Social psych test #3

Why were Milgram's participants obedient?

--Apparent legitimacy of authority Ex: Yale researcher using white lab coat--people are more likely to obey people who have expertise or legitimate authority --The experimental procedure---the participants were relieved of personal responsibility as the experimentor said he was responsible for the shocks --Gradual escalation was used--Shocks were first administered at 15 volts but then gradually worked up to 450---Thoughts of participant--Maybe if I punish him pone more time he will be able to survive it and say that he cannot take another one- and halt the stufy --Victim placed in another room-- The participant could hear the suffering //but did not have to see the individuals they were supposedly inflicting pain upon- --Physical presence of experimenter-- When the experimeter was down the hall, the teacher (the individual who administered the shocks) obeyed the experimenter at a lower rate --Later findings: If people made it padt administering a 150 volt shock then they were more likely to make it all the way to 450 volts.

What is actually correlated with attractiveness and what isnt?

--Correlation between-Attractive people tend to have more friends, better social skills, and greater chances of attracting a mate --Attractiveness is not related to IQ, personality, self esteem, or adjustment --Teacher tend to perceive attractive children to be smarter and external attributions will be made for their bad behavior --Judges:: They will give attractive people shorter sentences and lower bail --Employer-- Employees who are deemed attractive, have higher salaries -How can this bias be reduced-- Increase awarness of the problem and blind grading meaning that the teacher is not aware of which students work they are grading

Later partial replications of Milgram's study

--Institutional review boards made it clear that the shocks had to stop being administered at 150 volts -Still found same levels of obedience (even when done wit female learner) -Are they obedient or are they helping science? What motivates them? -Do they just want to help science so they allow th experimenter to take control -"it may be that we are puppets, with perception, with awareness, and perhaps our awareness is the first step towards liberation

symptoms of groupthink

-An overestimation of one's ingroup--members develop an illusion of invulnerability and an unquestioned belief in the ingroup's morality -Close mindedness--members rationalize the correctness of their decisions and develop a stereotyped view of their opponents -Increased conformity pressure--Members reject those who raise doubts about the groups assumptions and decisions, and they censor their own misgivings in what becomes a spiral of silence. With all this conformity pressure, members develop an illusion that everyone is in agreement, which serves to confirm the group's ill chosen decision.

What is "attractive?"

-Are standards objective? --There tends to be a high level of agreement in terms of what is attrctive however there are some private preferences Ex: some people like brown hair/some people like big butts -Symmetrical faces--When the left and right side of your face are similar or the same, youre supposed to be more attractive -Even babies have a preference for attractive faces Are standards subjective? --Cultural differences//individual differences --depending on culture and individual, there are different standards of beauty --But standard of beauty change Ex: In 1950 marilyn monroe was the standard of beaity as she was very busty, now men prefer woemn who are very skinny -Perception of attractiveness changes depending on situation Ex: Look at picture of really attractive person then try to judge attractiveness of average looking person and in contrast the average looking person in ugggllyy.

Halloween study (Self Awareness)

-Attention focused on self and you look to engage in behaviors consistent with norm -Halloween study served as a test of self awareness -Can induce self awareness with mirror -Home sin Illionois and montana -363 trick or treaters -Homes- Half start with mirror behind candy bar -Half start without mirror--switch halfway through the evening -Standard: You may have opne piece of candy. I have to backand work in another room -DV- Extra candy taken -Presence of mirror resulted in significant;y less candy being taken -Supports self awareness theory

Milgram cont

-If the teacher protests delivering another shock to the experimenter, the experimenter had to respond and the first time would say 1)Please continue or "Please go on" Second time 2)The experiment requires that you continue and a third time 3) It is absolutely essential that you continue fourth time 4) You have no other choice, you must go on

What makes for better brainstorming?

