Sociology 110- Ch. 6-10

Measuring Poverty

-18% of children live in a household with income levels beneath the poverty line -US- 2nd highest child poverty rate -Found in south and southwest inner cities and rural areas -18.5 million Americans; live at near-starvation levels. Poverty line- based on cost estimates for families of different sizes -Some believe it overestimates the amount of poverty- fails to take into account non cash forms of income (food stamps, etc) -Others say it underestimates bc it overemphasizes the proportion of a family budget spent on food and severely. underestimates the share spent on housing.

Why do people commit deviant acts?

-Biological explanations -Psychological explanations -Sociological: functional, interactionist, and conflict theories

The death penalty

-No evidence to suggest it contributes to lower crime rates

What are the causes and consequences of social inequality in the US?

-Rich have gotten richer, middle class incomes stagnated and poor have grown in number -Gap between rich and poor increased.

Anomie

A concept first brought into wide usage in sociology by Durkheim, referring to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior.

The role of biology

Biological essentialism The view that differences between men and women are natural and inevitable consequences of the intrinsic biological natures of men and women How important is biology in explaining behavioral differences? Biologically, we typically think of only two sexes, male and female. In terms of chromosomes, this means that each human being has either two X chromosomes or an X and a Y chromosome. We are all either female or male. In rare cases, however, there are people who have either XXY or XYY chromosomes, thus muddying the waters and causing a great deal of anguish for the individuals and families, who are forced to deal with this gender uncertainty. We also tend to think of hormones as telling us a great deal about someone's gender (and gendered behaviors), with estrogen being a female hormone and testosterone a male hormone. It turns out, however, that we all have some of both hormones. And though men typically have more testosterone and women have more estrogen, those amounts vary. Brain studies show that physical differences are real and are influenced by social context and norms. What this tells us is that biology is not as clear-cut as we'd like to imagine. Biological essentialism is the view that differences between men and women are natural and inevitable consequences of the intrinsic biological natures of men and women. The question that remains is how much biology explains in terms of explaining gender and gendered inequality. It explains some, but since—at least in the case of hormones—it can also be subject to external influences, we know biology does not tell us everything we need to know. Most social scientists are unconvinced by mostly biological arguments, especially biological essentialism. Gender Socialization- The learning of gender roles through social factors, such as schooling, peers, the media, and family As sociologists, we think it is critical to emphasize the important explanatory value of adding social factors to questions looking to explore gender. Gender, on the other hand, refers to role expectations and socialization. Gender socialization is the learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, peers, the media, and family. Role expectations are the kinds of behavior that are expected of someone identified to be, in this case, male or female. For example, commercials that show women doing all the cooking and cleaning in the home and men at work, playing sports, and driving trucks clearly illustrate roles that are seen as normal for men and women. Socialization is the particular way children learn what kinds of behaviors, activities, and ways of presenting themselves are acceptable and the way they learn gender. For example, we buy dolls for girls and trucks for boys. This process actually begins before children are even born; just think about what goes into planning a baby's nursery. Thus, gender roles are learned via socialization, both early on and throughout life. Studies of "selfies" show how nonbinary persons diminish or emphasize gender ambiguity in their appearance, an example of "doing gender." Intersectionality emphasizes how varying social environments produce different versions of "man" and "woman." Cross cultural and historical finding -If gender differences were mostly due to biology, we could expect gender roles to be fairly similar from culture to culture, and across time. Instead, we find variation across time and culture, which shows how gender roles are, in fact, socially constructed.

secondary deviance

According to Edwin Lemert, following the act of primary deviance, secondary deviation occurs when an individual accepts the label of deviant and acts accordingly.

differential association

An interpretation of the development of criminal behavior proposed by Edwin H. Sutherland, according to whom criminal behavior is learned through association with others who regularly engage in crime

What are the causes and consequences of social inequality in the US?

Despite being a "land of opportunity," Americans may also find the country a place of constraint. During the past thirty years, the gap between the rich and the poor has increased drastically. The rich have gotten much richer, whereas middle-class incomes have stagnated or decreased, and the lower class has grown exponentially. The current gap between the rich and poor in the United States is the largest since it was first measured in 1947 (U.S. Bureau of the Census 2015k). One way to observe growing inequality is to observe the relative change in income over time and compare incomes between groups.

How do gender inequalities play out in social institutions

Gender differences are part of the social structure, and create inequalities between women and men. We will explore the shapes these inequalities take in social institutions such as the workplace, family, education, and political systems in various contexts. Patriarchy The dominance of men over women Gender Inequality The inequality between men and women in terms of wealth, income, and status Patriarchy is the dominance of men over women. In practice, though some cultures are partially matriarchal, the vast majority of human societies have been, and are, patriarchal. The degree to which this is true varies a great deal—again, think of the changes here in the United States over the past century—but patriarchy has been the dominant gender system in settled human history. Thus, all known societies are patriarchal, although there are several variations in the degree and nature of the power men exercise as compared with women. A significant part of patriarchy is the ongoing presence of gender inequality, such that men and male roles are privileged over women and female roles. Gender inequality is the inequality between men and women in terms of wealth, income, and status. Men, as a rule, have more power, more status, more access, and more choices than women. It is important to note that just because men and women are doing different things does not preclude equality. However, if those things are valued differently, such that those things typed male are routinely given greater value, then we are indeed looking at a system of gender inequality. This is where nearly all societies today stand, again to varying degrees. Education Unequal treatment in the classroom The gendering of college majors We know from years of research that boys and girls are treated differently in the classroom, mostly with a preference for boys. Differential treatment in schools perpetuates traditional gender socialization. Even so, that attention also means more punitive time as well as positive time. What we also know, though, is that in recent years, girls have outperformed and out-graduated boys. Colleges now typically have a majority of female students. (The gendering of college majors is shown on the next slide.) So what is happening? There is a great deal of research underway to explore this change. Table 9.1 looks at majors with the highest concentration of women and the highest concentration of men, and compares the two. College is a time of exploration, when students take both general education classes and specialized classes within their chosen major that prepare them for a career after graduation. Men and women differ starkly in the majors they choose, opting for fields that are consistent with gender-typed socialization. Women focus on fields associated with caring and nurturing, whereas men tend to pursue fields that emphasize logic and analysis. Moreover, the majors women tend to choose are precisely those fields that garner the lowest earnings after graduation, whereas men are channeled into majors with high economic returns. Women weren't always attending higher education and working in the same numbers they are now. Let's look more into women and work in the next few slides. Since the turn of the twentieth century, women's participation in the paid labor force has risen more or less continuously, especially in the past fifty years. The change in women's participation in work out of the home is connected with other trends, such as increased educational attainment for women, increase in age at first marriage, and delayed childbearing. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015f)

How will social inequality affect college students?

How will social inequality affect college students? New jobs are opening up, particularly in high-technology fields. New forms of global competition exist for jobs. The gap between rich and poor is growing. Global economic integration will affect the future. New jobs are opening up, which is promising for both employment and consumption. These benefits come with potentially significant costs, including job competition on a global level. Inequality in the United States has increased since the 1970s, with a growing number of middle-class households experiencing downward mobility from the late 1970s through the mid-1990s, until a decade of economic growth benefited all segments of society. Since 2008, the economy has been more challenging, both in the recession and in its recovery. It is hazardous to try to predict the future, but global economic integration is likely to continue and influence the jobs of the future.

High/Middle/Low income countries

High-income countries are generally those that were the first to industrialize (England, the United States, Canada, etc.) Japan became a high-income country in the 1970s. Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan moved into the category in the last decade or so. High-income countries are home to 17 percent of the world's population or 1.2 billion people, but they claim 64 percent of the world's output. The middle-income countries (including lower-middle and upper-middle) are located primarily in East and Southeast Asia and include the oil-rich countries of the Middle East and North Africa. There are also a few countries in the Americas (Mexico, Cuba, etc.) and the former republics of the Soviet Union. Russia's living standards initially eroded after the collapse of the Soviet Union, but within a decade, they began to grow again. Most of these countries began to industrialize late in the twentieth century and are not as wealthy or industrially developed as high-income countries. In 2017, 74 percent of the world's population (approximately 5.5 billion people) lived in middle-income countries, but they accounted for only 35 percent of the global output. Although many people in these countries are better off than people in low-income countries, the standard of living there is not nearly as high as in high-income countries. Finally, low-income countries include much of eastern, western, and sub-Saharan Africa; North Korea in East Asia; Nepal in South Asia; and Haiti in the Caribbean. These countries have mostly agricultural economies and have only recently begun to industrialize. Scholars debate the reasons for this late industrialization and the subsequent widespread poverty. In 2017, low-income countries accounted for less than 10 percent of the world's population (732 billion people) yet produced only .7 percent of the world's yearly output. And this inequality is only increasing. Like individuals in a country, the countries of the world as a whole can be seen as economically stratified. In general, those countries that experienced industrialization are the richest, whereas those that remain agricultural are the poorest. An enormous, and growing, gulf separates the two groups. This map gives us a visual representation of wealth, as indicated by income. Do you see any patterns in terms of wealth or poverty? -South Sudan has been mired in civil war for years, contributing to famine and severe hunger. Nearly half the population of the young nation faces food insecurity. - This is an example of life in a low-income country.

