpee.

Mass media: Greitemeyer and Osswald 2009:

Bystanders' behaviours can be affected by situational cues such as exposure to mass media. Study on videogmaes character had to help as many people as possible (prosocial) or had a neutral one with tetris (neutral vs prosocial game). Ps that played prosocial videogame were more likely to help out in 1 and 2 consequence. In 3 the helping scenario invovled a female researcher who was admintering a questionnaire, her ex came in and began harassing her, what they foundd was that playing a prosocial videogame led to more support from the Ps for the woman. Engagin in prosocial behaviour in a videogmame led to helping in dfifrent types of situations in a videogmae youre very immersed so it's a differnet kind of experience so maybe that's why the effects were so strong in the study, stronger than if people just watch videos of people helping

Charlton et al 2002

Charlton et al (2002) aimed to investigate of aggression in television on children. TV was introduced to the St. Helena island and an equal amount of aggression was shown on TV as to the UK. Cameras were set up in primary schools to observe changes in children's behavior after the introduction of TV. After 5 years no negative behavior was seen and children behaved as before. These findings challenged Bandura's (1963) findings and created a new suggestion that children may learn behavior, however they must be motivated to imitate it. Interviews were also done with teachers and parents in order to gain an in-depth understanding of life on the island. Without a complete social learning theory process, the imitation will not take place. This study had high ecological validity since the observations were taking place in a natural setting. There is a low chance of demand characteristics taking place, since the researchers were not in the playground observing the children, but observing them through a camera, therefore they could not have influenced the children's behavior. The social learning theory provides an explanation as to how and why behavior may be passed down in a family or community, it also may explain why some children acquire behavior without trial and error. Although behavior may be learnt, there must be some type of motivation to imitate it, which is not explicitly stated in the social learning theory.

Why do people engage in CA in terms of emotion (HOPE)

Cohen-Chen & Van Zomeren, 2018 Study 2: Context: the process of privatization in the NHS in the United Kingdom, 196 UK residents Hope manipulation: 'in response, economic experts have indicated that the ambitious targets needed to reverse the privatization policies are a real possibility (not a real possibility) in the future. Policies are constantly(rarely) changed and reversed, even (especially) when they have been implemented in the public sphere and supported by the leadership...). Efficacy manipulation: '...according to the IPPR (Institute for Public Policy Research),the British people (do not) really have the collective ability to promote social change by engaging in action together. Importantly, these studies showed that collective action can have (does not have) a substantial effect on political outcomes, such as policy reversal and modification... '. Then looked at measures of willingness to engage in CA. When hope was high and efficacy too, then more likelihood of engaging in CA. if no hope then less likely.

Culture and conformity: Bond and Smith (1996)

Culture and conformity: Bond and Smith (1996) aimed to investigate whether conformity rates vary across cultures. They performed a meta-analysis of studies in 17 countries on the Asch paradigm and found higher conformity levels in cultures that are collectivistic. Individualistic countries had a tendency to have lower conformity rates. This meta-analysis had an emic approach and looked at each culture individually. Since it is a meta-analysis the issues of a file drawer effect must be acknowledged.

• Language as a trigger for dehumanization: Fasoli, Paladino, Carnaghi, Jetten, Bastian, & Bain, 2016

Derogatory langauge/labels can trigger dehumanisation. Ps were primed with labels: • Categroy - linked to groups, such as gay. These were neutral because just introduced group without any judgement • Derogatory - could trigger dehumanisation according to definition • Generic insults - wanted to see if only negative words that activate dehumansaiton or if it's a sepcific word that activates dehumanisation. Not specific about a group. Then used a word attribution and ps asked to attribute words to two groups. When ps primed w category labels (gay men defined as group) then heterosxual and homosexual associated with same amount of huamn words. Same happened with generic insults But if ps priemd with derogatory labels then there was a differne cebetween human word attribution to homosexuals and hetersexxuals. Homophobic condition had a sig decrease in human attributed words.

Bargh et al (1996):

Embodied cognition affecting behavior. Hypothesised that behavior can be automatically activated by stimuli within environment. Primed elderly stereotypes in Ps through word scramble tasks. Then speed walking down hallway measured. In elderly stereotype scramble condition Ps walked slower down hallway. The mental representation of elderly stereotype included sensorimotor representations. Evidecne that representations of elderly stereotypes is not only abstract, it also includes motor components. Example of embodiment.

Threat distinctiveness with robots: Ferrari et al 2016,

Ferrari et al 2016, Is having human orbots a good thing or bad thing? The uncanny valley theory à robots can be human like but not too muchHumanness of a humnan is depicted by line. At a certain point there is a drop and this drop corresponds to th andriod ,what resembles a human being. They can be crrepepy. A paper by ferrari - suggest swe don't like androids because they look so similar that there is a threat to distinctiveness, we don't like that because it thtreats our idenity as human beings. Robots help us understand how we attribute human traits to things that are not human

Festinger (1956):

Festinger carried out a covert P observation study of a small UFO cult called the Seekers that believed that a great flood was imminent and that spacemen would rescue those who were true believers. Festinger wanted to find out how the members of the cult would cope when they realized that this apocalyptic event did not happen. After no flood they claimed that the flood had been called off as a result of their devotion. By that afternoon, members of the cult had engaged in spreading themessage to as many people as they could. According to Festinger, they had rationalized the situation in a way that maintained their sense of selfesteem. However, this arousal of dissonance had different effects depending on the social context of the cult individual when they realized there was no flood. If in group, commitment to belief and claimed their prayers had called off the flood. If alone then either belief change or proselytism (seeked social support). Cannot be replicated. Those in group may have conformed to everyone claiming they stayed committed to cause, when in reality they had a belief change. Also no standardized tool of measurement, how could measure strength of belief in such a covert study. Also reliance on memory due to covert and its very subjective.

Brehm (1956): Free choice paradigm in cognitive dissonance

First to investigate the relationship between dissonance and decision-making. Female participants were informed they would be helping out in a study funded by several manufacturers. Participants were also told that they would receive one of the products at the end of the experiment to compensate for their time and effort. The women then rated the desirability of eight household products that ranged in price from $15 to $30. The products included an automatic coffee maker, an electric sandwich grill, an automatic toaster, and a portable radio. Participants in the control group were simply given one of the products. Because these participants did not make a decision, they did not have any dissonance to reduce. Individuals in the low-dissonance group chose between a desirable product and one rated 3 points lower on an 8-point scale. Participants in the high-dissonance condition chose between a highly desirable product and one rated just 1 point lower on the 8-point scale. After reading the reports about the various products, individuals rated the products again. Participants in the high-dissonance condition spread apart the alternatives significantly more than did the participants in the other two conditions.In other words, they were more likely than participants in the other two conditions to increase the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and to decrease the attractiveness of the unchosen alternative.