-Individuals working alone first and then bringing their ideas into the larger group -Awareness of probelm--training -Trained facilitator--someone who is aware of evaluation apprehension -Electronic brain storming

Group

-It consists of several interdependent people who have emotional ties and who interact on a regular basis -Interdependence - not only means that memebers depend on one another to achieve group goals but also that events that affect one member of the group will affect others as well

Milgram cont

-Milgram asked his colleagues what percent of people they thought would make it all the way to delivering the most "powerful" shock -Most people thought that only the most sadistic person would be able to draw out the shocks until the end /worst shock -Turns out that 65% of participants demonstrated complete obedience tp the experimenter -Meaning 65% made it to 450 volts -Milgram's participants appeared to be very stressed by the experience -----Milgram study 2-- Females- no gender differences observed in the level of obedience meaning that if people thought they were hurting a female, it still did not effect how far they went in the experiment -Milgram's basic finding have been replicated in several different countries and among many age groups and found similar results -Individuals are less obedient if demands are given over the phone

Compliance Methods

-Norm of reciprocity-- comply if someone has done something for us. We have to pay that back. We return a favor when a favor is given to us -Scarcity- Only a few items are left Ex Telling people that there are only a few units left of a item so they will buy it before it "runs out' -Authority--We will comply based on an experts credibility Ex; When doctor puts their degree on the wall to communicate credibility --Consistency: We like to remain consistent with the previous things we have said and done Ex-- Hotel guests are told that 75% of the previous guests re used their towels so they will be more likely to re use their own -Consensus-- What are other people in the same situation doing?

Misery does not love company when

-Not when we might be embarrassed -When people are told to act like a gorilla or imitate a baby-Do something embarrassing -The presence of others is seen as more anxiety provoking- especially when we are in an embarrassing situation. In these circumstances, we would rather be alone

detecting norms/ How do you know what the norms are for the group?

-Observe the bejavior of others -observe the remenants of others--when you are at panera and you're wondering if you are supposed to clear your own table, you will look at the tables of other customers who have already ate and see if they have cleared their plates -EX: Seeing the remenants of of students studying at shields when she observes abandoned coffee cups Ex2: Listening to other students refer to Klentz as professor instead of doctor so you refer to her as professor as well -When we make assumptions about the behavior of others, it may lead to inaccuracy

Asch cont

-Participants conformed 37% of the time -so some people did conform, but a lot of the participants didn't -76% conformed at least once -24% of the participants did not conform at all -Control- When participants wer asked to match the lines without others present, they did not make a mistake --Results- Yes people will conform when the answer is obvious, and many will go along with what others say on at least one occasion. But there are some who won't conform at all

Wording of request : giving reasons/mindlessness

-Phrasing of request: Excuse me, I have 5 pages to print, can I use the xerox machine? -Confederate would ask if theu could cut in line in front of another person -Are we more likely to comply if a person has a reason for cutting? --Excuse me I have 5 pages, may I use the xerox machine first as I am in a rush ----Added third reason--- I Have 5 pages, may I use the xerox machine because I have to make some copies --If people did not give a reason, 60% of the tome they were allowed by the person in front of them to cut -If reason is given for letting them cut, then 94% of the individuals who were asked if could be cut let the confederate cut -If people give a shitty reason like (I have to make copiesz) then 93% of pople still let the confederate cut -As soon as we hear the word "Because" we assume that the persons reason for cutting is coming. Because is a trigger

Obedience (Milgram)

-Purpose: Will participants obey the orders of an authority figure even when those orders involve harming another person? --Study 1: MAles recruited from New-Haven ct -Cover story-- Participants were told that the study was examining the effect of punishment on learning -Confederate: Adult male, 50 years of age -One participant nd one confederate- one was going to be teacher and one was going to be the learner -Task:: Paired associate learning task--- Teacher reads paired words---Tree--House, Care--Shoe, School--Phone --1) HAs to guess what is paired with tree -If participant is incorrect the participant has to give a shock to the other participant who is really a confederate -Participant is under the impression that they are actually delivering a shock to the other person when in reality there is just a tape recording of various reactions to pain -As confederate begins to respond, he gets some correct, and then begins to get them wrogng more regularly Ex:UGHHHHh Ouch -150 volts- confederate Asks experimenter to let them out as they cannot handle the pain of another shock -Experimenter says no and mow the teacher/participant has to decide if they should continue to deliver shock even when the confederate appears to be in real pain

Consequences of working with a free rider

-Social compensation -Sucker effect

Misery loves company. But does it?