Globalization by the numbers

Income inequality refers to the unequal distribution of income across the population, or the gap between a country's richest and poorest citizens. One measure of income inequality is the income share held by the top 10 percent of the population. The greater the share, the higher the level of income inequality. This chart shows the income share held by the top 10 percent of the population in several different countries, and the distribution of income in the United States.

Women and the workplace

Inequalities at work Just because women have entered the workplace, however, does not mean that gender inequality has disappeared. Women experience inequality in work when jobs are gender typed, occupations designated as male or female. Female gender-typed professions typically pay less and have lower status. Sex segregation refers to the concentration of men and women in different occupations. Women have recently made inroads into occupations once defined as "men's jobs." Additionally, the gender gap in earnings has narrowed in recent decades. Sociologist study why the gender pay gap persists. Discrimination is one reason, along with more subtle reasons. Figure 9.2 shows the percentage of women's earnings in comparison to men's. Between 1979 and 2017, the ratio of women's to men's median weekly earnings among full-time, year-round workers increased from 62 percent to 82 percent. However, some researchers have noted that the narrowing of the gender gap is less a reflection of improvement in women's economic standing than a decline in men's economic standing. Take, for example, the Great Recession of 2006-2008: this recent recession was dubbed the "he-cession" or "man-cession" because the types of jobs and industries hardest hit were those in which men were overrepresented, such as construction and finance (Rampell 2009). A drop in men's wages would also cause the female-male earnings gap to close. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2018X) The glass ceiling-The glass ceiling is a promotion barrier that prevents a woman's upward mobility within an organization. The glass escalator refers to situations in which men in traditionally female occupations are placed on a fast track to promotion.Sexual harassment has been brought into sharp focus by the 2017 #MeToo movement. Harassment involves the making of unwanted sexual advances by one individual toward another, in which the first person persists even though it is clear that the other party is resistant. The multi-wave Youth Development Study is an example of how sociologists conduct studies of harassment. U.S. courts have identified two types of sexual harassment. One is quid pro quo, in which a supervisor demands sexual acts from a worker as a job condition or for promotion (example, Miyoshi Morris). The second is the hostile work environment (example, Fort Motor suit). Across the globe, men outpace women in most workplace and economic indicators. This is measured in workforce participation and pay equity. The feminization of the global workforce has brought with it the increased exploitation of young, uneducated, largely rural women around the world. Another way in which gender plays out in the workplace has to do with attitudes that persist about women's priorities, particularly regarding their commitment to work versus children. The "motherhood penalty" involves the perception that for women, work comes second to child rearing. If employers continue to believe that women who are mothers are less committed to work (you'll notice that fathers are not painted with the same brush despite evidence that men's priorities have actually shifted in this direction), they are more likely to hire non-mothers, despite not being able to use this as a legitimate source of differentiation between job candidates. It has also been found that mothers earn less money than non-mothers. Another way that work and gender interact is in the connection to family. Although men participate much more in the home than they did in earlier times, it is still women who do the majority of domestic work. Thus the ongoing difficulty of balancing work and family rests largely on women. Not only do women feel more conflicted and pulled in different directions, but their employers assume this work-home conflict will be a problem and, as a result, pass over women when making promotions. Women also continue to do significantly more housework than their spouses. This long-standing pattern of women doing most of what is often called the "second shift" (Hochschild) makes it hard for them to advance now that they have entered the workforce. Second shift: The excessive work hours borne by women relative to men; these hours are typically spent on domestic chores following the end of a day of work outside the home. Term coined by sociologist Arlie Hochschild. Housework: Unpaid work carried on in the home, usually by women; domestic chores such as cooking, cleaning, and shopping Housework is also called domestic labor. Another place where we see continued inequality is in the political realm. In the United States, men outnumber women at all levels of political office, but especially at the state and national levels. While there is no question that we have come a long way from having no women in public office at all, there are still fewer women than men at every level of the U.S. government. Perhaps more troubling is the fact that this is more true the higher up we go; perhaps politics can boast the ultimate glass ceiling. So far, here in the United States, we haven't ever had a female president. Many countries have had a woman as head of state, but women are still significantly underrepresented in national parliaments (legislatures). What are the ramifications of this disparity, both globally and in the United States? When looked at along with the lack of female leadership in corporations and other organizations, it means that patriarchy retains its hold at the highest levels of power.

Theories of Stratification in Modern Societies

Marx: The means of production and the analysis of class -Means of production- the means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society, including not just technology but also the social relations of production -Bourgeousie- people who own companies, land, and stocks, and use them to generate economic returns -proletariat- people who sell their labor for wages -Surplus value- the value of a worker's labor power left over when the employer has repaid the cost of hiring the worker. -Marx and Weber developed the most influential theoretical approaches, and subsequent theories of stratification rely heavily on their ideas. -For Marx, class was determined solely by the relationship of a group to the means of production. -For Marx, the means of production is the means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society, including, not just technology, but also the social relations of production. -What this means is that you either owned the factories and the equipment or you did not. You were either a member of the capitalist class (the bourgeoisie) or you were a worker (the proletariat). -For Marx, the capitalist class is made up of the people who own companies, land, and stocks and use these assets to generate economic returns. -Conversely, the proletariat are people who sell their labor for wages. -Belonging to the bourgeoisie or the proletariat determined how much power an individual would have. -The relationship between the two classes is an exploitative one. -Workers produce more than is actually needed by employers to repay the cost of hiring them. -This creates a surplus value, which is a source of profit to the bourgeoisie. -Surplus value is the value of a worker's labor power left over when an employer has repaid the cost of hiring the worker. -Marx also believed, as part of a grander theory of history, that ultimately the workers would overthrow the capitalists and the system would shift to socialism and eventually communism. Weber: Class, status, and power -Status- the social honor or prestige that a particular group is accorded by other members of a soceity -Pariah groups- groups that suffer from negative status discrimination and are looked down on by most other members of society -Power- The ability of individuals or the members of a group to achieve their aims or further their interests. -For Weber, class and status are not just about economic factors, they are also about power and prestige. -Status is the social honor or prestige that a particular group is accorded by other members of a society. -Status privilege may be positive or negative. -Pariah groups are groups that suffer from negative status discrimination and are looked down on by most other members of society. Weber had a threefold approach: -Wealth (property)—economic factors; groups with similar life chances; those in the same class are likely to have similar biographies. -Prestige—amount of social prestige, which can be based on family, region, occupation, race, religion, gender, and similar factors. -This measure of class is really about social esteem: How do others think of you? -For Weber, the stratification system was based on wealth and prestige, and while the two are correlated, they are not always the same. -Power—the third part of Weber's model of stratification incorporates the ability to carry out one's intentions on society; this measure is less often correlated with the first two but still constitutes an important measure of social inequality. Let's come up with a few examples in which these things don't line up. -One reason many sociologists appreciate Weber's model is that it recognizes that systems of inequality are multidimensional, and to be high on one scale does not guarantee that you will be high on another. -Power is a pervasive element in all human relationships. Many conflicts in a society are struggles over power, because how much power an individual or group is able to obtain governs how far they are able to put their wishes into practice. Davis and Moore: the functions of stratification -Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore (1945) put forward what became the hallmark functionalist position on social stratification. -Davis and Moore (1945) argued that stratification benefited society by ensuring that the most important roles would be filled by the most talented and worthy people. -Essentially, they argued that inequality was necessary to ensure that the most important and complex roles would be filled by the most meritorious individuals. -They were outlining the case for inequality via meritocracy, wherein social position was based on talent, skill, and hard work. -The problem some sociologists have with this approach is that it ignores the importance of group-level analysis when looking at inequality.