Foroni and Rothbart

Foroni and Rothbart (2011, 2013), for instance, presented participants with silhouette drawings of female body types, ordered on a continuum from very thin to very heavy, and had participants estimate their absolute weight and similarity in "personality," "life style," and "body type." The silhouettes were presented in various conditions, in visual groupings, and either with or without a label. Results showed that the presence of a label (compared to no label), even when participants self-generated these, reduced perceived differences between members of the same (labeled) category, while the perceived differences between members of different categories became larger. This shows that once a label is imposed on an aggregate of individuals it obscures our perception of diversity between individual category members.

Greitemeyer script theory

Greitemeyer 2014: prime = videogames. o Usually in violent videgoame have to play acharacter -> identity overlap? o After gam Ps were presented with a list of aggressive behavioru and Ps had to say wha happened o then had to rate own behaviour in temr sof how aggressive they eprceived it to be o Told that they were testing whether how people react affects how much they would give ispicy food to another o by playing an aggressive videogame they perceived their behaviour less aggressive than a person playing a non violent game and the people playing a violent game also were more willing to give spicy food to epople o Violent game: you don't think its violent and you are more likely to be aggressive

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959):

Induced compliance in CD. Investigated if making people perform a dull task would create cognitive dissonance through forced compliance behavior. Dull task, paid either one dollar or twenty to tell next participant that it was an interesting task. Participants that were paid one dollar claimed they found the task more enjoyable than those paid 20. This is because those paid 20 had a reason for their counter-attitudinal behavior, whereas those paid one idd not see it as a valid enough reason to lie. Showed dissonance reduction by changing attitude towards task.

Johnson et al 2002

Johnson et al 2002: Television and aggression. Assumption: TV shows at least 2 episodes of violence per hour. Sample: 707 young individuals. Data TV viewing (from 1975 to 1991-1993). Aggressive behaviour (2000) o If exposure to more televsion (assumed more exposure to tv linked with more exposrue to aggression) would predict aggressive behaviour. Also looked at gender difference o → having a history of aggressive behaviour andw atching a lot of tvcould increase likelihood of engagin in aggressive behaviour o potentially mass media and watching role models engage in aggressive beahvior may affect future behaviour Seems that exposure to aggression only leads to increased aggression if there was prior aggressive behaviour present.

Kashima and Triandis (1986)

Kashima and Triandis (1986) aimed to investigate the role of culture on attribution. The participants were Japanese and American students, they were shown slides of unfamiliar countries and asked to remember the details, which they later had to recall. When asked to provide reasons for their results, American students associated success with ability, skill and other dispositional factors, while Japanese students attributed failure with dispositional factors. Western participants used the self serving bias more than the Eastern participants, exhibiting the effect culture may have on attribution. It was hypothesized that these results were obtained due to the Western society being individualistic while Eastern societies were more collectivistic. There is high ecological validity, nevertheless participants were students, therefore generalization is difficult. Etic so findings are transferable over cultures to an extent.

• Bystanderism w fire experiment: Latane and Darley 1970

Latane and Darley 1970 Participants alone were more likely to report the smoke than participants who were with strangers, especially if these strangers were not intervening. This goes in line with the concept of social influence, as the group did not perceive it as an emergency so neither did the individual.

Bartlett (1932) on schemas:

Memory is a cognitive process of recalling and retaining knowledge and information. The schema theory suggests that schema play a significant role in memory and affect how people perceive the world and retain the information gained. These schemas can be affected by an individuals cultural background and personal experiences. Culture is perceived as a dynamic system of rules that provide a guideline for how people should live and communicate with one another. Bartlett (1932) proposed the idea that schemas help people make sense of the world and provide guidelines on how to behave. The schema theory is the cognitive theory that all knowledge is stored into units and within these units is stored information that can be recalled automatically. Schemas affect our memory in the sense that people tend to remember the meaning and idea of a concept, yet not the actual wording. If there is incomplete information given, people will fill it in using their schemas, this is called 'reconstructive memory' and leads to memory distortion. If there is information that is not in line with someone's schema, it may lead to them just ignoring it. This results in biased information processing, which can be seen very often in stereotype formation. It has been found that people usually focus on things that fit in with their schemas, as that will allow them to make sense of the world. Bartlett (1932) aimed to demonstrate the role of culture in schema processing and to investigate the extent to which memory is reconstructive. The participants were of a British origin and were asked to listen to a Native American folk story called "The War of the Ghosts". They then had to recall it on several occasions. It was seen that participants remembered the main parts of the story, yet their recollections of it became shorter and shorter. It was also found that the participants would change unfamiliar terms to more familiar terms (e.g. canoe to boat), in order to make sense of the story and make it more familiar to their own cultural expectations. It was concluded that memory is an active process and memories are not copies of the experience, but reconstructions. This study demonstrated how people may decide to leave out certain information when it does not fit in with their cultural schemas, which is a concept seen in the schema theory. This study was done in a laboratory, therefore it lacks ecological validity, as the environmental setting was unnatural to the participants. The task was also relatively artificial, so this furthermore increases the issues with ecological validity. Standardized instructions were not given, therefore participants may have not recalled to their full abilities, resulting in false data being collected. There is also a sample bias, since all participants were British, so there are issues with generalization. As seen above it is demonstrated how social and cultural factors affect memory. We tend to ignore things that do not adequately complement our schema, therefore allowing the world seem more predictable. Social factors and expectations can affect these schemas. Culture can affect them as well, especially in the sense of ignoring things that do not fit in. On the other hand, it has been demonstrated that different cultures may have different ways of memorizing, therefore this has to be acknowledge when coming to a conclusion.