-Study-- Welcome to experiment, you should expect to receive shocks in this experiment. -High anxiety people-- Told that the shocks would be painful..but no permanent damage -Low anxiety-- They're told that the shock is nothing more than a little tickle' -Participanta are told to wait 10 minutes for equipment to be setup-- was part of experiment -Asked if they want to wait alone or with another person who is about to undergo the same thing -If misery loves company, the participants will elect to wait with another particopant -High anxiety: 63% wanted to wait with another person -So Misery does love company Why does misery love company? -They might serve as a distraction to the misery -Participants preferred to wait with someone who was going through the same experience, so no just any person would serve as distraction -We prefer to be with poeple who are going through the same experience -We like to compare our reactions to other peopl'es reaction to the same stimuli -the mere presence of another person going through same experience is preferred -We use the reaction of others as a social comparison to figure out how nervous we should be

Sherif

-Were you infleunced by the responses of others? People would say that they weren't but they were clearly influenced by others -Especially infleunced by another person who comes across as very confident -The effect of a confident influeuncer can continue for "generations" -The confederates would establish an extreme response as the group norm -so the confederates acted very confident

pluralistic ignorance

-a false impression of what most other people are thinking or feeling, or how they are responding -when you look to others to make assumptions based on their behavior -We think that everyone is interpreting a situation a certain way, when in fact they are not -Behaving in line w your assumed group norm _ex: Homeless guy on park bench looks dead but no one else is trying to figure out if he's ok or not so you assure he's ok too -when professor asks if there are any questions at the end of class and of course you have some questions, but you first look around the room to see if other people are raising their hands. When there aren't any, you assume that everyone must understand the information when in reality they are similarly under the impression that they are the only lost ones in the class and will not raise their hands either.

pique technique

-influence technique in which one captures people's attention, as by making a novel request -People are more likely to give money when you ask for a specific amount. -Pan Handler: Do you have a quarter or any spare change? -35% gave money -Do you have 17 cents I could have? -Do you have 37 cents I can have? -70% gave an average of 25 cents -refers to making an unusual request in a solicitation. The technique is said to be effective because the unusual request gets the prospect's attention (piques their interest) making it more likely that they consider and fulfill the request

halloween study (deindividuation)

-test of deindividuation theory outside the lab -Halloween night-- 1,352 trick or treaters in seattle from 5 pm to 9 pm approached the house for experiment--did not know it was experiment -Inside front door: One bowl of bite sized candy bars One bowl of pennies and nickels -Experimenter would say: "You may have one piece of candy, I have to back to another room in order to work" -Turns out there were observers behind a decorated screen (parents could look through as well) -This helped to indicate whether kids would take more than one piece of candy or decide on the money -Dependent v-- Whether extra candy was taken or not or if money was taken -Results: When anonymous--57% of those in the group took extra--when alone 21% took extra When nonanonymous-- 21% took extra in group and 7% took extra when alone -Results supported deindividuation theory When -phenomenon in which people engage in seemingly impulsive, deviant, and sometimes violent acts in situations in which they believe they cannot be personally identified (e.g., in groups and crowds and on the Internet).

minority influence

-the case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority -However those who dissent from the majority, although often perceived as competent are usually heartily disliked EX: Martin luther king said things that were nonconforming so they were assasinated

compliance

-the tendency to agree to do things requested by others -Pressure exerted on a person when a request is made Ex--Will you loan me $20?//Will you donate to a worthy cause? -BAsed on work of robert cialdini -became part of group to observe it

3 things necessary for door in the face technique

1)It has to be the same person that makes the first and second request-- that person then makes concession and says fine, would it be ok if I just asked you a couple questions 2) time between first request and second request has to be very small, they should happen in pretty quick sucession of one another -First task has to be large enough so person will think that very fe people in their position would agree to it

Attraction: With whom are we most likely to be friends with?

2 significant factors -Proximity-- Best predictor of attraction is physical proximity or how near you are to another person -Students in college housing-- Students become friends with those who are living on same floor, dorm, neighbors -2) Similarity 3) Reciprocity

door-in-the-face technique

3asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment -Goal-- I want people to allow me to come into their homes so I can catalogue the products they use -First make very large request and then when they say no as they shoudld, you immediately ask them the second, less outrageous request, which is what brands do you rely on for your products?