Cross cultural and historical findings

New Guinea The !Kung The Bacha Posh in Afghanistan Blurring the boundaries between the genders The section, and the next four slides, will focus on these four examples. Margaret Mead's classic New Guinea study from 1935 observed wide variability among gender role ideals. She studied three separate tribes: the Arapesh, the Mundugumor, and the Tchambuli. Among the !Kung, it is very common for both men and women to engage in child care. Their lives are mostly nonconfrontational and nonviolent. Gender roles are very similar for men and women. Your textbook gives the example of the bacha posh in Afghanistan. A bacha posh is a person of one gender who embodies the other but is not doing so for reasons of sexuality. The bacha posh in Afghanistan, are girls who are dressed as boys by their parents in order to confer on them the advantages of being a boy in that society. Bacha posh do have an easier time getting an education and working outside the home, but there is typically a return to the female role upon reaching puberty. Pictured here is Mehran Rafaat with her sisters (who are twins). Mehran was formerly called Manoush but is now regarded as a boy by her family. The gender binary is not universal. This has long been recognized in Native American groups, the category now called two-spirit. Growing numbers of young adults in the United States are challenging the male-female dichotomy. They use many labels, such as androgyne, genderqueer, genderfluid, bigender, agender, or non-cis. Non-cis means "non-cisgender." Cisgender refers to a person whose gender identity matches biological sex. Transgender refers to a person who identifies as or expresses a gender identity that differs from their sex at birth. Intersex refers to individuals who possess both male and female genitalia. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention plans to measure diverse nonbinary gender identities for the first time in its Youth Risk Behavior Survey of U.S. high school students. National measures of gender are changing in countries such as Germany, some Canadian territories, the District of Columbia, and Oregon.

Norms/Mores/Folkways

Norms -Rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given range of social situations Mores -Norms that are widely adhered to and have great moral or social significance Folkways -Norms that guide casual or everyday interactions -Sociologists use these foundational terms in their approach to deviance. -Norms are rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given range of social situations. -Norms are the basic rules of our society, drawn from our values and beliefs about how the world should be. -All human groups follow norms, which are always backed by sanctions of one kind or another. -When people violate norms, we call it deviance. -Deviance can range from chewing gum in the wrong place to capital murder and beyond. -Mores are norms that are widely adhered to and have great moral or social significance. -In general, violations are strongly sanctioned. -In contrast, folkways are norms that guide casual or everyday interactions. -Violations of folkways are sanctioned subtly or not at all. The textbook gives the example of cutting in front of someone in line at a coffee shop (violating a folkway) as opposed to harassing the hardworking barista (violating a more).

Folkways

Norms that guide casual or everyday interactions. Violations are sanctioned subtly or not at all.

How do crime and deviance affect your life

The costs of crime -takes a toll on financial and emotional wellbeing and corporate crimes span even worse effects -High fiscal costs of street crimes. CJ system- costly.

How can we reduce gender-based aggression?

Transnational feminism highlights the way that global processes—including colonialism, racism, and imperialism—shape gender relations and hierarchies. Standing up to gender-based violence and exploitation must happen in workplaces, media, and other social settings. Colleges are increasingly encouraging and educating students toward strategies that reduce gender-based violence on campus.

How do sociological theories explain global inequality

What explains the growing disparity between the haves and have-nots? Sociologists have four basic approaches to explaining different aspects of global inequality, and we'll talk about each in turn: Market-oriented theories Dependency theories World-systems analysis Global capitalism Market-Oriented Theories Theories about economic development that assume that the best possible economic consequences will result if individuals are free to make their own economic decisions, uninhibited by governmental constraint Modernization theory A version of market-oriented development theory that argues that low-income societies develop economically only if they give up their traditional ways and adopt modern economic institutions, technologies, and cultural values that emphasize savings and productive investment Neoliberalism The economic belief that free-market forces, achieved by minimizing government restrictions on business, provide the only route to economic growth Market-oriented theories are theories about economic development that assume that the best possible economic consequences will result if individuals are free to make their own economic decisions, uninhibited by governmental constraint. Market-oriented theories inspired U.S. government foreign-aid programs that attempted to spur economic development in low-income countries by providing money, expert advisers, and technology in order to enable U.S. corporations to make investments in those countries. W. W. Rostow, an economic presidential adviser, advocated a market-oriented approach: modernization theory, which argues that low-income societies develop economically only if they give up their traditional ways and adopt modern economic institutions, technologies, and cultural values that emphasize savings and productive investment. Essentially, Rostow made the case, in the 1960s, that economic growth requires the adoption of "modern" culture and values. Countries that hold on to tribal or localistic cultures—which he claimed are more fatalistic and less aligned with values connected with market growth—will not develop sophisticated industries or markets and will not become consumer societies. This approach remains influential today and underscores the prevailing version of market-oriented theory today, neoliberalism: the economic belief that free-market forces, achieved by minimizing government restrictions on business, provide the only route to economic growth. In this view, free markets are seen as the best path for optimal global development. Low government intervention should be coupled with "free," unconstrained individual action. Neoliberal ideas have proven to be detrimental to economic growth in poor countries and have not alleviated poverty. Dependency Theories Marxist theories of economic development that maintain that the poverty of low-income countries stems directly from their exploitation by wealthy countries and the multinational corporations that are based in wealthy countries Colonialism The process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories Dependency theories are, in a sense, a reaction to, and also a rejection of, market-based theories. They are Marxist theories of economic development that maintain that the poverty of low-income countries stems directly from their exploitation by wealthy countries and the multinational corporations that are based in wealthy countries. Those doing work in this vein begin with a different host of assumptions—namely, that markets are not free and that they do not fix inequality. Dependency theorists argue that global economic exploitation began with colonialism, the process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories. Low-income countries are seen not as underdeveloped, but as misdeveloped. Colonizers were able to obtain cheap raw materials while, in effect, forcing colonies to purchase expensive manufactured goods. Once the colonies were freed, industries ("the market") moved in and carried on this arrangement for their own benefit. Dependency theorists believe that the only way to alter this arrangement is a revolutionary overthrow of the system of industry and finance that has lower-income countries locked into their current situation of dependence on outside resources for assistance. This revolutionary impulse comes out of the Marxist theoretical tradition. World-Systems Theory: emphasizes the interconnections among countries based on the expansion of a capitalist world economy. The economy is made up of core countries, peripheral countries, and semiperipheral countries. Core countries: the most advanced industrial countries, which take the lion's share of profits in the world economic system Peripheral countries: countries that have a marginal role in the world economy and are thus dependent on the core producing societies for their trading relationships Semiperipheral countries: countries that supply sources of labor and raw materials to the core industrial countries and the world economy but are not themselves fully industrialized societies Global commodity chains: worldwide networks of labor and production processes yielding a finished product World-systems theory is a theory pioneered by Immanuel Wallerstein that emphasizes the interconnections among countries based on the expansion of a capitalist world economy. Developed in the 1970s, Wallerstein's world-systems analysis (WSA) sees the entire world economy as one system. There are core, peripheral, and semiperipheral nations whose uneven balance of wealth and power defines the current order. In this view, global inequality was not due to defects in local culture but rather to the unequal relations between all of the nations of the world. The perspective's name—world-systems analysis—comes from the insistence that we must look beyond just markets or just states, and see that these are not separable but rather part of a single world system. Core countries are the most advanced industrial countries, which take the lion's share of profits in the world economic system. Core nations are virtually the same countries as the colonizers described in dependency theory. Peripheral countries are countries that have a marginal role in the world economy and are thus dependent on the core producing societies for their trading relationships. Peripheral nations, lining up with the formerly colonized, are left in a situation of dependency that will be nearly impossible to change without a radical solution, such as debt relief. Without debt relief, the cycle of need for cash, offering incentives to industries, and failing to develop continues. There are occasional examples of countries recovering from this situation, but in general the pattern holds. Finally, semiperipheral countries are countries that supply sources of labor and raw materials to the core industrial countries and the world economy but are not themselves fully industrialized societies. They occupy an intermediate position. An important offshoot of the world-systems approach is a concept that emphasizes the global nature of economic activities and global commodity chains: worldwide networks of labor and production processes yielding a finished product. China is an example of a nation working to move up the global commodity chain, from the ranks of low income to upper middle income. Global Capitalism Theory An updated version of world-systems theory that sees the capitalist system as characterized by a globalized production and financial system, a transnational capitalist class, a rising global police state, and stateless corporations as key actors William Robinson and Leslie Sklair are important sociologists advancing this new version of world-systems theory. World-systems theory sees the state as an actor serving to advance the interests of its national business class. In contrast, global capitalism theory sees a stateless transnational capitalist class working to bend national politicians to their goals. Individual state actors are replaced by global actors with limited or no state loyalties. The transnational capitalist class exercises global political authority through networks such as the World Economic Forum, the WTO, IMF, World Bank, and the European Union. The global power elite is, increasingly, more powerful than national power elites.

