Social psych exam 2
According to your textbook, what are the five universal dimensions of social beliefs reported by Leung and Harris Bond (2004)?
cynicism, social complexity, reward for application, spirituality, and fate control
What are the two ways that attitudes can be made more potent, e.g., stronger? Discuss the role that making attitudes salient and forming attitudes through direct experience has on strengthening an attitude.
Bringing attitudes to mind Forging strong attitudes through experience Role- behavior changes attitudes. * When attitudes are forged by experience, not just by hearsay, they are more accessible, more enduring, and more likely to guide actions.*
Attitude Accessibility
Accessibility of an attitude is how easily the attitude comes to mind
Describe Burger's (2006) replication of the Milgram study. What were the results and how did they compare to the results reported by Milgram?
-milgram found that 82.5% percent of participants continued administering shocks after 150 volts -79% of those who went past 150 continued to 450 volts burgers - 70% were willing to continue after 150 volts.
Response Latency
Accessibility of an attitude is measured by the amount of time it takes to respond to a question. Strength the faster the response, the stronger the attitude.
Describe Milgram's original study on obedience? What percent of participants delivered shock all the way to 450 volts?
26 of them (65 percent) progressed all the way to 450
How does your book and lecture define attitude? What is the difference between implicit and explicit attitudes?
Attitude(lecture)- favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward someone or something exhibited in one's beliefs, feelings, or intended behavior Attitude (book)- beliefs and feelings related to a person or an event (often rooted in one's beliefs, and exhibited in one's feelings and intended behavior). Implicit (10)- unconscious attitudes- our often unacknowledged inner beliefs that may or may not correspond to our explicit attitudes. Explicit- controlled, conscious, and conscious of an object and its evaluation, communicate to others.
What is the principle of aggregation? Provide an example to support your answer.
Attitudes better predict behavior when we have an aggregate or 'average" of behavior over time. Sample of behavior over time you know it. Sampling behavior over time leading to knowledge. Attending class, going to church, exercising. *Effects of an attitude become more apparent when we look at person's aggregate or average behavior*
Describe the way in which the bogus pipeline and the measurement of facial muscles have been used to improve the veracity of responses in attitude assessment.
Believed a lie detector could determine whether their responses to a racial survey were honest. Participants in experience codional reported more negative attitudes towards African American. Bogus pipeline: Measured explicit attitudes: People in the experimental condition believed their responses on a racial survey were monitored by a lie detector. People in the experimental condition reported more negative attitudes toward African Americans. • Measurement of facial muscles: Measured implicit attitudes: EMG studies have shown decreased activity in the corrugator and frontalis muscles when participants agree with a message. EMG studies have found increased activity in the depressor and zygomatic muscles when participants agree with a message • Implicit association test: Measured Implicit attitudes: Through a sequence of task the IAT measures implicit racial attitudes
What did Festinger's Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1964) have to say about the relationship between attitudes and behavior? According to this theory, why and under what circumstances do attitudes change following behavior?
Countless studies on cognitive theory revealed that attitudes change as the result of behavior and not other way around.
What is post-decision dissonance? Describe the study by Brehm (1956). What were the results of the study?
Dissonance aroused after making an important and irrevocable decision (two choices - correctional officer vs cadet) which may be lessened by Increasing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative Reducing or devaluing the attractiveness of the non-chosen alternative Brehm (1956): "Jack Brehm brought some of his wedding gifts to his University of Minnesota lab and had women rate eight products, such as a toaster, a radio, and a hair dryer. Brehm then showed the women two objects they had rated similarly and told them they could have whichever they chose. Later, when rerating the eight objects, the women increased their evaluations of the item they had chosen and decreased their evaluations of the rejected item. It seems that after we have made our choices, the grass does not then grow greener on the other side of the fence"
affective component
Emotional component, how we feel about an attitude object. Ex- purchasing decisions: buying designer clothes even though they cost more then they are worth.
According to research by Berry (1998) presented in lecture, how do the Eskimo of Canada and the Temne of Sierra Leon differ in their tendency to conform and why?