Multi store model and working memory model compared and evaluated

Memory is a cognitive process of recalling and retaining knowledge and information. There are two models regarding memory. The multi-store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968) and the working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch 1974). The MSM was the first to give an overview of the basic structure of memory and seems simplistic, however it ignited the idea that humans are information processors. It is based on the assumption that memory is made of a number of separate stores and that memory processes are sequential. The memory stores in the model are structural components that include control processes (e.g. attention, coding and rehearsal). Rehearsal is the process of going over information and decreasing the likelihood of it being displaced. It also can ensure the memory to be transferred into long term memory. Sensory memory registers sensory information and can usually hold this information for 1-4 seconds. Only a small amount of information is transferred from the sensory memory to the short term memory, if it is paid attention to. The short term memory store has a limited capacity of about seven items and has a limited duration. Information from the STM store is only transferred to the LTM if it is rehearsed. LTM is believed to be of an infinite duration and an unlimited capacity. The serial position effect is believed to be associated with rehearsal and suggests that people remember things better if they are either the first (primacy effect) or last (recency effect) item in a list of things to remember. Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) aimed to investigate recency effect in free recall. This was a laboratory experiment and participants first heard a list of items and then immediately had to recall them in any order. Participants were found to recall words at the beginning of the list and the end of the list, demonstrating the serial position effect. The recency effect was suggested to be due to the words still being active in the short term memory store and rehearsal could be a factor in the transfer of words to the long term memory store. This study supports the idea of multiple stores and has a high control over variables, therefore it has high reliability. There may be issues with ecological validity. H.M.'s case study also shows support of the concept that memory has several stores. H.M. had anterograde amnesia, which means he was not able to store new memories. The only memories he could store were procedural ones, suggesting that the brain damage in his medial temporal lobes and hippocampus affected his memory and that memory may have several stores. This supports the concept of the multi store memory model The MSM ignited a new approach to memory, in which humans are seen as information processors. It is supported by research and predictions have been made possible based on the model. The overall model has been modified by Baddeley and Hitch, with their newer version of short term memory. However, the model is too simplistic and cannot explain how interaction between different stores can take place, for example how information from the LTM may influence what is retrieved from sensory memory. Research has also challenged the concept of LTM as a single store. It also does not explain memory distortion. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed the working memory model as an alternative to the STM in the multiple store model. This model challenged the view that the STM is one store and that information processing is passive. The working memory model is seen as an active store that can manipulate and hold information. The working memory model contains four components. The central executive is a controlling system and oversees the monitoring of the other components. The episodic buffer is a temporary storage system between the other systems in working memory. It resembles the concept of episodic memory. The phonological loop controls verbal and auditory information and is divided into two components. The visuo-spatial sketchpad handles visual and spatial information from either the sensory memory or from the LTM. Support for the working model of memory can be found in dual task experiments. The model assumes that there is a division of tasks between the stores, therefore if two tasks are done at the same time it is possible to perform well if separate systems are used. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) aimed to investigate whether the STM is just one component. Participants were asked to answer increasingly difficult questions about simple letter combinations that were shown at the same time. Reaction time increased with difficulty. Participants were then asked to do an articulatory suppression task while they were answering the question. There was no difference between groups that had to repeat "the" or numbers from 1-6, however the group that had to repeat random numbers performed the worst. This was suggested to be due to an overload of information and tasks to monitor for the central executive. This study lacks ecological validity, due to the artificiality of the task. Yet it did provide support for the concept that there are numerous stores in the STM and that it is not a single unit. The working memory model has been useful in understanding which parts of the memory may be linked to underlying problems in reading and mathematics. The model focuses on the processes of integrating information, rather than on the isolation of sub-systems, this provides a better understanding. However, the role of the central executive is unclear and the emphasis on the model is on its structure rather that processing. Both models provide possible structure of memory and see STM as a temporary store with limited capacity and duration. However the multi store model of memory focuses on the entire memory system and is a simplistic model of STM, there is not much focus on the interaction between stores. It sees STM as a gateway to LTM and there is no specification on STM's contents. The working memory model on the other hand focuses mainly on the STM and has a much more complex idea of STM by suggesting the possible interactions that can take place. The role of the central executive is present and new, but there is no clear role for it. The STM and LTM are much more complex than the mutli store model presumes and there is not enough focus on interactions between stores. Rehearsal is not enough to explain the transfer of information to the LTM. The working memory model provides a better explanation for storage and processing than the mutli store model and can be applied to reading and mental calculations. The role of the central executive is too vague, however there is support for the model.

• Flobi as eliciting knowledge in humans

Men and women watched a video of flobi. Flobi was introducing itself, the only manipulation was the voice of flobi. Ether female of male voice. Then asked ps to give flobi human traits via attribution. Found that men and women attribute more human traits depending on voice. Men attribute to more huamnness to flobi when male voice. Women attrbiute more huamnens if female voice -- > transfer of knowledge from yourself to robot o Eyssel and Reich (2013) Asked P to recall where they felt really lonely or in control had to describe a nice day. Then told that they will interact w flobi. Asked toa ttribute mind and human essence. Found that ps who felt lonely attributed more mmind and more humanenes to flobi. Confirming the model that if u feel lonley u tend to huamnise objects. o Flobi and effectance motivation: Ps saw flobi and then flobi was either described as predictable or unpredicatbale. In one condition told p they were going to interact w flobi, the outcome of task would depend on interaction w flobi. In another condition they knew they were going to have a task but not w flobi. The predictablity of robot affected the humanness you attrbiute to the robot. Only when ps expected to eprform task w robot and task was described as unpredictable then they woulda ttribtue more humanness. Not in line w theory but makes sesne. Being unpredicabtle is more human and you don't know how other person might react. Human attribution onky happened when they knew they were gonna participate in task

• Behaviours as a trigger for dehumanization: Monogamy. Rodrigues, Fasoli, Huic, & Diniz, 2017)

Monogamy. Rodrigues, Fasoli, Huic, & Diniz, 2017) looked at wehtehr differences between attributed secondary or pimrary emotions I regards to a mono or non mono couple. John and mary either agreed on being monogamous or non monogamous. Asked ps to atribute emotions • Non mono couple were attributed with less secondary emotions à ps believed that they were less able to feel specific secondary emotions, less humans. Also more primary emotions attributed to this couple.

• Help as a consequence of dehumanization: Andrighetto, Baldassarri, Lattazio, Loughnan, & Volpato (2014)

Ps had to attribute dehumanisation to two populations affecte dbye arthquakes -> haiti or japan.they measured both ttypes of dehumanisation because wanted to explore both types. It was found that haiti was animalistic dehumanised and japanese people were mechanitsticaly dehumanside. • Researchers measured prosocial behavioru and levels of empathy expressed towards to he two population. Found that if you dehumanise group, you feel less empathy so you feel less need to help target group. It didn't matter which measure was used to dehumanise, you didn't feel empathy in both.

