Social Psychology Exam 2

Discuss the relative persuasiveness of one-sided versus two-sided appeals.

1 sided appeal is more effective when they already agree AND when the audience won't interrupt. For example: Selling lipstick- no need to tell the customer it will look bad. 2 sided appeal is for example: The apartment is closer to school but cost $500 more, but think of all the great things. (When trying to persuade roommate to move).. *2 sided appeal is more persuasive*

What are the consequences of having a 6-person vs 12-person jury? Why do 6-person juries particularly disadvantage smaller demographic groups within the community?

6 person jury: Allies are less likely, which reduces likelihood of deserting views, less likely to represent minority segments of the population, they spend less time discussing the case.. *but unanimous verdict more likely.*

What is the relationship between aging and attitude formation and change?

70+ are particularly formative adult years; *attitude change* is greatest -life cycle explanation -generational explanation (better supported) -Life stages Hypothesis

Discuss post-decision dissonance

After we have made a decision, we will feel dissonance regarding the possibility of it being wrong. We will often change our perceptions to reduce this dissonance and make the decision seem more attractive.

How did the "coin toss" variation impact the study's findings?

Batson and his colleagues asked participants to assign experimental tasks to themselves and an unknown participant, knowing that one task was more fun and rewarding than the other. Participants were given an opportunity to flip a coin while alone to make the decision, but it was made clear that this was not required

According to your text, why are eyewitnesses often wrong?

Biased instructions and simultaneous lineups

How is credibility communicated in persuasive messages?

Credibility makes the message appear confident which can be persuasive.

Describe the moral hypocrisy studies conducted by Batson and his colleagues in 1997 and 1999 and presented in class lecture?

Defined by Batson et al.: "morality [being] extolled—even enacted—not with an eye to producing a good and right outcome but in order to appear moral yet still benefit oneself"

Injunctive and descriptive norms

Descriptive norms: everyone's doing it Injunctive norms: you're supposed to do it

Is feeling that you have a choice in your attitude and the consequences of your actions are foreseeable likely to make cognitive dissonance stronger or weaker?

Stronger

According to Gawronski and Strack (2004), why does dissonance not affect implicit attitudes?

Dissonance relies on conscious mental inferences (explicit)

In what cultures might the phenomenon we call "conformity" be considered more positively?

Economic struggle Nationalism Social changes Collectivist

What is inoculation theory? Give an example

Exposure to the weak counterarguments so refutations are available when later encountering stronger arguments. Prove to be false. Example: Cambell vs Progresso

Foot-in-the-Door

Involves getting a person to agree to a large request by first setting them up by having that person agree to a modest request. --Time: sense of self has change *MORE EFFECTIVE

How do people low in need for cognition tend to process information when they are jurors?

Peripheral route to persuasion: Influence elicited with incidental cues, such as a *speaker's attractiveness* Might change or be reinforced based on the effectiveness of factors other than the message Less enduring and subject to change through future persuasive messages

Discuss primacy vs recency effects in persuasion

Primacy effect: early information is most persuasive Recency effect: later information is most persuasive if it immediately precedes the decision, especially if the other side was presented much earlier

Ingratiation

The Sliming Effect --psychological technique in which an individual attempts to become more attractive or likeable to their target. "How ya doin', handsome ;)"

What is the social psychological definition of persuasion?

The process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

Know the Asch line study. What is the exact manipulation? What percentage of people conformed at least once in Asch (1955)? According to your text, in what variation of the Asch paradigm was a dramatic reduction in conformity observed?

Would you misreport your perceptions to conform with others? Which line A,B, or C is closet to the height of line D. "The Line Study" ...Someone would conform to lie & maybe say C to conform with the others if they said C too.... 75% people conformed at least once. 37% of response were conforming with others. No punishment for wrong answer. People believed they were right, but were under pressure still.

Do behaviors produce attitudes? Discuss role-playing, the Zimbardo Prison Experiment, the saying becomes believing effect, and the foot-in-the door phenomenon in elaborating on your answer.

Yes, your behaviors influence your attitude.

