Social Psychology Exam 2
What is self-efficacy? What should be expected from having a strong self-efficacy or a weak self-efficacy?
A persons evaluation of persons ability to reach a goal or perform a certain behavior.
Four types of discrimination
A)interpersonal (treating others unfairly because of group membership) B)organizational (when practices rules and policies of formal organization have discriminatory outcomes. C)institutions (when norms, policies, and practices, associated with social institutions results in different outcomes for members of different groups) D)cultural (one group retains the power to define the cultures value system).
What does the self-perception theory say according to Daryl Bem? Explain how deindividuation, self-consciousness, and disinhibition are all related to the self-perception theory.
According to Daryl Bem, we don't know how we think until we see how we act (self observation). Our behavior seems to determine our attitudes. Deindividuation-(the loss of self-awareness in groups) Self-consciousness-(being aware of your own body and its interactions with the environment) Disinhibition-(saying or doing something without thinking about the repercussions.)
What is learned helplessness?
According to Seligman, depression emerges when we think failure is inevitable. Depression is produced when we believe events are independent of behavior. uncontollable events-->expectation lack of control-->helplessnes-->depression
What are attitudes? How are they formed? How are they structured?
Attitudes are evaluation of various aspects of the social world. Some attitude are stable and resistant to change, while others may be unstable and show considerable variability depending on the situation. Attitudes help us understand peoples responses to new stimuli. Attitude predicts behavior. They are changed by persuasion through communication, membership in anew group, increased familiarity with the object. Attitudes are structured with complexity (how many variables are involved,) flexibility (is it still open to change,) and values (interrelated with attitudes.)
Understand what cognitive dissonance is and the circumstances that must be present in order for it to occur. How do we cope with cognitive dissonance?
Cognitive dissonance is an internal state that results when individuals notice inconsistence between two or more attitudes or between their attitudes and their behavior. When we cant justify our attitude inconsistency behavior we may end up changing our attitudes.
What are some things that can affect the persuasive ability of the individual?
Communication, audience and messages.
Explain the contact hypothesis.
Contact hypothesis is the view that increases contact between members of various social groups can be effective in reducing prejudice between them.
Bem's research
Daryl Bam believed people often come to know attitudes by inferring them from self observations. "I do therefore I am."
Explicit vs. Implicit Attitudes
Explicit Attitudes are consciously accessible attitudes that are controllable and easy to report. implicit attitudes are unconscious associations between objects and evaluative responses.
Messages that arouse strong fear
Fear appeals are an attempt to change peoples behaviors by use of a message that is fear-inducing.
Understand the relationship between gender and discrimination, gender stereotypes, social categorization, ingroup vs. outgroup, contact hypothesis
Gender stereotypes are the characteristics of men and women, women are usually the opposite of men with gender stereotype. social categorization is the cognitive process used by humans to simplify their social environment (can be involved in prejudice.) ingroup- us outgroup- them contact hypothesis is the view that increased contact between members of various social groups can be effective in reducing prejudice between them.
What did LaPiere's study show us about attitudes?
LaPiere is the man who did the survey in 1934 asking a variety of hotels and restaurants if they would provide service to Chinese travelers. Of the 128 places asked, 92% said they would refuse service to them. However when he took a Chinese couple out, they were treated kindly in all but one establishment. This pointed out the difficulty of predicting actual behavior form reported attitudes. People criticized this study because they didn't visit only they surveyed establishments, and they had a white man with them (that's why they were treated nicely.)
Observational learning
Operational learning is a basic form of learning in which individual acquire new forms of behavior as results of observing others.
What is persuasion? What are the two aspects of persuasion that result in the change of an attitude? What is the heuristic-systematic model of persuasion?
Persuasion is an effort to change others attitudes through se of various kinds of messages. The two aspects that result in the change of an attitude is central -rational information based reasoning and peripheral non-cognitive methods.
What is reactance, self-regulation
Reactance is a negative reaction to threats to one's personal freedom. self-regulation is the limited capacity to engage our willpower and control our own thinking and emotions.
What is reactance and how is it related to control?
Reactance is a negative reaction to threats to ones personal freedoms. Reactance often increases resistance to persuasion and can even produce an attitude change opposite to what was intended.
Understand the relationship between self-esteem and gender differences.
Research shows a slight, but consistent, trend for differences in self-esteem among men and women. Women have lower self-esteem when they reside in countries where women have little social power.
Know the key elements to David Rosenhan's study (why was it important?).
Rosenhan's study was the one where the people were put into mental hospitals and told to act normal. The only thing they claimed to be wrong was they were hearing voices and were diagnosed with schizophrenia. 5 men and 3 women went in, they were in there from 7-52 days. As the pseudo patients were in there they witnessed physical abuse. Their time with psychologist daily ranged from 3.9 minutes to 25.1 minutes. The people in the institution weren't able to identify who was mentally ill and those who were mentally sane.
Explain the difference between self-efficacy and self-esteem.
Self-efficacy is a persons evaluation of persona ability to reach a goal or perform a certain behavior. Self-esteem is the evaluation of ourselves along a positive-negative continuum—our attitude about the self.