Foroni & Rothbart, 2011, study 2

Ps seperted into three conditions (weak, medium and strong labels) and were presented with a range of female silhouettes. When labels presented women w same label were perceived as more similar, so the homogeniety of the group ebcame an important characteristc. Labelling increased perceived similarity.

Beukeboom et al 2010

Ps were presented with manipulated info - it was conveyed either using affirmation or negation! If stereotype and behaviour were consistent then affirmation used. IF inconsistent then negation! By doing this the impression about the runner is conveyed. Researchers found that when Ps had ingo about runner that used negation (inconsistent info and behaviour) then Ps liked runner more than if affirmation was used ( eg runner was slow and had a bad race). However this was only if runner had a bad race. If Ps were exposed to positive and stereotypical info then they liked runner more if affirmation was used. This led to the conclusion that We only use negation if there is stereotype inconsistent information. In cases where there is stereotype consistent info we use affirmation!

Intergroup contact meeting collective action

Reimer, Becker, Benz, Christ, Dhont, Klocke, Neji, Rychlowska, Schmid & Hewstone, 2017: Sexual minority (1a N = 233) and heterosexual (1b N = 249) participants had Intergroup contact - positive (e.g. supported, helped) and negative (e.g. verbally abused, intimidated) with variable of Group identification (e.g. "Being [non-]heterosexual is an important part of who I am") and Perceived discrimination "Nonheterosexual people as a group have been victimized by society," as well as Collective action intentions. Negative contact was associated with more collective action among sexual-minority participants. Positive contact among sexual-minority participants NOT related to CA. Positive contact was associated with advantaged-group members' intentions to take action for the rights of minority-group members

Evaluating social identity theory

Social identity is an individuals' self-perception, taking into consideration their group memberships. The social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner 1979) allows examination of inter-group interactions, it also linked to the self-categorization theory. Usually, people attempt to maintain a positive social identity, which can result in social comparison. When this social comparison has positive results for the individual, their need for a positive social identity is fulfilled. Intergroup discrimination is a common occurrence and may be a method of maintaining a positive social identity. Tajfel (1970) aimed to investigate if intergroup discrimination would occur if participants were placed into random groups. 48 boys were randomly separated into two groups and were told that it was based on artistic preferences. They were asked to give points to members of their own group and the other group. Boys were generally more likely to award more points to members of their in group, exhibiting in group favoritism. Although the groups were completely random, the participants made a positive social identity through the in group by giving the members more points. This study also demonstrates that it is not necessary for intergroup conflict for discrimination and favoritism to occur. There was a high level of control throughout the experiment and the variables were minimized, however the study lacks ecological validity due to the artificiality of the task. There is a sampling bias, as it was don on British school boys, therefore generalization is not possible. The experiment demonstrated the "minimal group paradigm" needed for intergroup discrimination to occur and shows that group identities are important for the development of our own self concept. The maintenance of a positive social identity is also of a high importance. It also showed that even if the distribution of groups was random, the participants believed they all had something in common and favored each other. This demonstration of in-group favoritism is a concept of the SIT, as well as self categorization, which was also seen in the study. Jane Elliott (1968) to emphasize the effects of discrimination and group bias on personal traits and self esteem. The procedure consisted of separating a primary school class based on eye color, blue or brown. It was then told to the students that the ones with blue eyes were smarter and more successful, while the ones with brown eyes were slow and lazy. Blue eyed children were given privileges and children of different eye colors were not allowed to play together. The results showed that the children with blue eyes became more dominant and arrogant, while the brown eyed children became timid and submissive, the brown eyed children also began to perform worse academically. The same thing happened when the roles were reversed and this was despite any traits that were present before the experiment took place. It was concluded that being in a group affects how you perceive yourself and others around you. This experiment lacks ecological validity, the task was artificial and the sample was small and has issues with generalization. There is also an ethical issue that must be acknowledged, as some children may have been made fun of or possibly bullied, harming their psychological states. This experiment showed how intergroup discrimination can occur and how social identity affects our behavior. The social identity theory is supported by empirical research and has been applied to understanding different concepts, such as stereotyping, ethnocentrism and conforming to in-group norms. On the other hand, the studies done lack predictive validity, as the tasks may not always be a true reflection of what may happen in real life. The social identity theory does not explain how in-group favoritism can lead to violent behavior to other groups and cannot explain why social constraints such as poverty play a bigger role than social identity. This theory states that the ingroup will discriminate against the outgroup in order to preserve and maintain its self image. The main concepts seen in this theory are social categorization, social identity and intergroup comparison. It demonstrates the difference between personal and social identity, it explores how our basic need to belong affects interactions. However, its applications are limited by its methodology, as many of the studies and research done have low ecological and predictive validity. It can also be sued to explain why prejudice against different groups of people exists.

Role of injustice (r = .35; Van Zomeren, et al., 2008):

There was a robsut effect of injsutice on ppls likelihood to engage in collective action feeling of anger or resetnment, strong emotion. There is also a cognition invovld. I see that im worse off and it has been found that the feeling of injustice (how does looking at how it makes me fel) is the strognst predictor of collective action and was found across several contexts. It was found all over the world. Satisfaction in the military (Stouffer et al., 1949) Relative Deprivation and likelihood of voting and protest participation in Kenya (Asingo, 2018) Relative deprivation and the intention to rebel in China (Chen, Wang, Liu, Dong, Zhu & Huo, 2018)

Why do people engage in CA in terms of identification (Supports SIMCA)

Stuermer & Simon, 2004: More than 400 members of the largest formal organization in the German gay movement, (participation rate varied in Time 1 and Time 2) T1:Identification with gay men, Identification with the SMO, Past participation T2: Subsequent participation, Collective identification Identification with a formal social movement organization predicted collective action participation, identification with gay men increases collective action (politicised identity with movement)

Culture and attribution (self serving bias):