Obedience

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority -Behavior change produced by the commands of authority -False confessions: Police interrogations- relate to compliance and obedience--When you confess to a crime that you did not commit -Juries evaluate: relate to fundamental attribution error--our first inclination is to attribute a behavior to an individual's internal causes -Jurors will assume that a person is confessing due to their own moral guilt -Causes of false confessions: -DO not waive miranda rights -the mindset "Why not talk, I'm innocent" -Long hours of interrogation -maximization

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. -The tendency to change perceptions, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms (going along with it) Ex: My friends want to go on a rollercoaater but I dont, howver 5 of them say yes and I say no so I decide to adjust my behavior to match that of the groups and get on the ride

expectation states theory

An explanation of status differentiation in groups, which assumes that group members allocate status to group members judged to be competent at the task at hand and to group members who have qualities that the members think are indicators of competence and potential. -When group members first meet, they form expectations about each others probable contribution to the achievement of group goals. These expectations are based not only on member's task relevant characteristics but also on diffuse status chracteristics -how expected competence forms the basis for status hierarchies in small groups.

Effect of group size on conformity

As the number of people in a majority increases, so does the tendency to conform, but only up to a unanimous majority of three or four. After that, conformity levels off. -Conformity increases w group size but only to a point -Why? 4 or 5th person has less impact so there cease to be an increase in conformity -Light bulb analogy-- Walk into a dark room and turn on 5 lights instead of turning on 3 lights. the difference in 5 and 3 light will not have much of an effect on the amount of lights in the room -Later research on the effect of group size: If the answer is unclear, then an individual will be conformed by a smaller number ("I don't now what do you think") Informational infleunce -If the answer is clear, then you will need more indiduals refuting it in order to be infleunced -3-4 is generally enough to make people conform

Similarity of attitude

Byrne: We like people who have similar attitudes to our own - the more similar the attitude, the more you like that person -Revised to the two-stage model of attraction -Dissimilarity triggers avoidance-- you find that when you have little in common, you don't want to spend as much time with that person/ avoid them -The people we do talk to and don't avoid are the similar people who are left

Attraction:Close relationships:

Do opposites attract? -Research shows that opposites do not attract -generally, we are attracted to people who are more similar to us --Matching hypothesis: People are attracted to others who are equivalent in physical attractiveness -Desire: Attractive partner -We associate with others who are similar to ourselves --Demographics (eg, religion, race, age)

Similarities and Byrne

Friends: -We associate with others similar to ourselves -Demographics - we match w those who are similar in demographucs, ie race, religion, age

interdependent group

Group in which members rely on each other's skills and knowledge to accomplish the group goals. -A set of individuals who have the following charicteristics: --Working together to achieve a common goal-working together is key --Direct interactions over a period of time (not always face-to-face) --Structured relationships- Individuals take on specific roles--different roles for different individuals -Perceive yourselves as a group meaning that you identify with this group--part of social identity Ex;Psych department

Attractiveness

Having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference. -Physical appearance

tranformational leadership

Leadership style that motivates employees by inspiring them to join in a mutually satisfying achievement. -changes or transforms the outlook and behavior of their followers, which allows them to move beyond their self interests for the good of the group/ society

Asch (1951)

Line test. Experiment in which one person set in a group of confederates and is asked to identify what lines are the same size in length. 75% of participants conformed in order to not stand out. Conformity went up as the number of confederates increased. If even one confederate did not conform, the conformity of the victim decreased.

Norm of Authority

Our third principle of influence is the principle of authority. The idea that people follow the lead of credible knowledgeable experts. Physiotherapists for example are able to persuade more of their patients to comply with recommended exercise programs if they display their medical diplomas on the walls of their consulting rooms. People are more likely to give change for a parking meter to a complete stranger if that requester wears a uniform rather than casual clothes. What the science is telling us is that it is important to signal to others what makes you a credible knowledgeable authority before you make your influence attempt. Of course this can present problems. You can hardly go around telling potential customers how brilliant you are. But you can certainly arrange for someone to do it for you. And surprisingly the science tells us that it doesn't seem to matter if the person who introduces you is not only connected to you but also likely to prosper from the introduction themselves. One group of real estate agents were able to increase both the number of property appraisals and the number of subsequent contracts that they wrote by arranging for reception staff who answered customer enquiries to first mention their colleagues' credentials and expertise. So, customers interested in letting a property were told "Lettings? Let me connect you with Sandra who has over 15 years' experience letting properties in this area." Customers who wanted more information about selling properties were told "Speak to Peter, our head of sales. He has over 20 years' experience selling properties. I'll put you through now." The impact of this expert introduction led to a 20% rise in the number of appointments and a 15% increase in the number of signed contracts. Not bad for a small change in form from persuasion science that was both ethical and costless to implement.

What is a collective?