Seligman's work on depression. How do people maintain a positive self-perception.
Seligman believed depression emerges when we think failure is inevitable. Depression is produced when we believed events are independent of behavior. Uncontrollable events-->expectation lack of control-->helplessness-->depression
Know Sherif's Robber's Cave Experiment and its relationship to prejudice.
Sherif's and Robber's cave experiment is the study of the young boys, how they made them dislike each other and cause competition, then bring then together in the end. Phase one: group identity is developed. Phase two: competition between the groups, persistent conflict. Phase three: attempt to decrease conflict between groups.
Explain the social comparison theory. How do we behave according to this theory? Upward vs downward.
Social comparison is comparing ourselves to others. Downward social comparisons involve comparing ourselves to someone who is in a worse state than us, thereby raising our self-esteem (e.g., finding someone with a worse test grade than ours). Upward social comparisons involve comparing ourselves to someone who is in a better state than us, thereby decreasing self-esteem (e.g., finding someone who is a better athlete that we are).
Understand the process of social cognition.
Social psychology leaned on cognitive concepts. People tend to have accurate information about abilities. Vulnerable to host of faulty judgements.
Explain what a stereotype is and how it relates to gender. Stereotype threat.
Stereotype are cognitive frameworks towards social groups. Gender stereotypes are the characteristics of men and women, women are usually the opposite of men with gender stereotype. Stereotype threat is a belief that one may be judged based on a negative stereotype of their group.
Understand what the sleeper effect is and the relationship it has with attitudes.
The sleeper effect is when the effects of a persuasive communication increase with the passage of time.
Explain the social judgment theory.
The social judgement theory was according to Carolyn Sherif, Muzafer Sherif and Carl Hovalnd. It is a persuasion theory that states perception and evaluation of an idea by comparing it with current attitudes. Attitude changes occur at the end of the process where a person understands a message and compares it to the persons position.
Know Fishbein and Azjen's theory of planned behavior.
The theory of planned behavior states that attitudes, subject norms, and perceived behavior control play a role into your intention which plays a role into behavior.
Elaboration likelihood model
There are two routes to attitude formation: peripheral route processing (non-cognitive methods) and central route processing (rational information based reasoning). Each route is defined by the likelihood that the person who receives an argument will elaborate on it by generating his/her own thoughts and opinions in response. no thinking about issue<------>enormous mental activity
Know Festinger and Carlsmith's classic experiment. What can be concluded from it?
This is the study where they askes students to dull tasks for an hour. some were given $1-$20 to lie to another person telling them the task wasn't dull. the result concluded that the people the people that were paid more had external reasoning (no dissonance) while the others had insufficient justification.
Inoculation Procedure
This procedure become less resistant to attribute change it presented with a few opposing facts.
Define the following: Tokenism, Modern Racism, and Bona Fide Pipeline. How do these all relate to racial equality?
Tokenism-A)hiring based on group membership. B)numerical infrequence presence of member in a particular category. Modern racism-belief that minorities are seeking and receiving ore benefits than deserved. Bona Fide Pipeline- brief exposure to faces from different ethnic backgrounds (negative attitudes to these cultures) which causes people to respond faster to words with negative meanings.
What is a social group? Explain what kind of social groups there are.
a social group is two or more humans who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity. The basic types of groups are primary, secondary, collective and categories.
ABC's of attitude
a-Affect (emotional) b-Behaviors (action) c-Cognition (knowledge)
ABC's of the self
a-Affect (self-esteem) (mood) b-Behaviors (self presentation) (includes actions) c-Cognition (self concept)
Self-promotion
attempts to ensure that other form impressions focus based on our most favorable aspects.
Situational vs. dispositional attributions
dispositional attribution error is the process of assigning a behaviors' causes to internal characteristics. Situational attribution assigns the behavior's cause to an event or situation outside the individual's control.
What does it mean to be under a glass ceiling or on a glass escalator? How do these terms fit with gender-based discrimination? What is objectification of females, glass cliff,
glass ceiling is a barrier that women hit when trying to get to top positions. glass escalator is the way men (typically white) are put on a fast track to the top positions. glass cliff is in crisis situations women are offered a position with increased like hood for failure.
personal-social identity continuum
personal-social identity continuum is described as the self can be categorized as a unique being (personal) or member of a certain group (social).
What is prejudice?
prejudice is involving negative emotional responses towards members of a group.
What is social categorization and its relationship to ultimate attribution error?
social categorization is the cognitive process used by humans to simplify their social environment (can be involved in prejudice.) The ultimate attribution error is tying positive feelings to our group and negative feelings to the other group.
Social identity theory
social identity theory is concerned with the consequences of perceiving the self as a member of a social group and identifying with it.
What should be expected from having a strong self-efficacy or a weak self-efficacy?
strong self-efficacy: sets high goals, responds to substandard performance with more effort , increases self-efficacy feelings. lacking self-efficacy: avoid these areas, limits experiences, no opportunity to increase self-efficacy feelings.
Explain the difference between social and personal identity.
the self cam ne categorized as a unique being (personal) or a member of a certain group (social).