The self serving bias is another error in attribution and is known as the tendency for people to attribute their own successes with dispositional factors and failures with situational factors. A possible explanation for this phenomenon is that people want to uphold their own self-esteem, therefore they protect themselves with these attributions. Kashima and Triandis (1986) aimed to investigate the role of culture on attribution. The participants were Japanese and American students, they were shown slides of unfamiliar countries and asked to remember the details, which they later had to recall. When asked to provide reasons for their results, American students associated success with ability, skill and other dispositional factors, while Japanese students attributed failure with dispositional factors. Western participants used the self serving bias more than the Eastern participants, exhibiting the effect culture may have on attribution. It was hypothesized that these results were obtained due to the Western society being individualistic while Eastern societies were more collectivistic. There is high ecological validity, nevertheless participants were students, therefore generalization is difficult. Etic so findings are transferable over cultures to an extent. Johnson et al (1964) aimed to investigate pupils learning on the teachers self serving bias. Participants were psychology students and were told to teach two children over a one-way intercom math. There were two parts and after each part, the child would receive a worksheet. Child A would give correct answers on both worksheets while Child B did poorly on both sheets or poorly on only the first one and then well on the second one. In the conditions where Child B's performance improved, the participants would associate the improvement with their ability to teach. When Child B's performance was poor throughout the experiment, the participants would attribute the child's dispositional factors, such as lack of ability to the results rather than their own teaching. In conclusion when examining the child's learning progress, the participants would exhibit the self serving bias in order to preserve their self identity and self esteem. When the child performed well, they believed it was due to their teaching ability. A strength of this experiment is that it was done in a laboratory, therefore it allows strict control over the variables, so high reliability. Nevertheless the sample was psychology students, therefore generalization to the whole population is difficult. It also must be taken into consideration that since they were psychology students, they may have discovered the aims of the experiment and behaved in a socially desirable manner. The self serving bias can explain why people, usually from individualistic cultures, would explain failures and successes in a certain way. Although it is culturally based and cannot explain why some cultures use the modesty bias, it has a large amount of support from studies.

Tajfel and Turner 1979 SIT

The social identity theory was proposed by Tajfel and Turner (1979), who suggested that group based social identities are based on social categorization of in groups and out groups. In groups are seen as more favorable than the out groups. Theres a need for a positive self and group evaluation. Tajfel (1970) aimed to investigate if intergroup discrimination would occur if participants were placed into random groups. 48 boys were randomly separated into two groups and were told that it was based on artistic preferences. They were asked to give points to members of their own group and the other group. Boys were generally more likely to award more points to members of their in group, exhibiting in group favoritism. Although the groups were completely random, the participants made a positive social identity through the in group by giving the members more points. This study also demonstrates that it is not necessary for intergroup conflict for discrimination and favoritism to occur. There was a high level of control throughout the experiment and the variables were minimized, however the study lacks ecological validity due to the artificiality of the task. There is a sampling bias, as it was done on British school boys, therefore generalization is not possible.

• Disgust as a trigger of dehumanization: Buckels & Trapnell (2013)

Then presented specific pictures to secific people who were rating like any digusting picture or a sad.... • Wanted to see if it was specifically disgust or any other emotion that is linked to dehumanisation sot ats why more than one type of photo. • IAT: wanted to see if stronger assocaition of human words to ur group means you humanise ingroup more and opposite of outgrpoup. • Only when disgust was primed then you would engage in dehumanisation to outgroup

Tausch and Becker 2015 on CA and why

Theoretical approaches focus on à emphasising collective grievances, perceived group efficacy and group identification. • Collective grievances theory would be relative deprivation: emphasises on unjust treatment and claims that it the feelings of resentment that lead to collective action. This actually links to group based emotions, wehre you've got the factor of categorisation in there and everything becomes more se;f-relvant. But although grievances are necessary for collective action to occur, it is not direct link. à perceived efficacy has an important link. • Eg agency and collective efficacy of group Identification with group is another theory: politicisation plays an important role here and deals with the internalisation of ideas. Emotions, efficacy and identity work together! Not competing theories! van zomeren et al 2014 w dual pathway model : my essay Dehumanisation link and less empathy!

harris and fiske 2006

Traditionally, prejudice has been conceptualized as simple animosity. The stereotype content model (SCM) shows that some prejudice is worse. The SCM previously demonstrated separate stereotype dimensions of warmth (low-high) and competence (low-high), identifying four distinct out-group clusters. The SCM predicts that only extreme out-groups, groups that are both stereotypically hostile and stereotypically incompetent (low warmth, low competence), such as addicts and the homeless, will be dehumanized. Prior studies show that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is necessary for social cognition. Functional magnetic resonance imaging provided data for examining brain activations in 10 participants viewing 48 photographs of social groups and 12 participants viewing objects; each picture dependably represented one SCM quadrant. Analyses revealed mPFC activation to all social groups except extreme (low-low) out-groups, who especially activated insula and amygdala, a pattern consistent with disgust, the emotion predicted by the SCM. No objects, though rated with the same emotions, activated the mPFC. This neural evidence supports the prediction that extreme out-groups may be perceived as less than human, or dehumanized.

• Threat as a trigger of dehumanisation: Viki, Osgood, & Phillips (2013), Study 2

Tried to see how dehumansaition is perceived to perception of threat. This could be used to explain the use of justified violence against dehumanised group. Ps were asked to attribute human related words to muslims. They also asked them to rate and see how they thought muslim people were posing a threat to society eg economically or safety. Ps were asked how much they think this is ok when shown picture of someone being tortured. And also asked if they wouldve behaved in the same way. Ps perception of muslims of human or as a threat affected how liley they were to engage with torture. High humanitity linked to muslim, low torture. If low humanity to muslim but don't see them as threat then still don't engage in torture. Its only when you perceive muslim as low in humanity and as a threat then you are more likely to engage in torutre.

Sekaquaptewa et al 2003

Two experiments examined whether a measure of implicit stereotyping based on the tendency to explain Black stereotype-incongruent events more often than Black stereotype-congruent events (Stereotypic Explanatory Bias or SEB) is predictive of behavior toward a partner in an interracial interaction. SEB is evidenced by providing more explanations for Black targets engaging in Black stereotype-inconsistent than consistent behaviors in first half of first experiment. In the second half of first experiment there was an interview and the amount of stereotypical questions asked from a White P to a Black P were measured. Experiment 1 revealed that the tendency to engage in SEB (i.e., to provide more explanations for Black stereotype-inconsistency than Black stereotype-consistency) predicted the number of stereotypic questions White male participants chose to ask while interviewing a Black female. This not only supports stereotype explanatory bias, but also supports the overarching idea that we only communicate stereotype consistent information, even with the group that is being stereotyped. This only further reinforces the stereotype. In Experiment 2 the type of explanation (internal or external attribution) made for stereotype-inconsistency was examined. Results showed that White participants who made internal attributions for Black stereotype-incongruent behavior were rated more positively and those who made external attributions were rated more negatively by a Black male confederate. These results point to the potential of implicit stereotyping as an important predictor of behavior in an interracial interaction. Because of these two experiments (first scripted second not) these results have ecological validity and reliability, because in both cases behaviouraloutcomes were predicted by SEB.