People engaged in common activities or sharing the same space but having minimal direct interaction -an assembly of people not working together to achieve a common goal -Collectives can turn into mobs -when in a big geoup like that, we lose our sense of individuality Ex-Waiting in line at dunkin--when you get your food you leave

Asch: presence of an ally

Presence of an ally -one confederate gave correct answer -This infleunced the participant to stick with their gut feeling as he had an ally -when you have an ally, conformity will drop significantly -More difficult to stand alone but if you have another person who is willing to deviate from the norm, then you will stick w them -Ally does not have to give correct answer

Asch cont

Purpose: Will people conform when the correct answer is obvious? -Asch wanted to know the extent to which people would conform -Individuals were shown 3 lines (a b c) together and then shown another standard line and then were asked which of the lines (A b or c) were the same as the standard line -5 confederates would respond first and then the participant would answer -18 trials Ex: The first 5 confederates would say the line was the same as C and then real participant would be asked which line it was most similar to and if they said C which was cleaely not the correct answer, then they were conformed

group norms

Shared guidelines or rules for behavior that most group members follow -rules of behavior -conformity leads to orderly behavior

Conformity: Early research on conformity in 1936

Sherif-- Ambiguous answers -Will you be influenced by another? -How far will the light move -If yiu hear someone else say that the light will move 2 inches then you may make the assumption that the light moved to -Auto kinetic effect-- When in a dark environment and there is one spot of light and you continue to stare at that light, you will perceive the light as moving Ex: Pilots seeing non-blinking light and perceive it as moving

norm of reciprocity

So the first universal principle of influence is Reciprocity.: Simply put, people are obliged to give back to others the form of behavior gift, or service that they have received first. If a friend invites you to their party, there's an obligation for you to invite them to a future party you are hosting. If a colleague does you favor then you owe that colleague a favor. And in the context of a social obligation, people are more likely to say yes to those that they owe. One of the best demonstrations of the principle of reciprocation comes from a series of studies conducted in restaurants. So the last time you visit a restaurant, there's a good chance that the waiter or waitress will have given you a gift. Probably about the same time that they bring your bill. A liqueur perhaps or a fortune cookie or perhaps a simple mint. So here's the question. Does the giving of a mint have any influence over how much tip you're going to leave them? Most people will say no. But that mint can make a surprising difference. In the study, giving diners a single mint at the end of their meal, typically increased tips by around 3%. Interestingly if the gift is doubled and two mints are provided, tips don't double. They quadruple, a 14% increase in tips. But perhaps most interestingly of all, is the fact that if the waiter provides one mint, starts to walk away from the table, but pauses, turns back and says, "For you nice people, here's an extra mint," tips go through the roof. A 23% increase influenced not by what was given, but how it was given. So the key to using the principle of reciprocation is to be the first to give and to ensure that what you give is personalized and unexpected.

Need to belong/ need for affiliation

The desire to establish social contact with others and be socially accepted by these people -Individual differences-- People are similar but are def different from one another -Some have much stronger need to belong, some have much less of a need to belong -Situational differences--Under what circumstances do we want to be with others? -In celebration or sorrow, its comforting to have people who support us--when you're feeling stress or are anxious- they increase our desire for affiliation

Norm of liking

The fifth principle is the principle of Liking. People prefer to say yes to those that they like. But what causes one person to like another? Persuasion science tells us that there are three important factors. We like people who are similar to us, we like people who pay us compliments and we like people who cooperate with us towards mutual goals. As more and more of the interactions that we are having take place online it might be worth asking whether these factors can be employed effectively in let's say online negotiations. In a series of negotiation studies carried out between MBA students at two well-known business schools, some groups were told, "Time is money. Get straight down to business." In this group around 55% were able to come to an agreement. A second group however, were told, "Before you begin negotiating, exchange some personal information with each other. Identify a similarity you share in common then begin negotiating." In this group 90% of them were able to come to successful and agreeable outcomes that were typically worth 18% more to both parties. So to harness this powerful principle of liking, be sure to look for areas of similarity that you share with others and genuine compliments you can give before you get down to business.