Crimes of the Powerful

White collar crime -Criminal activities carried out by those in white-collar, or professional jobs -Though most of us tend to think mostly about violent crime when discussing crime, there are of course, other types. -One of the most damaging to society is what we usually call white-collar crime: a nonphysical criminal activity that often involves the theft or transfer of large sums of money, such as tax fraud, embezzlement, or money laundering. -To explain this kind of deviance, some scholars use rational-choice theories, which claim that people who participate in criminal or deviant acts do so purposefully and are aware of the risks involved. -Offenders see the act as potentially offering them a benefit that outweighs the cost. -In most cases, this seems accurate, as the likelihood of prosecution and a strong sentence is fairly low. -However, there have been some significant examples to the contrary of late: Bernie Madoff (with his failed Ponzi scheme) and the top managers of Enron and Adelphia, among other white-collar criminals, have been sentenced to long prison terms. -Madoff, who has really become the face of white-collar crime, defrauded not only individual and corporate clients for whom he was investing but also charitable organizations. -His crime wiped out retirement nest eggs and significant philanthropic accounts, illustrating just how devastating nonviolent crime can be. Corporate crime -Offenses committed by large coporations in society, including pollution, false advertising, and violations of health and safety regulations -Another crime of the powerful similar to white-collar crime, corporate crime refers to criminal offenses committed by large corporations against society, including pollution, false advertising, and violations of health and safety regulations, and they affect much larger numbers of people than petty crime does. -Both quantitative and qualitative studies of corporate crime conclude that a large number of corporations do not adhere to legal regulations and that corporate crime is not confined to a few "bad apples" but, unfortunately, is pervasive and widespread (Slapper and Tombs 1999). -One of the most devastating examples of corporate crime in recent years was the collapse of a garment factory at Rana Plaza in Bangladesh, in April 2013, which killed at least 1,100 people and injured 2,500. Although building inspectors had found cracks in the factory only a few days earlier and had recommended that the building be evacuated and shut down, corporate managers forced many of the garment workers to return to work, with some even threatening to withhold pay (Manik and Yardley 2013). -Corporate crime is all too real, but because of the conventional ways in which crime and deviance are seen, victims of corporate crime do not necessarily see themselves as victims. -This is because in "traditional crimes," the proximity between the victim and offender is closer and it is easier to see the direct connection. -Moreover, the effects of corporate crime are experienced unevenly within society. -Those who are at a socioeconomic disadvantage tend to suffer the most.

sanction

a mode of reward or punishment that reinforces socially expected forms of behavior

community policing

a renewed emphasis on crime prevention rather than law enforcement to reintegrate policing within the community

psychopath

a specific personality type; such individuals lack the moral sense and concern for others held by most normal people

deviant subculture

a subculture whose members hold values that differ substantially from those of the majority

Broken Windows Theory

a theory proposing that even small acts of crime, disorder, and vandalism can threaten a neighborhood and render it unsafe

Crimes

any actions that contravene the laws established by a political authority

Uniform Crime Report (UCR)

documents that contain official data on crime that is reported to law enforcement agencies who then provide the data to the FBI

Deviance

modes of action that do not conform to the norms or values held by most members of a group or society who can enforce their definitions. What is regarded as deviant is as variable as the norms and values that distinguish different cultures and subcultures from one another.

Mores

norms that are widely observed and have great moral or social significance. Violations are generally sanctioned strongly.

corporate crime

offenses committed by large corporations in society including pollution, false advertising, and violations of health, and safety regulations.

laws

rules of behavior established by a political authority and backed by state power.

Norms

rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given range of social situations. A norm either prescribes a five type of behavior or forbids it. All human groups follow norms which are always backed by sanctions of one kind or another-varying from informal disapproval to physical punishment.

relative deprivation

the recognition that one has less than his or her peers

Policing

-During the 1990s, police forces began to grow at significant rates, and many scholars believe that this accounts for 10-20 percent of the overall crime decline. -The consequences of increased police presence are socially costly, as seen in "stop and frisk" policies. -Sociologist Victor Rios studied the strain that temporary detainment policies such as "stop and frisk" place on young Black and Hispanic men. -Sociologist Forrest Stuart described the relationship between police and the urban poor of Skid Row, Los Angeles. -Broken windows theory: even small acts of crime, disorder, and vandalism can threaten a neighborhood and render it unsafe -Community policing: renewed emphasis on crime prevention rather than law enforcement to reintegrate policing within the community -Social psychologist Philip Zimbardo abandoned cars without license plates and with their hoods up in two different social settings. In both places, cars were vandalized once people realized the cars were abandoned. Any sign of social disorder in a community, even one broken window, indicates that no one cares. -Minor acts of deviance can lead to a spiral of crime and social decay (the broken windows theory). -One idea that has grown in popularity in recent years is that the police should work closely with citizens to improve local community standards and civil behavior, using education, persuasion, and counseling instead of incarceration (community policing). -On July 17, 2014, police officers in Staten Island, NY, attempted to arrest resident Eric Garner by placing him in a chokehold, resulting in his immediate death. This fatal encounter was recorded on a cell phone, and Garner's last words, "I can't breathe," became a rallying cry for the Black Lives Matter movement. -In recent years, video technology on cell phones has led to an increased awareness of police misconduct. -After a series of high-profile cases of police brutality, there have been increased efforts to use technology to record police-civilian interactions. -Watchdog groups known as "cop-watches" have sprung up across the United States with the goal of documenting and exposing instances of police misconduct. -Numerous apps have also been developed to make it easier to document police misconduct. For example, the Cop Watch Video Recorder app created by the Network for the Elimination of Police Violence allows users to automatically upload recordings to YouTube. -Five-O, an app developed by three teens in Atlanta, allows users to rate officers with whom they've interacted and provide details of their encounters. -These apps have both fans and critics, with some people arguing that these videos and apps can interfere with police work, whereas others maintain that it helps hold police accountable. -Have you ever been afraid in the presence of a police officer? -Have you ever used a cop-watch app? -Would you? -Do you think cop-watches and recording apps are effective ways to hold police accountable for their actions? -Some police departments, including the New York Police Department, are also requiring body camera programs to increase transparency and accountability. -Do you think the police should have to wear body cameras?

How is social class defined in the US?

-Typically, when sociologists think of social class, we are referring to some combination of income, wealth, educational attainment, and occupation. -This photo shows people and housing. An estimated 2.5 million foreclosures were completed between January 2007 and the end of 2009. Blacks and Hispanics were disproportionately affected by the subprime mortgage crisis. Income -payment, which is usually derived from wages, salaries, or investments -"Income inequality" refers to the unequal distribution of income across the population, or the gap between a country's richest and poorest citizens. -One measure of income inequality is the income held by the top 10 percent of the population. -The greater the share, the higher the level of income inequality. -What does this figure tell us about income inequality in the United States? Wealth -Money or material possessions held by an individual or group Education Occupation -Wealth is money or material possessions held by an individual or a group. -When we think about wealth—which, again, is one of the core indicators of class—we can see very clearly the intersection between race and class. -There is, for example, a huge discrepancy in net financial assets (wealth) among whites, Blacks, and Latinos. -Obviously, that difference in resources means differences in outcomes such as educational and occupational attainment, and the research bears this out, with nonwhites having lower amounts of both. -What this means is that people of different racial groups are not starting out on the same playing field; having less is not simply a matter of individual luck. -There are, of course, exceptions to the statement that nonwhites have less wealth and education, but the reality is that there is a very obvious connection between race or ethnicity and wealth. -To ignore this by focusing only on individuals' accomplishments or failures is to miss ongoing group-level inequality. -Sociologists also believe that education, or the number of years of schooling a person has completed, is an important dimension of social stratification. -The economic benefits of education have increased over the past four decades. -Education is one of the strongest predictors of one's occupation, income, and wealth later in life. -Yet even college graduates are highly stratified with respect to their earnings potential. -In the United States and other industrialized societies, occupation is also an important indicator of one's social standing and depends heavily on one's level of education. -There are definitely other factors that can be added in to further consider where class originates. -For example, some researchers ask questions about people's parents (education, jobs, income, and so on), place of residence, amount in savings versus spending, and other indicators along these lines. -Instead of class, you will sometimes hear researchers use the term socioeconomic status, which points to the multidimensionality of class but also tends to obscure the presence of clear social classes. Occupations requiring the most education are often, but not always, ranked more highly, as can be seen in this table. Source: Smith and Son (2014) The top-ranked occupations appear to share one of two characteristics: they require either a lot of education or a lot of public service. These rankings have been fairly consistent for almost four decades (Griswold 2014).