Will you later like a blind date more if your friend promised to buy your dinner and movie tickets if you'll take him/her out (your friend is dating the blind date's friend) or if your friend promised to buy you a diet coke if you take him/her out? What does this have to do with the Festinger & Carlsmith,1959, study?

"less-leads-to-more- effect"..less reasons rewards for an action often leads to greater attitude change...."Boring experiment task"- People who got paid less did a $20 justification for lying- "less interesting", $1 no justification for lying <----Changed attitudes more by convincing themselves it was interesting to reduce dissonance.

Give two examples of racial bias in jury decisions, according to class lecture.

(1). African Americans receive harsher sentences (2). African American victims treated less seriously than white victims. 4.5% of people who believe black people will receive on death sentence.

List, describe, and give an example of 5 ways in which one can alleviate the tension associated with cognitive dissonance.

(1). Attitude or situational change, (2). Minimize negative consequences (3). Minimize personal responsibility (4). Denial, (5). Bolstering

List and describe factors that influence conformity (e.g., group size).

(1). Group Size, (2). Unanimity: just one person not conforming could change the whole group (3). Cohesion: the tighter the group the more influence. Powerful in inducing conformity (4). Status: higher status people have more influence (5). Public Response (6). Prior Commitment, (7). Culture: cultural differences

How does group deliberation influence verdicts?

(1). Some evidence for group polarization (2). Sicking with initial majority view (3).*Leniency Bias*: Jurors more likely to vote "guilty" individually than a group.

Under what constraints do attitudes show improved ability to predict behavior? Explain each and be able to provide examples.

(1). The principle of Aggregation- an attitude predicts the aggregate of one's behaviors better than any specific behavior. (2). Attitudes better predict behavior when the attitude are specific to the behavior. For Example: Commercial about condoms, sexy attitude so that we can put a certain action into the reason to use a condom. (3). Attitudes better predict behavior when the attitudes are made salient. (4). Attitudes predict behavior when the attitudes have been forged by experience. If our attitudes came from our own personal experience we are more likely to react. For Example: Dorms are packed so some have to sleep in the gym; the ones sleeping on the cots are going to protest more. (5). It is aways helpful to get people's true attitudes.

What are some of the general factors that influence juries, according to social psychological research?

(1).Defendant & victim characteristics (2). Judge's instructions (3). Group dynamics (4). Individual differences.

How are jury decisions affected by a defendant's attractiveness? When is a defendant better off being LESS attractive? Discuss findings concerning attractiveness and jury (and judge) decisions in relation to sexual harassment cases, in particular.

(A). Physically Attractive Defendants are less likely to be convicted of crimes and more likely to receive lenient sentences..UNLESS (1). attractiveness seen to be atoll used in the crime (2). unattractive people are seen as "dangerous", especially if they are sexual offenders, lower bail and lower fines for prettier people.

Power Posing Article

(Carney et al., 2010) Hypothesized that high power poses cause mental, physiological, and behavioral change in manner consistent with the effects of power. Elevated testerone Decreased cortisol Increased feelings of power Higher risk for risk tolerance

What is group polarization? What are two reasons that it occurs, according to social psychological research? Give examples

(neutral) Group-produced enhancement of member's preexisting tendencies Selective attention (of your arguments) Social comparison (be more extreme)

What is the protection motivation theory? What are the four beliefs associated with it? Give an example of an advertisement employing a fear appeal and explain why that ad would or would not be effective, according to protection motivation theory

*Beliefs must be created in order for fear appeals to be effective* 1. Problem is severe 2. You are susceptible to the problem 3. The recommended behaviors will be effective in avoiding the problem *DO* efficacy 4. You are capable of performing the recommended behaviors

Compare and contrast the central and peripheral routes to persuasion. Which path is more likely to be utilized when we are not motivated to think systematically about an issue and/or hav a weak message? If you have a strong message? Which route leads to longer-lasting change?

*Central Route* to persuasion focus on the content of the argument. Able or motivated to think systematically to the positive & the *Peripheral Route* to persuasion influence elicited via incidental cue's such as a speaker's attractiveness.