norm of consensus

The final principle is Consensus. Especially when they are uncertain, people will look to the actions and behaviors of others to determine their own. You may have noticed that hotels often place a small card in bathrooms that attempt to persuade guests to reuse their towels and linen. Most do this by drawing a guest's attention to the benefits that reuse can have on environmental protection. It turns out that this is a pretty effective strategy leading to around 35% compliance. But could there be an even more effective way? Well it turns out that about 75% of people who check into a hotel for four nights or longer will reuse their towels at some point during their stay. So what would happen if we took a lesson from the principle of consensus and simply included that information on the cards and said that 75% of our guests reuse their towels at some time during their stay. So please do so as well. It turns out that when we do this, towel reuse rises by 26%. Now imagine the next time you stay in a hotel you saw one of these signs You picked it up and you read the following message: Seventy-five percent of people who have stayed in this room have reused their towel. What would you think? Well here's what you might think. "I hope they're not the same towels." And like most people you'd probably think that this sign will have no influence on your behavior whatsoever. But it turns out that changing just a few words on a sign to honestly point out what comparable previous guests have done was the single most effective message leading to a 33% increase in reuse. So the science is telling us that rather than relying on our own ability to persuade others we can point to what many others are already doing especially many similar others. So there we have it. Six scientifically validated principles of persuasion that provide for small practical, often costless changes that can lead to big differences in your ability to influence and persuade others in an entirely ethical way. They are the secrets from the science of persuasion.

social comparison theory

The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people -we possess a strong need to have accurate views -both about our social world and about ourselves -process involves people coming to know themselves by evaluating their own attitudes, abilities, and traits in comparison with others. In most cases, we try to compare ourselves to those in our peer group or with whom we are similar. -most likely when we are in a state of comparison concerning a relevant self- aspect

norm of consistency

The next principle is Consistency. People like to be consistent with the things they have previously said or done. Consistency is activated by looking for and asking for small initial commitments that can be made. In one famous set of studies researchers found rather unsurprisingly, that very few people would be willing to erect an unsightly wooden board on their front lawn to support a Drive Safely campaign in their neighborhood. However, in a similar neighborhood close by, four times as many homeowners indicated that they would be willing to erect this unsightly billboard. Why? Because ten days previously, they had agreed to place a small postcard in the front window of their home that signaled their support for a Drive Safely campaign. That small card was the initial commitment that led to a 400% increase in a much bigger but still consistent change. So when seeking to influence using the consistency principle, the detective of influence looks for voluntary, active and public commitments and ideally gets those commitments in writing. For example, one recent study reduced missed appointments at health centers by 18% simply by asking the patients, rather than the staff to write down appointment details on the future appointment card.

physical attractiveness stereotype

The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good.

Norm of Scarcity

The second universal principle of persuasion is Scarcity. Simply put, people want more of those things they can have less of. When British Airways announced in 2003 that they would no longer be operating the twice daily London-New York Concorde flight because it had become uneconomical to run, sales the very next day took off. Notice that nothing had changed about the Concorde itself. It certainly didn't fly any faster, the service didn't suddenly get better, and the airfare didn't drop. It had simply become a scarce resource. And as a result, people wanted it more. So when it comes to effectively persuading others using the scarcity principle, the science is clear. It's not enough simply to tell people about the benefits they'll gain if they choose your products and services. You'll also need to point out what is unique about your proposition and what they stand to lose if they fail to consider your proposal.

Does physical attractiveness influence how a person is perceived?

Yes -There is a stereotype that physically attractive people are inherently good and have other desirable traits and charicteristics The Attractive person stereotype: Physically attractive people are judged to be : -smart -successful--Happy---Well adjusted--Socially skilled--confident--assertive

sucker effect

a condition in which some group members, not wishing to be considered suckers, reduce their own efforts when they see social loafing by other group members -When you reduce your own effort rather than being exploited by free rider -A person's reaction to free riding depends on the reason the free rider has for not doing work -If they have low ability to help- meaning they have to take care of their sick grandmother or something, then other group members won;'t be as upset

cognitive clarity

a desire to obtain information from others regarding the nature and dangerousness of the threat -When there is an upcoming fearful event or medical procedure, people will prefer to be with others who have successfully completed the scary medical procedure so they can tell you how easy or harsh it was

production blocking

a loss of productivity in brainstorming sessions due to the unstructured nature of brainstorming -Waiting for your turn to speak-you might forget idea as you are waiting -Ex:Picked as the fifth speaker and then forget what you were gonna say when its your turn