Rich v. Poor countries

Health Hunger and Malnutrition Education and Literacy Child Labor People in high-income countries have far better health than those in low-income countries. Problems like poor sanitation, polluted water, and infectious diseases are endemic in many poor countries. As such, infant mortality is higher and the average life span is significantly reduced. People living in wealthy, developed nations experience better health—and have access to far better health care—than those in low-income, underdeveloped ones. Deadly infectious diseases like HIV and tuberculosis are serious issues, but mundane concerns also threaten the lives of people living in poor countries. For example, the lack of proper sanitation or access to clean water leads to a host of diseases that can ultimately lead to premature death. These conditions also create an environment in which those who are more vulnerable—infants, the elderly, the ill—are far more likely to die than they might be in a more developed social and health-care environment. Hunger and malnutrition are among the biggest threats to the health of those living in low-income countries. Approximately one in nine people in the world suffer from chronic hunger. Most hunger today is the result of a combination of natural and social forces, including violence, conflict, and climate change. War and economic corruption, combined with drought, for example, have led to untold millions of deaths in parts of Africa and Asia. When we acknowledge the human role in these unnecessary deaths, it becomes clear that we must work to better understand the social factors at work in order to minimize their ongoing significance. Education and literacy are also important routes to economic development. Lower-income countries are therefore disadvantaged because they lack high-quality public school systems. In low-income countries, children are often forced to work because of a combination of family poverty, lack of education, and indifference to people who are poor or are of ethnic minorities. Worldwide, more than 114 million children between the ages of five and fourteen are engaged in child labor and the incidence of child labor is highest in low-income countries

Can poor people become rich?

In the mid-1970s, a number of low-income countries in East Asia were undergoing a process of industrialization that appeared to threaten the global economic dominance of the United States and Europe. The East Asian emerging economies included Hong Kong in the 1960s and Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore in the 1970s and 1980s. Other Asian countries began to follow in the 1980s and the early 1990s, most notably China, but also Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia. Today, most are middle income and some—such as Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore—have moved up to the high-income category, and are referred to as emerging economies.

social exlusion

Social exclusion is the outcome of multiple deprivations that prevent individuals or groups from participating fully in the economic, social, and political life of the society in which they live. Agency is the ability to think, act, and make choices independently. Homeless persons The idea of social exclusion refers to new sources of inequality, ways in which individuals may become cut off from involvement in the wider society. This is a broader and more useful concept than that of the underclass. When dealing with social exclusion, the word "exclusion" refers to people being excluded through decisions that lie outside their control, and also people excluding themselves from aspects of mainstream society. Homeless persons are traditionally seen as at the very bottom of the social hierarchy. On a single night in 2017, more than half a million people were homeless. Studying the reasons why people become homeless is an important sociological inquiry into social exclusion.

A picture of the US class structure

The upper class -Upper class: a social class broadly composed of the more affluent members of society, especially those who have inherited wealth, own businesses, or hold large quantities of stocks The middle class -Middle class: a social class broadly composed of people working in white-collar and highly skilled blue-collar jobs The upper middle class The lower middle class -The upper class is a social class broadly composed of the more affluent members of society, especially those who have inherited wealth, own businesses, or hold large numbers of stocks. -The upper class consists of the richest Americans—those households earning more than $200,000, or approximately 5 percent of all American households. -There are roughly 7 million households that fall into this category (U.S. Bureau of the Census 2015). -At the very top of this group are people who have accumulated vast fortunes that allow them to enjoy a lifestyle unimaginable to most Americans. -These are the superrich, people whose income tops $2 million (Lenzer 2011). -The United States understands itself as a middle-class society. This fits with certain strongly held ideologies, including classlessness, meritocracy, and the work ethic. Middle-class ideologies tend to promote the reproduction of inequality. -The middle class is a social class broadly composed of those working in white-collar and highly skilled blue-collar jobs. -Let's think a little bit, for a moment, about how Americans view social class. How many of you would say you are middle class? (In most cases this will be the vast majority of students, regardless of the demographics of your institution; if not you can have an interesting discussion.) -Most Americans believe they are middle class. -In part this is very simple and clear logic: we all know people who have a lot more than we do, and most of us know plenty of people with less. -That leaves us in the middle. We also think we are middle class because we do not necessarily think about the mathematics of class systems (quartiles, quintiles, and so on) but instead focus on lifestyles, incomes, and similar factors, which does, in fact, make us a middle-class society. -Since the 1970s, however, that has been changing as the gap between rich and poor has increased, reducing the size of the middle class. Interestingly, those in the middle classes are very likely—at least in good economic times—to identify with ideologies that in fact reproduce our own system of stratification. -Those in the middle class tend to believe that if we made it to this hallowed place in American society, others can too, provided they just work hard enough. -In fact, however, this simply isn't the case, especially for those living in real poverty, with very few opportunities. We'll get to poverty in just a few moments. -There are even class distinctions within the middle class. -The upper middle class contains highly educated professionals. -The lower middle class includes people such as office workers (for example, secretaries and bookkeepers), elementary and high school teachers, nurses, salespeople, police officers, firefighters, and others who provide skilled services. The working class Working class: A social class broadly composed of people working in blue-collar, or manual, occupations Blue- and pink-collar jobs: Jobs that typically pay low wages and often involve manual or low-skilled labor The lower class Lower class: A social class composed of people who work part-time or not at all, and whose household income is typically low The "underclass" Underclass: A class of individuals situated at the bottom of the class system, which is often composed of people from ethnic-minority backgrounds The working class is a social class broadly composed of people working in blue-collar, or manual, occupations. The racially and ethnically diverse working class includes primarily blue-collar laborers (for example, factory workers and mechanics) and pink-collar laborers (for example, clerical aides and sales clerks). Blue-collar jobs typically are held by men (e.g., factory workers), whereas pink-collar jobs are typically held by women (e.g., clerical assistants). The lower class is a social class composed of people who work part-time or not at all, and whose household income is typically low. The lower class, roughly 15 percent of American households, includes those who work part-time or not at all; household income is typically lower than $20,000. (Elwell 2014). Some sociologists have identified a group that Swedish sociologist Gunnar Myrdal (1963) originally referred to as the underclass because they are "beneath" the class system, in that they lack access to the world of work and mainstream patterns of behavior. The underclass is a group of individuals situated at the bottom of the class system, which is often composed of people from ethnic minority backgrounds. Located in the highest-poverty neighborhoods of the inner city, the underclass is sometimes called the new urban poor.

Ethnic minorities v white Americans

There are substantial differences in income based on race and ethnicity. Black and Latino household income averages between 60 and 70 percent that of whites. Let's take a look at these numbers in Figure 7.3.

hate crime

a criminal act by an offender who is motivated by some bias, such as racism, sexism, or homophobia

Social mobility

: upward or downward movement of individuals or groups among different social positions Intergenerational mobility: movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy from one generation to another Intragenerational mobility: movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within the course of a personal career Opportunities for mobility: Who gets ahead? Social reproduction: the process whereby societies have structural continuity over time Cultural capital: noneconomic or cultural resources that parents pass down to their children, such as language or knowledge Downward mobility: social mobility in which individuals' wealth, income, or status is lower than what they or their parents once had Social mobility is the movement of people up or down the stratification system. Class systems allow for more movement than slave or caste systems. Intergenerational mobility is movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy from one generation to another. Intragenerational mobility is movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within the course of a personal career. An important characteristic of class systems, as opposed to slave or caste systems, is that in class-based systems of stratification, there is the opportunity for social mobility. This means that people and groups can, potentially, move up or down in the rankings, and this is seen by many as a significant benefit of class systems. In reality, however, such mobility is less common than our national mythology suggests. Typically, those who arrive at high positions have families who either had high positions themselves or had the resources to provide the appropriate education for advancement. Achieving upward mobility is very difficult, and the wonderful stories we've all heard and seen (think, for example, of the movie The Pursuit of Happyness) are so very moving because they are the exception, not the norm. If such stories were common, they would not get our attention in nearly the same way. Is it possible for an individual to "get ahead" and transcend class roots? Sociologists have looked for answers to this question by trying to understand which social factors are most influential in determining an individual's status or position in society. In a classic study of intergenerational mobility in the United States, sociologists Peter Blau and Otis Dudley Duncan (1967) found that long-range intergenerational mobility—that is, from working class to upper-middle class—was rare. Why might this be? Think about the resources your family and parents have contributed to your own social mobility. The term social reproduction refers to the processes whereby parents pass down to their children a range of resources, not limited to, but including, educational attainment, wealth, and other social goods. Social reproduction is an important pathway through which parents transmit or produce values, norms, and social practices among their children. Likewise, parents can pass their children cultural capital, or advantages such as going to the "right schools" or choosing the "right hobbies." Cultural capital is the noneconomic or cultural resources that parents pass down to their children, such as language or knowledge. These resources contribute to the process of social reproduction, according to Pierre Bourdieu. Downward mobility is social mobility in which individuals' wealth, income, or status is lower than what they or their parents once had.