Eskimos an individualistic culture Temne a collectivist culture Conformity higher among the Temne than among the Eskimos
cognitive component
Evaluative component that involves a person's thoughts or beliefs about an attitude object. Ex. Buying car - how many gas? Insurance? Purchasing decisions, repair costs.
Describe the experiment by Diener and Wallbom (1976). What percent of participants continued to work on the test after the bell sounded for those assigned to the control condition vs. the experimental condition?
Experiment (mirror/own recorded voices)- 7% in experimental condition cheated vs. Controlled- 71% in control conditioned,
Describe Fishbein & Ajzen's theory of planned behavior. How do attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms and perceived control affect behavioral intentions?
General attitudes tend to be poor predictors of behavior in a specific behavior (Fishbein, 1977) Older studies that reported weak correspondence tried to predict a specific behavior by measuring general attitudes Example: General prejudice toward a specific group may not predict whether a person will help a person in that group in a specific situation 26 out of 27 studies with general assessments of attitude failed to measure a specific behavior
Describe the Implicit Association Test and how it has been used to measure attitudes on sensitive subjects such as prejudice. What are the criticisms of the IAT?
IAT- which uses reaction times to measure how quickly people associate concepts. Can be used to measure implicit racial attitudes by assessing whether white people take longer to associate positive word with black faces than with white faces
What does research reveal about a possible connection between genetic influences and attitudes? Are identical twins more similar or less similar than fraternal twins in measures of attitudes?
Identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins & often share similar views since they come from the same zygote
behavioral component
Likelihood that one's attitude will correspond with and predicts one actions towards the attitude object. Ex. Prejudice toward a group will discriminate against a member of that group.
How do males and females differ in verbal, math and visual-spatial abilities?
Males tend to outperform females in visual-spatial skills and mental rotation tasks Females are more likely to excel in reading and verbal tasks
How do the conversational styles of men and women differ with regard to staring, smiling interrupting and talking assertively?
Men stare and interrupt more but smile less in conversations Men talk longer when the goal is giving information/when the goal is assertion of opinions Women's phone conversations last longer than men when the goal is affiliation
How can choices affect moral development? Describe the study by Mills (1956) that measured children's pre and post attitudes toward cheating. What were the results of the study? What is meant by attitude polarization and how does dissonance theory explain it?**
Mills (1956): 6th graders surveyed on attitudes toward cheating. A week later they participated in competitive games to win prizes. Some cheated and some did not. results - those who cheated became more lenient toward cheating and those who resisted adopted a harsher attitude toward cheating as long as you believe it " if i did not cheat nobody would win..etc"
was conformity in the Asch study due to normative or informational influences and why?
Normative
Describe the experiment by Freedman and Frasier (1966) on the foot-in-the-door phenomenon presented in lecture. What percent of the people agreed to allow a four-hour product inventory in their home and why? In other words, what was the difference in compliance rates between the experimental and control groups?
Only 22% complied with allowing the team into their home for 4 hours. Or small request first - compliance rate was 52% for those participants who had agreed to answer a brief survey on the household products they used two days prior. Small request was first, commitment comes first then consistency because behavior is there already.
Describe the experiment conducted by Freedman and Frasier (1966) on the foot-in-the-door phenomenon. What percent of subjects agreed to put an ugly yard on their property after previously agreeing to a smaller request?
Participants to put a ugly sign (large request) only 17% complied with the request. Some participants who had agreed to post a small sign (small request) two days earlier were then hit up with the larger request. 76% complied with the request.
According to Burger's research findings, what are the two traits of people who resisted and refused to obey authority?
Refusers: Empathy and need for control
Describe fMRI research that provides neurological evidence for cognitive dissonance presented in lecture.
Researchers using fMRI technology have identified key brain regions linked to cognitive dissonance. The area implicated most consistently is the posterior part of the medial frontal cortex (pMFC), known to play an important role in avoiding aversive outcomes, a powerful built-in survival instinct. In fMRI studies, when subjects lie to a peer despite knowing that lying is wrong - a task that produces cognitive dissonance - the pMFC lights up
Describe the experiment by Leippe & Eisenstadt (1998) presented in lecture. Under what conditions were attitudes toward funding for scholarships and African Americans most likely to become more favorable?