• Help as a consequence of dehumanization: Vaes, Paladino, Castelli, & Leyens (2002)

Vaes, Paladino, Castelli, & Leyens (2002) Lost email paradigm à you receive an email that's not for you, this paradigm is to see whether people reply to the email or not. They manipulated the text that was manipulated in the email in terms of emotional content. In one case feedback was postive and in one case it was rejected. In one case used primary emotion (the one we share with animals : joy/anger) or same concept described using secondary emotions (uniquely human). They looked at he asnwer they got. If message written with secondary emotion, regardless if negative or positive. If had secondary emotion activated more huamnsit then ppl more likely to reply to email. Researchers also loked at the type of answer they received. If reply was more formal or informal. The higher the score the more friendly and informal. If message contained more secondayr emotions then epopel replied with more friendly and ifnormal. But this was more how idnivdiual expressed themselves using secondary emotion.

• Bystanderism w lady falling: Latane and Rodin 1969

a lady in distress. participants alone were more willing to help than when they were in pairs. Less help if the confederate was passive.Female researcher who met w participants and she introduced ps with task like a questionnaire and then she left the room but left the door open, then played a recording of her falling down and screaming. It was then measured whetehr they tried to help (at least asking, or leavin g the room to check). Three different situation (either alone, with a friend or a passive confederate). When with a friend they were slower in reacting, they were checking each other to see who would do something and in condition with passive they were very unlikely to engage in prosoocial behaviour

• Bystanderism: Latane and Darley (1968)

aimed to investigate if the number of witnesses of an emergency situation affects whether help is given. The participants, all psychology students, had to sit alone in a booth with headphones and a microphone. They were given the task of having a discussion with an anonymous individual regarding the types of personal problems new college students may have. At a point in the experiment the confederate, the interviewee, staged a seizure. The independent variable was the number of people listening and taking part in the discussion and the dependent variables was the time it took for the participants to react and alert the experimenter. The results showed that the number of bystanders influenced people's likelihood to help significantly. When participants were alone 85% of them went out and reported the situation. When the participant believed that there were four bystanders only around 30% did so. It was suggested that diffusion of responsibility played a significant role in this experiment, as the participant was waiting for the other people to react. This study had a sample bias, as all participants were psychology students, they may have guessed the aim of the experiment. The task itself was rather artificial, therefore ecological validity is also an issue that must be addressed. There were some ethical issues involved as well, since the participants were exposed to an anxiety-provoking situation.

Batson and Toi (1982)

aimed to investigate participants motives in helping behavior. Students were asked to listen to tapes of an interview with a student named Carol, whose legs were broken. She expressed her struggles with schoolwork. Students were then each given a letter, asking them to meet with Carol and share lecture notes with her. The levels of empathy in groups were altered, one group was told to focus on how Carol was feeling (high-empathy group), while the other was told to dismiss her feelings (low-empathy group). The cost of helping was also varied, one group was told that Carol would join the class later (high-cost group) on and the other group was told that she would finish the class at home (low-cost group). The results showed that the high-empathy group had an equal likelihood of helping in both low-cost and high-cost circumstances, while the low-empathy group would only help in the high-cost circumstance, demonstrating the empathy-altruism model. When the low-empathy group realized that they would be seeing her often in class, they would probably feel guilty if they did not help. Although the results are consistent with the theory, some of the aspects of the study must be addressed. The study was not able to say whether the students would continue to help in the high-empathy group once Carol had come to the class, since they may have only wanted to behave in a socially desirable manner. There is also a sample bias, as all of the participants were students, therefore there are issues with generalization.

Pilliavin et al 1969 and theory was 1981

aimed to investigate the effect of various variables on helping behavior. The field experiment consisted of a victim, a model helper and observers. There was a scenario on the subway that involved the victim portraying either a drunk or ill person, this was with the use of a cane. The victim then staged a collapse on the floor and the model helper was told to help after 70 seconds, if no one else did. The results showed that if the victim appeared ill, they were more likely to receive help than the one who appeared drunk. The results did not indicate any support for the concept of diffusion of responsibility and there was no strong relationship found between the number of bystanders and the speed of helping. This field experiment has high ecological validity, since it was conducted in a natural environment. The task itself is not artificial, as people on the subway may have experienced interactions like this before. This study also resulted in a possible explanation for why bystanderism occurs. The cost-reward-arousal model of helping involves observation of the emergency situation, which leads to emotional arousal and interpretation of that arousal.

Brewer and Treyens (1981)

aimed to investigate whether a stereotypical schema of an office would affect memory recall regarding objects in that office. Students were the participants of this study and were asked to wait in an office that consisted of items, such as a desk and calendar. However, there was also a basket. The participants waited there for 30 seconds, were taken out of the room and were asked to recall all of the objects that they saw. It was found that some of the participants recalled the items that would be stereotypically found in an office, yet were not present in the office that they were exposed to. Most of the participants recalled items in the office, yet did not mention the picnic basket. These results support the concepts suggested by the schema theory, since the participants ignored the objects that did not fit in with their schema of an office. The phenomenon of recalling items that were not there also supports the idea of filling in the blanks. Nevertheless this study was done in a lab and is not something that the participants would be doing as a daily activity, therefore it lacks ecological validity. On the other hand, there was a high level of control, so a cause and effect relationship can be established. There is a sample bias, as participants were students, so generalization is only possible to an extent. In conclusion this study demonstrates how our schema influence our recall of specific information and how memory is subject to reconstructions.

Loftus and Pickrell (1995)

aimed to investigate whether it is possible to implant a false memory. Participants were given booklets that contained summaries of real events and one false event in their childhood. The false event was them being lost in a mall. Participants were told a false aim and went through interviews describing their childhood memories. If they would not remember an event they were told to say so. They then had to rate their confidence in whether the details about the memories were correct. A small number of the participants recalled the false memory, supporting the claim that memory is an unreliable source of information. It is possible that this memory was implanted because it is a believable one, and many people have stories of being lost in areas as children. It was a laboratory experiment, therefore there was control over variables and a cause and effect relationship can be established. Both qualitative and quantitative data was collected, increasing the validity of the results. There are ethical issues and generalizability is low due to the small sample.