How is social class defined in the US?

-Defined by some combination of one's income, wealth, educational attainment, and occupational status- vary based on ethnicity, race, and gender. -Five major social class groups in the US.

The great crime decline

-1990s- crime rates declined nation wide. -Explanaitions: better economic conditions and lower unemployment. Citizens have become more adept at protecting themselves through home security systems, hot spot policing, less drug usage (cocaine), and lower levels of lead in American's blood. -High rates of violent crime compared to other industrialized nations. -Reasons: Availability of handguns and other firearms and general influence of the frontier tradition and subcultures of violence in large cities

Explaining poverty: the sociological debate

-2 main headings -Theories that see poor individuals as responsible for their own status and theories that view poverty as produced and reproduced by structural forces in soceity -"blame the victim" and "blame the system" Culture of poverty- Oscar lewis- not a result of individual inadequacies, but is a result of a larger social and cultural milieu into which poor children are socialized. Trasmistted across generations because young people from an early age see little point in aspiring to something more -Charles murray- Dependency culture- poor people rely on government welfare rather than entering the job market. undermines ambition and erode people's incentive to work. -Advocates of structural explanations for poverty argue that perceived lack of ambition among poor is in fact consequence of their constrained situations, not a cause of it. -Solution- policy measures aimed at distributing income and resources more equally throughout society. (Childcare subsids, a minimum hourly wage and guaranteed income levels for families are examples of polcitu measures that have taught to redress persistent social inequaliteies -Individual initiatives and social class one is born in play a part

Who are the poor?

-53% believe that poverty is the result of circumstances beyond people's control, 345 believe it is due to a lack of effort- reflects the recession which affected many working and middle class Americans The Working Poor -People who work at least 27 weeks. a year but whose earnings are not high enough to lift them above the poverty line -Minimum wage has failed to keep up with inflation. -2015-8.5 million (6% of labor force) -Nonwhite and immigrant -Many poor people do not receive welfare payments bc they earn too much to qualify- only 5% of all low income families with full year worker receive welfare benefits and more than 1/2 rely pm public health insurance. -Lack adequate education, do not have health insurance and are tying to support families on poverty level wages. Poverty, race, and ethnicity -Poverty rates are much higher among minority groups than among whites -Blacks and latinos experience more than double the poverty rate of whites- work at lowest paying jobs and experience racial discrimination -Asian Americans- highest income but slightly higher poverty rate than whites -Blacks living in poverty, decreasing and for latino population The Feminization of poverty -An increase in the proportion of the poor who are female -Growing rates of divorce, separation, and single parent housholds have placed women at a particular disadvantage. -Raising child by themselves and holding down a job= very difficult -36% of all single parent families headed by women were poor, compared with only 7% of married couples with children -hispanics disproportionally affected -Must find someone to take care of her children -Cant get a regular job, she will lose her welfare Children in poverty -2016- 18% of children lived in poverty -Rate rose as a result of the recession. Elderly in poverty -Rates fail to consider the high (and rising) costs of medical care, disporptionatlly striking older adults -Income primarily based on social security and medicare (lifting them out of poverty) -People living sole on these two programs are likely to live modestly at best

Caste Systems

-A social system in which one's social status is given for life -Based on personal characteristics- race, ethnicity, (color), parental religion, or parental cse- accidents of birth and believed to be unchangeable -Ascirbed at birth rather than achieved through personal accomplishment (social class) -Intimate contact with members of other castes- strongly discouraged -Purity maintained by endogamy- marriage within one's social group as required by custom or law. -Premodern times- found throughout the world -Modern times- agricultural societies not developed; India pr south aftica -India- dalits "untouchables"- avoided at all costs- limited to the worst jobs in society. Illegal to discriminate but some aspects of caste system remain in full force today. -Globalization makes it harder to maintain barriers required to sustain the caste system= brings people together of different castes.

How does poverty Affect individuals?

-Absolute poverty- person or family can't get enough to eat. Undernourished and may stare to death. More common in poorer developing countries. -Relative poverty- industrial countries, a measure of inequality. Being poor compared to the standards of the majority.

What is social stratification?

-All socially stratified systems share 3 characteristics 1. The rankings apply to social categories of people who shared common characteristic such as gender or ethnicity -Women ranked different from men, wealthy/poor. -Category continues to exist even if individuals move out of it and into another category. 2. People's life expectancies and opportunities depend heavily on how their social category is ranked. -Male, female, black, white, upper, or working class makes a big difference in terms of your life chances 3. The ranks of different social categories tend to change very slowly over time -Economic equality between men and women -Black and white economic and political equality -Stratified societies have changed throughout human history- hunter-gatherers- very little social stratification. Industrial- very complex. -Three basic systems of stratification: slavery, caste, and class

Slavery

-An extreme form of stratification in which some people are owned or controlled by others for the purpose of economic or sexual exploitation -Some socities- deprived of almost all rights by laws (plantations, etc) -Other societies- treated nice like servants (ancient greece) -Systems of slave labor- unstable bc of slaves fighting back, not economically efficient (constant supervision and punishment; impeding worker productivity) -18th century- Europe and America viewing slavery as morally wrong. In Thailand, sex slaves. domestic slaves in France. US- prostitution, maids forced to work by wealthy clients, immigrants forced to work at convenient stores...

Deviance and Crime

-Another thing to consider as we begin unpacking this notion of deviance is the relationship between crime and deviance. -Sometimes we conflate the two things, which means that we use these words interchangeably even though they do not mean quite the same thing. -And as your book points out, not all deviance is crime, and not all crime is deviant. -In Figure 6.1, we can clearly see the reality that while deviance and crime overlap, they are not exactly the same thing. -It is probably fairly easy to see that not all deviance is crime: chewing gum in school is not against the law, and it is breaking the law that makes something a crime. -But it is also true that not all crime is deviant. -As your textbook also points out, it may well be more deviant to drive 55 mph on the highway than to drive 65 where the speed limit is 55. -Technically, driving 65 in such a place is a crime, but few people would see it as deviant. -Your textbook also gives us the notion of deviance being "in the eye of the beholder" (p. 160). -What this means is simply that, depending on your reference group, different norms take on different meanings and importance. -What is deviant to some groups is not at all deviant to others (for example, smoking marijuana). -Thus, deviance is defined by those who perceive it.

Who are the Perpetrators?

-Are some individuals or groups more likely to commit crimes or become the victims of crime? For many people, our image of crime involves a male perpetrator and a female victim. -As it turns out, however, this is only half right. -Men are far more likely to commit crimes, especially violent ones. -But men are also much more likely to be the victims of crime and are much more likely to be incarcerated. -What else do the numbers show us about crime? -Let's take a look in the following slides. Gender and crime -The statistics on gender and crime are revealing. Of all the crimes reported in 2016, 73 percent of arrestees were men. -Men overwhelmingly outnumber women in prison. -Women made up only 7 percent of the prison population in 2018. -Furthermore, female rates of criminality are consistently lower than those of men; women rarely engage in violent crime and instead tend to commit less serious offenses. -As the boundaries between men and women's social roles continue to shift, the differences in criminality between men and women will likely change. -However, as of yet, crime remains a gendered phenomenon. Youth and Crime -When it come to youth and crime, the equating of youth and crime is not new. -This connection is particularly associated with young men and violent, or street, crime. -Thus, there are long-standing concerns about the equation of youth and criminality. -As we can see from the FBI data, statistics indicate that, indeed, young people are charged with a dramatically disproportionate amount of crime. -Using control theory, we can put this into sociological perspective (not excusing, but rather explaining, the behavior). -As late adolescents and young adults, people generally do not have as many social ties and controls as adults, and therefore feel less constrained than adults might in terms of deviant behavior. -Interestingly and importantly, data also shows that when the risks of deviant behavior become too high, these deviant young people typically end up leading normal, law-abiding lives as adults. -Another part of the current fear about youth and crime is the attention given to recent mass killings, both at high schools and colleges. -The reality, however, is that no matter how tragic each of these incidents may be, the number of such murders committed has actually been on the decline for nearly fifty years. -Similar caution can be expressed about youth and drug use. Trends have shifted away from heroin and cocaine, and toward a combination of substances such as amphetamines, prescription pain relievers, alcohol, and Ritalin.