body esteem

a person's attitudes toward his or her body

normative influence

a phenomenon that occurs when another person's behavior provides information about what is appropriate -When you fear the consequences (social rejection) of appearing deviant. You feel rewarded by going along with the group -You don't want to be the one that is different as you want to fit in -Normative Influence is conformity based on one's desire to fulfill others' expectations and gain acceptance -when a person conforms to gain rewards or avoid punishments from another person or group. -when you change your behavior because your afraid others might laugh at you or be evaluated negatively -Ex- asch's participants agreed with other participants to avoid being laughed at

that's-not-all technique

a sales technique in which the persuader makes an offer and then adds something extra to make the offer look better before the target person can make a decision -The deal keeps getting better and better -Experimental: Will you buy this cup cake for $1.25? Wait actually for you it will only be 1$ -Control group-- Will you buy this cupcake for $1, which is the real price -There shouldn't be a difference in outcome -Experimental-- 55% bought the cupcake as they thought they were getting a deal -Control-- 20% bought the cupcake

temporal model of group membership

a theory of group membership describing the changes that occur over time in members and in the group due to their mutual influence and interdependence -examines not only how people are changed through their membership to a group but also how the group is changed by individual members' ideas or actions --Three psychological processes that propel people into and out of groups are the ongoing evaulations, the individual and the group make of one another, the feeling of commitment that follows these evaluations, and then the role transitions that result from these changes in commitment --2 phases of evaluation occur during the course of group membership -1) The degree to which the individual meets the needs of the group 2)The degree to which the group meets the needs of the individual

social skills training

a therapy approach that helps people learn or improve social skills and assertiveness through role playing and rehearsing of desirable behaviors -programs to promote greater relationship satisfaction -cover areas such as initiating conversation, speaking fluently on the telephone, giving and receiving compliments, having periods of silence, learning non verbal methods of communication, and actively listening to what others have to say in a conversation

low balling

a two-step compliance technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs -Often used in car sales -You negotiate a price for a new car and settle on the price of $2000 on the trade in for a new car -salesman says he has to talk to the manager...comes back out and says that their manager won't agree to the $2000 price and that they will take for $799 -They first get you to agree to the original deal, then changes it after you have already made a commitment -Based on the desire to keep commitment -You will keep that commitment from original deal and allow them to have car for a lower price

informational influence

conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people -When we believe that others are correct in their judgements--- going along with others because you assume what they are doing is correct -occurs when an individual conforms due to the belief that others have ore accurate information -especially relevant when we don't trust our own judgements -Informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either because stimuli are intrinsically ambiguous or because there is social disagreement. -Ex- Asch's participants thought that the unanimously responding confederates right have a more accurate view of the lines, so they respond to that informational influence.

free riding

enjoying the benefits of some good or action while letting others bear the costs -group members who put in little effort -Very little effort in at least one individual's output -But, this person will benefit from the final outcome of the group -Typically someone compensates for the lack of effort

attraction

feeling of being drawn toward another and desiring the company of a person -Forming friendships or committed realtionships

sequential request strategies

foot in the door, lowballing, door in the face, that's not all

immediacy

how close or involved people appear to be with each other

social facilitation

improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered -Social facilitation is defined as improvement or decrease in individual performance when working with other people rather than alone. In addition to working together with other people, social facilitation also occurs in the mere presence of other people

interpersonal attraction

liking or having the desire for a relationship with another person -the desire to approach other people

Stanley Milgram

obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions

Continuum of Social Influence

obedience, compliance, conformity, independence, assertiveness, defiance

Anticonformity

opposition to social influence on all occasions, often caused by psychological reactance -The anticonformist will purposefully dress in an unusual and perhaps offensive way in order to demonstrate anti conformity -Take the road less travleled

evaluation apprehension

people's concern about how they might appear to others, or be evaluated by them -What will people think? I better not say it just in case

social power

power used to create motivation or to accomplish group goals -refers to the force available to the influencer, in motivating this change- -This power can originated from having access to certain resources, due to one's social position in society, or from being liked or admired by others

independence

self-reliance and freedom from outside control

self-aspects

summaries of a person's beliefs about the self in specific domains, roles, or activities

performance matching

tendency to match performance to that of the least productive member -Ill work as hard as the other in the group Ex: Someone with more ideas makes you want to contribute more ideas

Social influence

the effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior -involves the exercise of social power by a person or group to change the attitudes or behavior of others in a particular direction