Discuss ways to most effectively communicate complex vs simple messages.

*Complex messages* are more persuasive when *read* *Simple messages*are more persuasive when *seen* and *heard* (ex, video)

Discuss the following varieties of conformity and their relationship to one another: compliance, acceptance, and obedience.

*Conformity* A change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure. *Compliance* publicly acting in accord with social pressure while privately disagreeing, for ex: no food in class, i publicly act in accordance but i privately want to eat. *Acceptance* both acting & believing in accord with social pressure. *Compliance can lead to acceptance* *Obedience* acting in accord with a direct order

What is the difference between an implicit attitude and an explicit attitude?

*Explicit attitudes* are conscious and reportable and *Implicit attitudes* are attitudes that are uncontrollable and perhaps not consciously accessible to us.

When do moderate vs extreme appeals lead to more behavioral change?

*Moderate Appeals* work better for those who are not credible sources- "relationship partner says work out more" *Extreme appeals* work better if credible.. "Doctor says workout more"

Low-balling

*NOT EFFECTIVE* This strategy involves getting a person to make a commitment and then raising the terms or stakes of that commitment.

Discuss how these findings might relate to self-perception theory: -How to discourage bullying in your kids -The mere exposure effect

-Empathy -People tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.

Symptoms of groupthink (8)

1. An illusion of invulnerability 2. A belief in the group's inherent morality 3. Collective rationalism 4. Stereotyped views of the "enemy" 5. Self-censorship of ideas by group members 6. An illusion of unanimity 7. Direct pressure on group members who deviate 8. The emergence of mind guarding (protect leader) from unthinkable

Antecedents of groupthink (6)

1. Highly cohesive group 2. Group members have similar backgrounds 3. Group is isolated 4. Strong leader 5. No system for critical review 6. Stressful situations

What are some of the factors that determine whether someone is likely to be selected as the jury foreperson?

1. Male 2. Higher occupation status 3. Spoke first 4. The person seated at the front of the table

What percentage of jurors is likely to be low in need for cognition on jurors' processing of case information?

1/3 of jurors tend to set "schemas" early on in the trial & then filter the remaining information through that schema. These individuals tend to score LOWER in *need for cognition*

What does the need for cognition scale measure?

A need to structure relevant situations in meaningful, integrated ways. It is a need to understand and make reasonable the experiential world

What is the bogus pipeline? What do mean when we say contemporary researchers are seeking a "real" pipeline through physiological measures?

A research paradigm designed to reduce the effect of self-presentational motivations on attitudinal and behavioral self-reports first implemented by Jones and Sigall (1971). Highly effective. Perceive people into disclosing their personal attitudes.

What is the principle of aggregation? Give an example.

Aggregation: Cluster or collection. An attitude predicts the aggregate of one's behaviors better than any specific behavior. Example: attendance and grade in class

Discuss the life stages hypothesis and its relationship to persuasion.

Aging and susceptibility to attitude change

Cognitive Dissonance

An aversive state that arises when one is simultaneously aware of inconsistent attitudes, thoughts, or beliefs. (a) we are motivated to alleviate this tension. *Plays a large role in ATTITUDE CHANGE* (b) Tension is greater when: 1. We believe that we have/had a choice about our actions. 2. The consequences of our actions are fore-seeable.

What is groupthink?

An excessive tendency among group members to seek agreement. *coined by Irving Janis*

Define attitudes. What is an "attitude object?"

Attitude: A favorable or unfavorable evaluation of an *Attitude object* (a person or thing) exhibited in one's feelings, beliefs, or intended behaviors.

Through what route to persuasion are high need for cognition individuals more likely to be influenced?

Central Route to Persuasion: Focus is on the context of the argument; *able, systematic* Attitude will change or be reinforced based on message characteristics such as strength of argument and relevancy More enduring and less subject to counterarguments

In what capacity might a social psychologist work in legal system?

Consulting, Forensics

What is the one symptom of groupthink that Janis argues did not apply to the Watergate cover-up?