US Crime Rates

-Beginning in the 1990s, crime rates began to decline nationwide. In 2011, the FBI announced that crime rates had reached a forty-year low. -Criminologists have offered a number of explanations for these trends.

The biological view of deviance

-Cesare Lombroso- Criminal types could be identified by the shape of their skull -Criminals= degenerate or defective -Other view: "Mesopmorphs, ectomorphs, and endomorphs- based on physice -Criticised on methodological grounds- can't prove that body type "pauses" criminal behavior. -Gene and environment interaction- one may be predisposed for something, but environment may strengthen or weaken tie.

Theoretical conclusions

-Crime influenced by social learning and social surroundings -Way crime is understood affects policies to combat it -Crime as product of social disorganization or deprivation . Sociolution- reducing proverty and strengthening social services -Crime as freely chosen. Solution- different form.

Organized Crime

-Criminal activities carried out by organizations established as buisnesses -Organized crime refers to forms of activity that have some characteristics of a legitimate business but are illegal. -Thus, organized crime consists of criminal activities carried out by organizations established as businesses. -Organized crime is associated with—and embraces—drug dealing, prostitution, protection rackets, and other types of organized illegal activities. -Manual Castells argues that organized crime groups are becoming increasingly international (Castells 1998).

Who are the perpetrators?

-Criminal acts are not randomly distributed across the population -Connected to and committed by a range of other groups

Ethnic Minorities v. White Americans

-Minorities in the US are more likely to hold the lowest-paying jobs -Oliver and Shapiro- "wealth gap: between blacks and whites is even greater than the income gap. Blacks in the US have encountered many barriers to acquiring wealth throughout history. Discrimination still remains -Less wealth- less social capital, less investments.

Gender and Crime

-Criminal transgressions by women occur in different contexts from those by men and women's experiences with CJ system are influenced by gender assumptions about appropriate name and femalee roles. Violence against women are highlighted (public and private) -73%- men (2016, FBI arrestees) -Men and women vary in types od crime the y commit. Women- less engagement in violent crime, more likely to steal or prostitute- violence, however is not exclusively a characteristic of male criminality have similar motivations as men do. -Lower crime rates- women -One arguemtn- women's crimes may be underreported bc of linnet treatment by officers -Control theory- on gender differences in crime- women have attachments and commitments that deter them from committing crime. As Equality happens, differences in criminality will reduce or be eliminated

Sociological perspectives on deviance

-Definitions of conformity and deviance vary based on one's social context. -Norms in one sub culture may be deviant outside of it. -Wealth and power struggles

Interactionist Theorists

-Deviance- socially constricted phenomenon Learned deviance: differential association (Edward Sutherland) -We learn deviant behavior the same way we learn about conventional behavior: from peers, family and coworkers. -Differential= ratio of deviant to conventional contacts Labeling theory (Hoawrd S Becker, Edwin Lemert) -Deviance- not a set of characteristics of individuals or groups, but a process of interaction between deviant and non deviant acts -Interest- why people become tagged with deviant label, not why people are deviant -People in power tend to put labels on people who have little power. -After label, he or she is stigmatized and considered untrustworthy, relapsing into further criminal activity -Edwin Lemert- Primary deviance- initial act of rule breaking. Secondary deviance- individual accepts label (self-fuffling prophecy) how we see ourselves and how others see us influence our propensity to do crime. -No act is intrinsically evil. One must be labeled to be deviant -Criticisms: 1) theories neglect processes that lead acts to be defined as deviant. 2) not clear whether labeling actually does have the effect of increasing deviant conduct Control theory (Travis Hirschi) -Crime occurs as a result of imbalance between impulses toward criminal activity and social or physical controls that deter it. -People act ratioanally, but given opportunity they would deviate. -"Situational decisions"- a person sees an opportunity and is motivated to act -Humans are rational beings, weighing risks and benefits (hirschi) -4 bonds that link people to society: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief -When strong, these elements help maintain social control and conformity -Weak- delinquency and deviance -Self control

The functions of Deviance

-Deviant acts of others affect our personal behaviors. -Helps us understand what is considered "right" and "wrong"- makes us want to fit in. -Makes us conform to avoid sanctions/punishments.

What is deviance?

-Directs our attention to social power, which encompasses gender, race, and social class. -"Whose rules?"- social norms are strongly influenced by decisions of power and class -Deviance- nonconformity to a given set of norms that are accepted ny a significant limner of people in a community or society,. these people have the power to enforce their definitions of what counts as normal -Most of us on some occasions violate these rules. It can be criminal or noncriminal behaviors. -Many seen as "crimes" (underage drinking) are seen as normative. -Criminal and decent- what sociologists tend to focus on. -Same deviant act can also be the basis of membership in conventional society. *Kevin Mitnick computer hacking- "ethical hacking" -Deviance also concerns the activities of groups as well (ex: hells' gate cults) -Deviant subculture- members hold values that differ substantially from those of the majority.

Uniform Crime Reports- how do we document crime?

-Documents that contain official data on crime that is reported to law enforcement agencies that then provide data to the FBI -Now that we've covered a broad spectrum of theoretical approaches to understanding crime and deviance, let us think a bit more about what crime actually looks like, how it is reported, what its effects are, and other factors. -Let's start with the most significant source of data for those studying crime: the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR). -The UCR, as the name suggests, is a record of all officially reported criminal activity. -It does not represent prosecutions but rather actual crime reported to law enforcement. -Additionally, the UCR focuses on serious, often violent, crime, which leads critics to suggest that it deemphasizes those crimes likely to be committed by people in the middle class or higher. -Because the UCR includes only data on reported crimes, there are also critics who argue that it does not give a good approximation of crime rates. -They might suggest also looking at the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). -This survey compiles data based on self-report by victims, as collected by workers from the Bureau of the Census. -As estimates of unreported crime go as high as 50 percent, it seems especially critical to include formally unreported crime to some degree.

Education

-Education, or the number of years of schooling a person has completed is an important dimension of social stratification. -How much education one receives is often influenced by the social class of one's parents -Education is one of the strongest precictirs of one's occupation, income, and wealth later in life. -BA- 50,000. HS diploma- 31,800 -College graduates are stratified with respect to their earnings: BA degrees with quanititve skills receive higher than those with degrees that train students to work with children or counselling -Widened gap between wealthiest nd poorest workers. More people going to college -Racial differences in levels of education persist, particularly explaining why racial differences in income and wealth also persist.

Norms and Sanctions

-Follow social norms bc of socialization, interactions with others who obey the law and mainstream values. We learn self-control norms accompany sanctions that promote conformity and protect against nonconformity. Sanction0 any reaction from others to the behavior of an individual or group that is meant to ensure that the person or group complies with a given norm- positive-rewards for conformity -negative- punishment. -formal-applied by a specific body of people, courts and prisons or agency. informal- less organized and spontaneous reactions -Laws- Norms defined by government as principles their citizens must follow; sanctions used against those not following. -Crimes- Any type of behavior that breaks a law.

Organized Crime

-Forms of activity that have some of the characteristics of orthodox buisness but that are illegal -illegal gambling, drug dealing, prositution, large-scale theft, and protection rackets. Weapons and drugs -Becoming international; counterfeiting, smuggling immigrants, networking.