Neisser and Harsch (1992)

aimed to test the theory of FM by investigating the extent to which a memory of a shocking event (the Challenger disaster) would be accurate after a period of time. Students in a psychology class had to write down a description of how they had heard the news and how they felt. Participants answered the questionnaire less than 24 hours after the disaster. A few years later a number of the participants had to answer the same questionnaire again. This time they had to rate their confidence in their answers. There were major inaccuracies between the two questionnaires and the average level of confidence in the answer was around 4 out of 5. These results challenge the FM theory and also question the reliability of memory in general. Participants were confident in their answers, yet their answers were wrong. This study was conducted in a natural environment, therefore ecological validity is high. Sample bias and not representative, affecting reliability. The degree of emotional arousal experiencing a shocking event may be different to experiencing a traumatic one in a persons personal life, this could influence how people would remember an event.

Loftus and Palmer 1974

aimed to test their hypothesis that the language used in eyewitness testimony can alter memory. Asked people to estimate the speed of motor vehicles using different forms of questions. Estimating vehicle speed is something people are generally poor at and so they may be more open to suggestion. Lab experiment, Shown film of car accident. After watching the film participants were asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses. They were then asked specific questions, including the question "About how fast were the cars going when they (smashed / collided / bumped / hit / contacted) each other?" Thus, the IV was the wording of the question and the DV was the speed reported by the participants. The estimated speed was affected by the verb used. The verb implied information about the speed, which systematically affected the participants' memory of the accident. Participants who were asked the "smashed" question thought the cars were going faster than those who were asked the "hit" question. The participants in the "smashed" condition reported the highest speed estimate (40.8 mph), followed by "collided" (39.3 mph), "bumped" (38.1 mph), "hit" (34 mph), and "contacted" (31.8 mph) in descending order. 2nd experiment: because first experiment could be explained either by memory change or by response bias (eg memory has not changed, but not completely sure and the use of verb smashed just pushes them to choose a higher value) . 150 students were shown a one minute film which featured a car driving through the countryside followed by four seconds of a multiple traffic accident. Afterwards the students were questioned about the film. The independent variable was the type of question asked. It was manipulated by asking 50 students 'how fast were the car going when they hit each other?', another 50 'how fast were the car going when they smashed each other?', and the remaining 50 participants were not asked a question at all (i.e. the control group). One week later the dependent variable was measured - without seeing the film again they answered ten questions, one of which was a critical one randomly placed in the list: "Did you see any broken glass? Yes or no?" There was no broken glass on the original film. Findings: Participants who were asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed were more likely to report seeing broken glass. This research suggests that memory is easily distorted by questioning technique and information acquired after the event can merge with original memory causing inaccurate recall or reconstructive memory .The results from experiment two suggest that this effect is not just due to a response-bias because leading questions actually altered the memory a participant had for the event.

Leyens and colleagues (2001)

form. Leyens and colleagues first sought a working understanding of humanness. An informal survey of laypeople suggested three main attributes that distinguished humans from animals: intelligence, language, and refined emotions (sentiments in French). Focusing on these "secondary" emotions, which are understood to be unique to humans, these researchers reasoned that ascribing fewer secondary emotions to out-group members than to in-group members amounts to a subtle denial of the out-group's humanity; compared to the in-group, the out-group is less human. Because uniquely human emotions may be positive (e.g., joy) or negative (e.g., embarrassment), this as- cription of lesser humanness could in principle occur independently of any negative evaluation of the out-group. Leyens and colleagues established the predicted infrahumanization effect in a large body of research (for reviews, see Leyens et al. 2003, 2007). Their research has demonstrated that the phenomenon is robust across many intergroup contexts, evident in the absence of intergroup con- flict, contingent on the existence of meaningful in-group/out-group distinctions, and independent of out-group derogation or in-group favoritism. The phenomenon can be demonstrated in simple judgment tasks, typically involving the attribution of emotions to groups, and also using implicit association methods (e.g., Paladino et al. 2002). It can be shown when humanness is represented by secondary versus primary emotions or by more directly human- and animal-related words (Viki et al. 2006). Infrahumanization has a variety of behavioral implications, and it appears to involve not simply a lack of recognition of the out-group's humanity but also an active reluctance to accept it.

Hodel et al

gender language bias. found that there was more gender fair language in egalitarian countries with better socio-economic equality =, found less gender bias in their ads --> Switzerland and Austria!

• Cognitive Neoassocation Theory (Berkowitz and Lepage study 1967)

how people react to physiological stress P had to wait for other p who was confederate bcs came really "late" Now you two are gona be divided and your task is to come up with an idea of a famous person and other person will evaluate if idea was good or not - this idea was evaluated based on electric shocks received by P. 1 or 7 electrisc schos. If got 1 it meant idea good, if 7 then its bad - this was the angry condition. Then switch and P got to choose how many eelctric shcoks wanted to give to partenr - hypothesized that ppl in angry condition will try tog et revenge so administer a lot of electric shocks but many different conditions 1 condition : on a table theres the confederates keys and gun and the researchers like oh yeah sorry that's the other ps gun and keys 2nd: just gun present and reseaarcher doesn't mention anything Just keys or just Racquet o If ps primed w aggressive concept they were more likely to engage in aggressive behavirou : ppl in rough neughbourhoods may be more primed to behave aggressively due to constant exposure? o Presence of gun resulted in many shocks administered to confederate no matter whether the gun was associated with the other participant or not. Accordign to the assocaition theory :the presnce of the gun triggered more aggressive bahevaiour.

Maas et al 1995

investigating linguistive intergroup bias in northern and southern italians. north perceived as more individualistic and south as more friendly. If Ps were presented with info that someone is from North and behaves in a friednyl way, inconsistent info, then more liely to use concrete language. If target person behaving in a consistent way then more likely to use abstract. Language influenced the way one perceives a group!

