Social Psych (Aronson) - Chapter 2: Methodology
Zero (Null) Correlation
(Slope=__)
Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior
A Method by which two or more variables are systematically measured and their relationship assessed.
p-value
A number, calculated using statistical techniques, that tells how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable
HOMER (Hypothesize)
A testable prediction about conditions under which an event will occur
HOMER (Operationalize)
A variable defined in specific terms of the operations or techniques the researcher uses to measure or manipulate it
Confounding Variable
An extraneous variable that varies along with the IV - a consistent, unmeasured difference between conditions.
Variable
Any event, situation, behavior, or individual characteristic that varies
Extraneous
Anything other than the IV that could affect the DV
Reliability
Are the measurements obtained by the study consistent? Over time? Across multiple judges/raters?
Empirical
Based on careful observation and experimentation; must be falsifiable by these methods as well Empirical research allows us to test the validity of personal observations and folk wisdom/common sense beliefs.
Advantages of Naturalistic Observation
Behaviors are spontaneous, Doesn't rely on self-reports
Advantages of Surveys/ Questionnaires
Can assess behaviors that are hard to observe, Can measure subjective states (perceptions, beliefs, etc)
Description
Careful and systematic descriptions of social behavior so we can make reliable generalizations about how people act in various social settings.
HOMER (Evaluate)
Condition averages always will differ
Replication
Conducting a study again with different subject populations or in different situations
Independent variable (IV)
Controlled by researcher and interpreted as the cause of change in DV (Aka "manipulated variable")
Disadvantages of Correlation
Correlation ≠ Causation, Reverse-causality problem, Third-variable problem
Disadvantages of Lab Experiments
Costly, Artificial, Can be biased
Four Goals of Research?
Description, Causal Analysis, Theory Building, Application
Theory Building
Develop theories about social behavior that help us understand why people behave the way they do. Theories help psychologists to organize what they know about social behavior as well as suggest new predictions that can be tested in further research.
Conditions
Different levels of the IV (Ex. Lucky charm is one condition, no lucky charm is another)
Correlation ? Causation
Does not equal
Validity
Does the study accurately measure the relationship (and ONLY the relationship) the researcher wants to study?
Advantages of Archival Analysis
Easy access to large amounts of data, Can track changes over time, Cheap
Advantages of Correlation
Enable researchers to study problems in which intervention is impossible or unethical ie divorce, death in the family, Unlike observation, allows for prediction, Efficient: allow researchers to collect more information and test more relationships
Correlational Method
Examines the association between two variables
External Validity
Extent to which results of a study can be generalized to other situations
Advantages of Field Experiment
High external validity
Advantages of Lab Experiments
High internal validity, experimenter control
HOMER
Hypothesize, Operationalize, Measure, Evaluate, Replicate or Revise
(−) Negative correlation
Increase in one variable associated with decrease in other. Maximum: -1 (Slope= \)
(+) Positive correlation
Increase in one variable associated with increase in other. Maximum: +1 (Slope= /)
The APA's ethical guidelines for research
Informed Consent, Debriefing, Cost/benefit analysis, Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation
Interference, Some interesting behaviors are very rare, Observer bias (coding system needed), Time consuming, Invasion of privacy
Solutions to Subject Bias
Keep participants unaware of hypotheses; double-blind study
Two Types of Experimental Method: Formats
Laboratory Experiments and Field Experiments
Experimental Method
Manipulates one variable to see the effect on another
Disadvantages of Archival Analysis
Many behaviors not recorded, Questions can be different than researchers want, May be wrong population
Three primary methods
Observational method, Correlational method, Experimental method
Dependent variable (DV)
Outcome being studied, response to IV (Aka "measured variable")
Random assignment
Practice of assigning subjects to conditions such that each subject has an equal chance of being in any condition
Disadvantages of Field Experiment
Random assignment difficult, Low experimenter control
Convergent validity
Replication in different settings and experiment types
Methodology and Research
Research methodology refers to the proper techniques to design a study that can help answer a given research question
Archival Analysis
Researcher examines accumulated documents of a culture
Participant Observation
Researcher interacts with people being observed, but tries not to change the situation
Naturalistic Observation
Researcher observes people in their natural habitat
Surveys/Questionnaires
Self-Report, Most common way of obtaining correlations
Disadvantages of Surveys/ Questionnaires
Self-presentation, Lack of awareness of true state
Application
Social psychological knowledge can help to solve everyday social problems
Correlation coefficient
Statistic that assesses how well you can predict one variable from another (r)
Meta-analysis
Statistical technique that averages results of two or more studies
Quasi-experiments
Structured like an experiment, but the "IV" is unethical or impossible to manipulate (Most common quasi-IV: gender)
Experimenter Bias
Subtle conscious or unconscious cues from experimenter that tell participant how to act
A strong hypothesis will be?
Testable, Falsifiable, Parsimonious, Generative, Important
Experimental condition
The "changed" group - the variable is altered in a way the experimenter believes will cause a change in the DV
Control condition
The "unchanged" group - used to establish a baseline for comparison
Causal Analysis
Tries to establish relationships between cause and effect
Observational Method
Used to describe the nature of a phenomenon
Subject Bias
motives and goals make them act differently than they normally would. Try to be "the good subject" or the "bad subject"