Failed to take in consideration of future consequences (covering up scandal as long as they did)

Summarize the research discussed in class about the relationship between botox and empathy. .

Embodiment: we consult our physical states as cues to what we feel Involuntary facial expression plays a causal role in the processing of emotional language.

What are some examples of peripheral cues?

Ex. Proactiv commercial - The Central route would be: Before and after pics and the Peripheral route would be: the celebrities used...Might use peripheral when you have a really bad product or weak message. More persuasive if you tap them into the peripheral route.

What is facial electromyography (facial EMG); how is it used to study attitudes?

Facial EMG measures facial muscle activation to assess emotions.

True or false: We get tired of hearing messages over and over; therefore, these messages lose their appeal. Explain why this statement is or is not correct.

False; Repetition breeds beliefs

What are some characteristics of people high vs low in need for cognition?

High NFC: -Preference for complex problem-solving tasks -General intelligence -Lower dogmatism -Seeking issue-relevant in forming attitudes -*Greater attitude-behavior consistency* -Self-esteem, creativity, effective problem-solving -Masculine gender-role attitudes Low NFC: -Feminine/androgyny -Sociability -Shyness -Formal education

How would you determine if a bad decision is the result of groupthink or not? Are all bad decisions the product of groupthink?

If there is no critical review. Not all.

What does it mean to say that jury forepersons are often only "nominal leaders?"

Influences how the jury functions, but not the decision

What famous series of experiments was responsible for the establishment of Institutional Review Boards (IRBS) in the United States? What is the purpose of IRBSs?

Milgrim Obedience Experiment and Stanford Prison Experiment

What does My Lai have to do with the research of Stanley Milgram?

My Lai was important when it came to the Milgram studies when looking at why people obey. The My Lai incident where innocent women and children were killed. Those who did the killing were asked to explain why they did the killing and they explained that it was because they wanted to obey and because they were told to do it. How far will you go when conforming and obeying to authority.

How can police avoid the "best guess" problem i eyewitness identification, according to social psychological research?

Neutral instructions and sequential lineups

Normative vs informational influence

Normative conformity is conformity that occurs because of the desire to be liked and accepted. Informational conformity, which is conformity that occurs because of the desire to be correct.

Self-Perception Theory

Often we don't really know our attitudes; rather, we infer them from our behavior. We don't feel tension bc we're not faced with inconsistencies. *Plays a large role in ATTITUDE FORMATION*

Self-Presentation Theory

Our behaviors aim to create desired impressions Want to act consistent with beliefs Change and express attitudes to *match our behavior in order to look good to others* Doesn't provide full picture

The Zimbardo Prison Experiment

Philip Zimbardo conducted an experiment in which participants played the roles of guards and prisoners in a mock-prison set up in the basement of the psychology department at Stanford University. Originally slated to last two weeks, the experiment had to be terminated after just six days after the guards began displaying abusive behavior and the prisoners became anxious and highly stressed. *The experiment demonstrated how people will comply with the expectations that come from certain social roles.*

Door-in-the-Face

Principle of Repricrocity; compromise --First make a request of the other person that is excessive and to which they will most naturally refuse. Look disappointed but then make a request that is more reasonable. The other person will then be more likely to accept.

What pronouncement by Allan Wicker elicited a minor crisis in social psychology in the 1970s? Elaborate.

Psychologist Allan Whicker said "It may be desirable to abandon the attitude concept" "If attitudes have nothing to do with actions, should we even study it?"

Why might group polarization lead to increased intergroup hostility?

Rejection of counter-arguments and criticism

Milgram, 1974: We spent more than a day on this series of experiments alone. The topic is also covered extensively in your text. So you'll want to be very familiar with the details of these studies, particularly the three versions of the paradigm discussed in class. Also, be familiar with the ethical controversy surrounding these experiments.