Zanna and Cooper:

misattribution of cognitive dissonance. 3 groups given a pill, told it either relaxed them, made them tense or did nothing. All Ps then had to write a counter-attitudinal essay. The Ps in relaxed condition had largest attidue change, the Ps in tense condition had smallest and the one in control had normal attitude change considered to occur during this type of dissonance experiment. The tenseness due to the dissonance caused by the writing of the essay was attributed to the pill in the tense condition, hence the smallest attidue change, as participants did not feel the need or drive to change their attitude. They could attribute their feelings to the pill.

Tausch et al. 2011 on why CA based on dual pathway of contempt and anger:

online survey first link to non norm and low eff. Study 1 (N = 332) - context of students protests against tuition, Measures: Perceived injustice of tuition fees, Anger, Contempt, The perceived efficacy of the student movement, Likelihood to participate in collective action → Results confirmed different emotional pathways leading to normative or non-normative collective action. But there was an emergence of an unexpected category: non violent non normative CA. Underlines importance of extending theories to address different types of collective action. Arguments for differences between contempt and agner stem form the funcitonal differences between the two as found in previous research. Dual pathway model by van zomeren claims that there are emtional and efficacy pathways that result in two different types of ca. When ppl felt contempt they were more likely to engage in non-nromative colective action. Non normative also linked to low effiacy, bcs feel that they cannot use main political channel to fight for themselves, need to do somethi g extreme. Could be due tomarginalisation or illegtiimacy of political party. Alternative hp: high anger high efficacy, leads to postivie feedback into identtiy, so likelihood of normative action incrtease.s EVAL: as their hypotheses were supported in three different cultural and poltical contexts, their findigns can be suggested as universal. But inappropriate method: survey! Made interpretations v simplistic. Identity not acknowledged.

Bandura 1977 SLT with four criteria needing to be met for imitation to occur

proposed the social learning theory, which states that humans learn their behavior through the environment, but also through observational learning. Observational learning is the process of acquiring information through watching 'models' and imitating their behavior. There are four factors that influence social learning, which are attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Without these four factors an individual will not learn from the 'model' that is doing the action. The 'models' are usually authority figures, such as teachers or parents, yet they can be people that children identify with as well. It is important to identify and like the 'model', in order to want to imitate the behavior that the 'model' is exhibiting. Rewards and punishment are another concept that is associated with the social learning theory, as individuals we may be motivated to imitate something in order to get a reward. If we see someone perform a behavior that is not accepted and they are punished, we learn to not perform that behavior. This is something that is seen often throughout classrooms, as well as media.

• Frustration Aggression Hypothesis Dollard 1939

ps trying to do task, but in 3 other situations they were doing the taks but partner wsa slow and that would mean they fail . 1 condition = get money, 2 condition = good mark, 3 = just fal to do task Regardless of otucome (money, grade) did not affect differences between conditions, fail to task tho made them more extreme in giving a punishment to partner à you fail you get more frustrated so more aggressive behaviour. Trying to get rid of frutration by punihsing person is not a big enough explanation - need more research! Attacked by Bandura with SLT who says there needs to be a motivation. Attacked by Harris (1974) tested the theory to see if proximity to the goal affected the level of aggression displayed. Situations involving shop queues were used and confederates pushed in front of real people that were waiting to assess their reaction. The results found the closer people were to the front (their goal) the more likely they were to react aggressively to confederates pushing in front of them. This supports the frustration-aggression theory and its idea that proximity to the goal was a factor in whether aggression is displayed.

kaSHIMA, 2000

serial reproduction chain to investigate stereotype consistency bias. Story w/ 5Ps and 1st person exposed to stereotype inconsistent info and consistent info. then had to write down what remembered. second person read first persons version and wrote what they remembered and so on. the stereotype consistent piece of information was the one remembered most. although general trend downwards in terms of info reported, there was way more decrease in stereotype inconsistent info being reported. this is similar to Bartlett. but in this case stereotypes. what people communicate to each other is based on stereotypes. when Ps dont know each other more likely to communicate stereotype consisten tinfo.

Aronson and Millis:

started from effort justification paradigm to form their hypothesis, which is that people that go through a tough initiation will perceive group as more positive than those that went through an easy initiation. Three conditions: severely embarrassing, mildly and no embarrassment. Procedure: PS listened to fake boring group discussion after going through their condition (of which the goal was to be part of the fake boring group). This created dissonance in the high embarrassment group. After Ps rated discussion found that most embarrassed perceived the group the most positively, why? The cogntiions about boring group were incongruent with the pain of embarrassment, so there was a drive to reduce dissonance. This leads to either exaggerating attractiveness of group in order to justify your effort. Theres also the factor that you cant downplay how embarrassing the initation was, as it was very embarrassing.

Beukeboom and Burgers on stereotypes

stereotypes are functional, useful and allow us to make categorisations however lead to prejudice. Prejudice emerges from negative associations held about categories. The category labels we use reflect social categories cognitions. Once someone is labelled as belonging to a category, we only communicate stereotype congruent information, so there are biases in how we formulate information about categorised peolpe. Stereotypes are formed and maintained through language biases.

Bandura 1973

• Social Learning Bandura: Observing aggression leads to learn and internalized aggressive scripts. Bandura et al (1963) aimed to test the observation and modeling of aggressive behavior. They wanted to see whether a child would imitate aggression modeled by an adult and they also wanted to investigate whether children were more likely to imitate adults of the same gender. They had three groups of young children, an equal mix of boys and girls. The first group were exposed to adults who were smashing a Bobo doll and being generally aggressive towards it, the second group watched an adult play with the Bobo doll but non-aggressively, while the third group were a control so they were not exposed to any interaction between an adult and a Bobo doll. In some groups children watched models of the same gender interact with the doll. After watching the models, the children were placed in a room with a Bobo doll. It was found that children who had watched the aggressive behavior imitated it and the ones that were not exposed to the aggression were hardly aggressive at all. It was also seen that girls would be more verbally aggressive while the boys were more physically aggressive. When boys would observe a female behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll they would make comments such as "Ladies shouldn't do that!", therefore it was concluded that individuals are more likely to imitate same-gender models. Social learning theory was demonstrated in this study, since the children would watch and imitate behaviors that they saw the model do. This study dealt with issues of ethics, since it induced aggressive behaviors in children, it is unsure whether this aggression stayed throughout the rest of their lives. The ecological validity of the task is low as well, since it was done in a laboratory. On the other hand the findings are applicable and have predictive validity. o Bobo doll can be dscribed w neo assocaiton theory : child associated more aggressive if uses lil hammer