Students asked to write a counter-attitudinal essay in favor of doubling scholarship funding for frican American Students and decreasing by half funding by white scholarships - white students opposed the funding - high choice & high publicity - changed mean differences in attitude 11.4 - low choice low publicity 1.38
Describe the experiment by Festinger & Carlsmith (1959). Which participants were more likely to report a favorable attitude about a dull and boring task in which they had participated: Those who were paid $1 or those who were paid $20? Discuss the psychology of insufficient justification to explain these findings. (111)
Subjects listen to a tape of a man enthusiastically describing a tedious task. $1 ( high dissonance) not worth it, no rewards. $20 sufficient justification and more motivated. (low dissonance). - Told they would be paid to lie either $1 or $20 results- participants paid $1 reported that they enjoyed the task more than participants paid $20 why?- Sufficient justification: I Am honest person but paid $20.. no dissonance =task was boring but I got paid $20 ( no change in attitude) Insufficient justification: Im an honest and I just lied for $1,, dissonance the task really was fun and interesting (change in attitude)
Describe the study by Sheriff using the autokenetic effect. Did group norms emerge because of normative influences or because of informational influences?
The autokenetic effect: an optical illusion whereby a pinpoint of light shown in a dark room appears to move but it never did. Group norm emerged. a group norm emerged - results - group norm prevailed.conformity due to informational influences. one year later continued to support group norm.**.
Briefly describe Darwin's theory of evolution. What is natural selection?
The evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations.
Overjustification effect:
The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.
Anthony Pratkanis replicated Ashe's original conformity study in 1998 at UC Santa Cruz. What were the results of his study?
The study found similar patterns of conformity that were reported by Asch and others in earlier studies.
According to your textbook, how does a person's social status predict who is more likely to initiate intimacy?
The superior
According to lecture, what are the "caveats" that need to be considered when trying to understand documented gender differences?
There are greater variation within groups than between groups The differences are small Differences change as function of age Differences do no denote superior VS inferior status
Describe the study presented in lecture by LaPierre conducted in 1934. What were the results reported by LaPierre and why did his findings pose a "crisis" in the study of attitudes and behaviors?
Traveled with a young Asian couple across the united states for 3 months. At the time nobody liked Asians in USA and highly were discriminated against. He was concerned they would get denied services, but it turned out. refused service at only one establishment. RESULTS- when establishments called 3 months later. 90% said they would not provide service to Asians.
How does unanimity, group cohesiveness, status of the group and a deviant participant affect conformity rates?
Unanimty- it is easier to stand up for something if you can find someone else to stand up with you. one erson can puncture a groups unianimity. Group cohesiveness- more power it gains over its members. A "we feeling (friends)", to the extent to which members of a group are bonded together. status- higher status tends to have more impact.
According to modern anthropology from what continent did all humans originally evolve?
We trace our ancestors back 100.000 years ago we are all AFRICANS!! We originated from Africa into Asia, Europe etc.
According to lecture, how do males and females differ in their reactions to stress?
When facing stress, men tend to respond with "flight or fight" often their response to a threat is combat. Females are more often "tend and befriend" they turn to friends and family for support.
When do attitudes predict behavior? Discuss the effects that attitude strength and attitude specificity have in predicting behavior. How can social influences affect whether an attitude is verbally and behaviorally expressed?
When social influences on what we say are minimal, When other influences on behavior are minimal , When it is a strongly held attitude, When attitudes specific to the measured behavior Both are subject to other influences. Attitudes do predict behavior when these other influences on what we say and do are minimal, when the attitude is specific to behavior, and when attitude is potent. Social influences- we say what we think others want to hear, much legislators may vote for a populare war or tax reduction that they privately oppose ( expressed attitudes).
In what way do men and women differ on measures of conformity?