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group -The tendency for discussion to enhance the initial attitudes of people who already agree -exaggeration of group member's initial attitudes through discussion -They reinforce eachother's similarly held attitudes, values and world views

social anxiety

the fear people experience while doubting that they'll be able to create a desired impression -Social anxiety- the unpleasant emotion that we experience due to our concern with interpersonal evaluation and the loss of social status -This anxiety causes us to frequently or occasionally avoid social interaction -Less likely to initiate interactions, -we talk less -sometimes stutter or stammer when we do talk -disclose less about ourselves -withdraw fro anxiety provoking

social impact theory

the idea that conforming to social influence depends on the group's importance, immediacy, and the number of people in the group -The amount of influence others have in a given situation is a function of 3 factors , their number, their strength, and the immediacy -Number- people will be more influenced when there are more of them -Strength-- stronger sources of infleunce -Immediacy-- When they are physically close

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity -Four input variables 1)Group presence 2)Anonymity-whether your presence in anonymous 3)Arousal-Feeling some sort of physiological arousal 4)reduced responsibility -Consequence-- impulsive behaviors-- Negative behaviors (aggression, cheating, etc) -phenomenon in which people engage in seemingly impulsive, deviant, and sometimes violent acts in situations in which they believe they cannot be personally identified (e.g., in groups and crowds and on the Internet).

group think

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives -groups are sometimes susceptible to an extreme form of group polarization -This condition refers to a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment in groups that have an excessive desire to reach consensus -emerges when maintaining a pleasant social atmosphere becomes more important than making the best decision -high group cohesiveness-when people are more strongly attracted to a group, and want badly to be accepted by it, they are more likely to allow group members to influence their thinking and actions -threatening situational context -structural and procedural faults

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them -The more often we are exposed to a stimulus the more we come to like that stimulus -Allows the opportunity for interaction -same sports team same residence hall -will sit next to eachother and succumb to that mere exposure effect

Brainstorming

the process of getting a group to think of unlimited ways to vary a product or solve a problem -A technique that attempts to increase the production of creative ideas--often face-to-face meeting --Rules of brainstorming 1)Quantity over quality 2)Build on other's ideas 3)No idea is too wild 4)no evaluation of ideas What goes wrong? -Brainstorming groups are not as effective as the same number of individuals working alone

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way -you feel less personally responsible for task outcomes as the presence of others allows you to feel ok about not taking responsibility -Diffusion of responsibility occurs when people who need to make a decision wait for someone else to act instead. The more people involved, the more likely it is that each person will do nothing, believing someone else from the group will probably respond.

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable -individual effort is not identifiable -Every member of the group relates compared to effort when working alone -May not be aware of loafing

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request -Goal_ I want people to allow me into their homes so I can catalogue the products they use -You first make a small request then you ask about your real goal --Small request: What stores do u=you frequently shop at? --The you wait a few days and a person from the same organization comes back and asks the larger request: Can I come into your home to catlogue the products you use? Ex:: Asking people to put small sign in their window supporting safe driving and then asking them 2 weeks later if they would be willing to put a sign in their driveway which was the real goal all along. -The first request (the smaller one) is the foot in the door

minority slowness effect

the tendency of those who hold a minority opinion to express that opinion less quickly than people who hold the majority opinion -People with a minority opinion are particularly slow in stating their views when they perceive the majority opinion to be widely held -The minority view point is not for the weak of heart

compliance

the tendency to agree to do things requested by others -changing attitudes die to a direct request

sexual objectification

the tendency to think about women in a narrow way as objects rather than full humans, as if their physical appearance is all that matters -females are taught that their body is an object is a significant factor in how others will judge their overall value. The act of treating a person as a mere object of sexual desire

social exchange theory

the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs -People seek out and maintain those relationships in which rewards exceed costs, and they avoid or terminate relationships when costs are greater than rewards -people seek to maximize plezure and minimize pain -people will be attracted to those who best reward them

psychological reactance

the theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive -It states that people believe they possess specific behavioral freedoms and that they will react against, and resist attempts to limit this freedom

group dynamics

the ways in which individuals affect groups and the ways in which groups influence individuals -social psychologists have examined factors that influence group performance -What can go right? What can go wrong?

lonliness

unhappiness resulting from a gap between the social relationships we currently have and those we desire -having a smaller or less satisfying network of social and intimate relationships than we desire

social compensation

working harder in a group than when alone to compensate for other members' lower output -Work harder to compensate for the lack of effort from one individual/free rider