Revealed the power of authority could be used to get people to conform. In these experiments, participants were directed by the experimenter to deliver electrical shocks to another person. Even though the shocks were not real, the participants genuinely believed that they were shocking the other person. *Milgram found that 65 percent of people would deliver the maximum, possibly fatal electrical shocks on the orders of an authority figure.*

What are the implications of cognitive dissonance and the overjustification effect for rewarding children's behaviors?

Rewards reduce intrinsic motivation

Which theory focuses on "arousal": cognitive dissonance or self-perception?

Self-perception

How are jury decisions affected by the defendant's similarity to jurors?

Similarity to the jurors lead to lower likelihood of conviction for defendants.

What is the sleeper effect, in general, and how might it influence what brand of tortillas you buy?

Sleeper Effect argues that the commercials that influence us the most, we forget. ~Delayed impact of a message when source of message is forgotten but message is remembered.

Do attitudes predict behavior: What was the initial assumption and what did research in 1950s and 1960s suggest?

Social psychologists initia assumption was "YES" Research by Wicker and others in the 1950s and 1960s suggested "NO".

How does attractiveness impact persuasion concerning subjective preferences vs objective reality? What makes someone attractive to us?

Subjective preference; beautiful and similar to us

Discuss own-race bias

The idea that we are better at recognizing faces that we are more familiar with, essentially that of our same race, is known as

How would knowing someone's need for cognition score help you decide which type of advertisement would work better on them?

The Elaboration Likelihood Model: The model suggests that people express either high or low elaboration (that is, their level of effort) when they encounter a persuasive message. The level of elaboration then determines which processing route the message takes: central or peripheral

What is the implicit association test (IAT)? What is the dependent measure on this test? How is it used to study attitudes?

The Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures attitudes and beliefs that people may be unwilling or unable to report. The IAT may be especially interesting if it shows that you have an implicit attitude that you did not know about.

In class we focused on the elaboration likelihood model of paths to persuasion. What is the name of the other similar model that addresses paths to persuasion, and who generated the model?

The Systematic-Heuristic Model* (Chaiken, 1980)

What are four primary elements of persuasion, according to social psychological research?

The communicator The message How the message is communicated The audience

What is social facilitation theory? Give an example.

The idea that you will likely do better on a simple task when other people are watching you. However, you would tend to do less well on complex tasks where you were being watched or evaluated

What is deindividuation? Give examples

The loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension. Likely to occur in group settings or in other situations in which one feels "anonymous" Example: social media vs irl communication

What is social loafing, and when is it less likely to occur?

The tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable. LESS LIKELY TO OCCUR when on our friends than social acquaintances. & if its *challenging*, *appealing*, *engaging*- if group members are friends.

Note circumstances under which low-balling is more likely to be effective vs less likely to be effective (e.g., if you know that you are being "low-balled")

This strategy involves getting a person to make a commitment and then raising the terms or stakes of that commitment. An unfulfilled obligation to the requester, rather than commitment to the target behavior, is responsible for the effectiveness of the low-ball technique.

Interaction effect

Two independent variables interact if the effect of one of the variables differs depending on the level of the other variable. ex.) Tide in cold, Cheer in hot

Public Statement of Opinion

Wait for moment; Catch mom after she has just made some sort of public statement of opinion then ask for money bc she is more likely to give it then.

What categories of actions did Dodd (1985) find to be most common for students in a deindividual state (according to student reports)? How did Dodd's findings compare to those of our informal class replication of his study?

When asked if you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance that you would not be detected or held responsible, what would you do?......*36%* of responses were ANTISOCIAL; of these..*26%* were CRIMINAL ACTS so 26/36. *MOST COMMON*- *15%* responses was *ROB A BANK*....*36%* were NEUTRAL, *19%* were NONFORMATIVE- violating social norms without specifically harming others. Ex:Men dressing in women's clothing, *9%* were PROSOCIAL- ex:putting money in all parking meters on campus near SS building.

That's-not-all Approach

When offering or conceding something to somebody, rather than give it to them as a final item, give it in incremental pieces. Do not allow them to respond to each piece you give them -- keep on offering more. --included with cost

Know the text's coverage of research on subliminal advertising

designed to pass below (sub) the normal limits of perception.