Women are slightly more likely to conform than men but differences are small** women more concerned about interpersonal relationships men more likely to view deviance as enhancing self-image men less likely to conform if under surveillance
What did the review of literature conducted by Alan Wicker (1969) reveal about the relationship between attitudes and behavior? Did Wicker find that attitudes were a good or poor predictor of behavior?
a weak correspondence between attitudes and behavior - attitudes towards cheating didn't predict cheating - Racial attitudes didn't predict behavior - Religious attitudes didn't predict church attendance. - General questions about Religion is a poor predicter if they go to church. To General to a Specific behavior. Needs to be a specific term to a specific term to work. - results= relations hips attitudes and behaviors were very very weak. People's expressed attitudes hardly predict their varying behaviors.
What is self-perception theory's explanation of why behaviors changes attitudes?
assumes that our actions are self-revealing: when uncertain about our feelings or beliefs, we look at our behavior, much as anyone else would* When our attitudes are weak or ambiguous, its similar to someone observing us on outside. needed to come up with an alternative, behavioral explanation to eliminate cognitive and motivational factors.
What is cognitive dissonance? According to cognitive dissonance theory, under what conditions are attitudes most likely to change following a behavior?
assumes that to reduce discomfort, we justify our actions to yourself* it assumes that we feel tension, or "dissonance" when two of our thought or beliefs "cognition) are inconsistent. - A state of mental discomfort or tension that is experienced when two personally relevant cognitions are inconsistent. "Smoking is bad and I smoke cigarettes, I'm honest and I just cheated on exam".
How is conformity defined?
change in belief or behavior as a result of real or imagined group pressure
What is the evolutionary explanation for the gender differences in mate selection?
evolutionary psychology predictsno sex differences in domains where the sexes faced similar adaptive challanges, Only chalnnages in mating and reproduction
How do males and females differ biologically with respect to in height, body fat, muscle, sensitivity to smells and sounds?
female has 70 percent more fat, has 40 percent less muscle, is 5 inches shorter, and weighs 40 pounds less is more sensitive to smells and sounds is twice as likely to experience anxiety disorders or depression
According to Brown (1987) what two functions do formal and informal forms of "you" found in some languages serve?
formal "you": a respectful form and a familiar form for friends, family
Explain the concept of psychological androgyny.
from andro (man) + gyn (woman)- thus mixing both masculine and feminimsme characteristics. express more restrained tendencies. having to deal with psychological traits. EX: men being nurturing when the situation calls for it & women being assertive if the situation calls for it.
What is the minimum and maximum number of people needed to produce conformity effects?
groups 3-5 can product conformity and when is unanimous, cohesive, and high in satus. Increasing group size beyond 5 has diminishing returns. Conformity is also highest when response is made public and made withour prior comimitment.
Describe the original study on conformity conducted by Solomon Asch. What percent of participants conformed on at least one critical trial? What percent of answers on critical trials were conforming answers?
measuring lines for the same size, one trail where 4/5 said the wrong answer on purpose.. 75% of participants conformed to a wrong answer at least once in the presence of others on critical trails 37% responses were conforming and 63% did not tested alone 99% gave correct answers
Lepper
pay people for playing with puzzles, and they will later play with the puzzles less than does who receive no pay
How did obedience change when the participants were placed in the same room as the learner? How did obedience change when the participants were instructed to place the leaner's hand on a shock plate?
same room only 40 percent obeyed to 450 volts. Shock plate - 30% ,450 volts
According to follow-up studies, how did obedience to authority vary as a function of the experimenter's presence? How did obedience change when the study was conducted in downtown Bridgeport? How did obedience change when another participant/confederate began given orders?
standard 63% the physical presence of an experimenter affects obedience. away= obedience dropped to 21% authority (scientist) calls in for professor, a clerk took over 80% refused the order of the clerk yale (bridgeport) - obedience dropped 48% teacher - other two (confederates) refused to follow orders - 90% refused to obey
As a general rule, are men or women better at accurately decoding others' emotional messages?
women are generally superior in decoding others' emotional messages.