Policing

-Growth of force and increase of police technology reassured the public and reduced crime -Also costly however as African Americans are being racially profiled -Stop and frisk and racial profiling affects the way they perceive themselves and long term life trajectories -Mistrust and resistance to authority -Policing shapes culture (forrest Stuart) -Skid row- residents shared cop wisdom, in which knowledge of policing structures circumscribes their understanding of themselves, their community, and their available options -While a greater police presence translates into lower crime rates, the social costs might not be worth the benefits Broken Windows Theory -Recognition that even seemingly small acts of crime and disorder can threaten a neighborhood. -Any sign of social disorder in a community, even one unrepared broken window is a sign that no one cares. -New policjg strategies focsued on mirror crimes. Flaw- police are left to identify "social disorder" however they wish, solution- in response, community policing became a thing. Community polciing -Police should work closely with the citizens to improve local community standards and civl behavior using education, pursuasion, and counseling instead of incarceration -To change outlook of police -Improving quality of life in neighborhoods -Decline in crime is mort likely the result of community policing.

Crimes of the powerful

-Have farther-reaching consequences -White-collar crime (Edward Sutherland)- crime carried out by people in professional jobs -Tax fraud, antitrust violations, illegal sales practices, embezzlement, etc -Most do not appear in official stats at all- hard to measure. -Rare that someone goes to jail -Affects more people and takes more money than other crimes. Corperate crime -Committed by large corporations accross the globe -Not following regulations and violations liked to large cooperations: administrative, environmental, financial, labor, manufacturing, and unfair trade practices -Effects of corperate Crime are often experienced unevenly within society. Disadvantaged people tend to suffer disproportionately. (low paying jobs= more heard risks, etc).

Why do people commit deviant acts?

-If deviance is, in actuality, normal, then we need to discuss theories of deviance. -Who is likely to carry out deviant behavior, and why? -If deviance is indeed normal, there must be patterns to uncover in describing and explaining it. -There are, of course, many theories; some of which insist on full explanatory power. -The reality, as is so often the case, is that some pieces of each theory can be useful to us. -There are three main types of theories of deviance: biological, psychological, and sociological.

Occupation

-Important indicator of one's social standing. Depends heavily one one's level of educational attainment. -Jobs requiring more education are ranked most highly. -Top-ranked occupations- 2 characteristics: they require a fair amount of education or a fair amount of public service -Millenials seem more inclined than older Americans to value fame.

Theories of Stratification in modern societies

-Karl Marx and Max Weber Marx: Means of production and the analysis of class -Class- refers to people who stand in common relationship to the means of production- means by which they gain a livelihood -Two main classes in modern society: Burgousie (capitalist, owns means of production) and proletariat (earn their living by selling their labor to the capitalists. -Relatiobship between classes- exploitive, workers produce more than is actually needed by employers to repay the cost of hiring them. -Surplus value- source of profit capitalists put in their own use. -Maturing ocf industrial capitalism would bring about an increasing gap between the wealth of capitalist minority and the poverty of the large proletariat population. Weber: Class, Status, and Power -Class- divisions derive not only from control or lack of control of the means of production, but also from economic differences that have nothing directly to do with property- people's skills, credentials, qualifications make them marketable than those without them. -Status- Refers to differences among groups in the social honor, or prestige they are accorded by others. Status distinctions can be very independent of class divisions. Social honor= ether positive or negative. Pariah groups- negatively privileged status groups subject to discrimination that prevents them from taking advantage of opportunities open to others- 'untouchables". Depends on people's subejctive evaluations of social differences, WHERAS class is an objective matter -Power-Ability to enact change, command resources or make decisions. Distinct from states and class, but these three dimensions often overlap. -Other dimensions beside class strongly influence people's lives -Weber's scheme- more flexible and sophisticated basis for analyzing stratification than that provided by Marx Davis and Moore: the Functions of stratification -Stratification= beneficial consequences for society and inequality ensures that the most qualified people attracted by lucrative rewards, fill those riles that are most important to a snoothly functioning society. -Person's social position is based solely in his or her innate talents and efforts (controversial)- meritocracy. -Controversial because each class has diff level of resources, not equal.

The benefits of the Crime Decline

-Life expectancy and school performance (Patrick sharkey) -Violcen is a cause of death that often goes unnoticed. -Decline in violence means that thousands of young people no longer have their lives cut short by violence. -Children suffer academically after a violent shooting.

Wealth

-Measured in terms of net worth: all the assets one owns (cash and checking accounts; investments in stocks, bonds and real estate properties) minus one's debts (home mortgages, credit card balances, loans needed to be repaid. -Wealthy derive bulk of their income from interest on their investments, some of them are inherited -Some argue that wealth, not income is the real indicator of social class -Wealth- more enduring measure that is less suspetible to annual fluctuations. -Significant differences in wealth by race. 2016- median net worth for whites- 171,000. hispanics- 20,700. blacks- 17,600. -Because whites on average, have enjoyed higher incomes and levels of wealth than blacks, many whites are able to accrue even more wealth, which then are able to pass on to their children -Oliver and Shapiro- easier for whites to obtain assets even when they have fewer resources than blacks because of discrimination; plays a major role in the racial gap in homeownership -Blacks rejected for mortgages 60% more than whites even when they have the same qualifications and creditwothiness -"Subprime" mortgage loans- charge much higher interest rates. Focus on minority communities. Prime lenders are unable or unwilling to lend in those communities -Homeownership constitutes American families' primary means for accumulating wealth.

Criminal Victimization

-Men, young persons, African Americans are more likely to be both victims and perpretarots -Hate crime- motivated by bias, racism, sexism, homophobia putting gays, lesbians, trans people at risk for victimizaiton -Victiminzation rates also vary based on where a person lives -Poor inner-city- more risk

The costs of crime

-New jobs are opening up, which is promising for both employment and consumption. -These benefits come with potentially significant costs, including job competition on a global level. -Inequality in the United States has increased since the 1970s, with a growing number of middle-class households experiencing downward mobility from the late 1970s through the mid-1990s, until a decade of economic growth benefited all segments of society. -Since 2008, the economy has been more challenging, both in the recession and in its recovery. -It is hazardous to try to predict the future, but global economic integration is likely to continue and influence the jobs of the future.

Black/Police relations

-One of the most controversial phenomena in recent U.S. life has been the series of violent encounters between members of the African American community and the police. -On August 9, 2014, at 12:01 pm, Officer Darren Wilson came across two black men walking in the street. By 12:04 pm, one of the men, eighteen-year-old Michael Brown, was dead. -What happened during the course of those three minutes remains unclear, but ultimately, a few months later (in November of that year), a grand jury made the decision not to indict Officer Wilson. -Michael Brown's death, along with many other incidents, ignited nationwide protests. -It also inspired a movement, Black Lives Matter, which takes its name from a Twitter hashtag initially posted in the aftermath of George Zimmerman's acquittal in the 2012 death of Trayvon Martin. -This raises countless questions for sociologists, including many questions about crime, deviance, and conformity. -For example, are shootings like this a growing phenomenon or are new technologies, such as cell phones with video cameras, shedding new light on an existing pattern of behavior? -Moreover, the United States is exceptional in its practice of incarceration. It is home to less than 5 percent of the world's population but almost 25 percent of the world's prisoners (Walmsley 2016). -When we closely examine statistics, we also find troubling numbers when it comes to who is actually incarcerated. -Minorities are disproportionately represented in our prison population, which is cause for ongoing concern and investigation into just how blind justice really is. -Sociologists study these issues with theories and concepts that will be described in this chapter.

Chapter 6 overview

-Police officer and African American encounters spared the BLM movement (George Zimmerman's acquittal 20219- Trayvon Martin) -Michael Brown shot and killed -Crime, deviance, and behavior questions are raised from these shootings. -US incargeration rate- 5-8x higher than canada and west Europe. People are expected to observe, represent the do's and don'ts of society. Mores (William Graham Sumner)- norms that are widely adhered to and have great social and moral significance. Folkways- guide everyday actions.

The psychological view of deviance

-Psychological views of deviance, while similar and overlapping with biological views, also suggest that in a minority of individuals, an amoral, or psychopathic, personality develops. -A psychopath is a specific personality type. -According to psychologists, such individuals lack the moral sense and concern for others held by most normal people.

Prison

-Rise of mass incarceration contributed to lowering crime rates due to the impact that policy has on removing criminals and potential criminals from society -No agreement on how much it has contributed to the great crime decline -Little evidence to suggest incarceration is a deterent -Recidivism- 50% within 8 years of release -Differential association theory -Mass incarceration create a caste system, we must also understand entire structure of policies that stigmatize and marginalize those who are considered criminals. The mark of a criminal record -Consequences of prisons on lives of felons= conducted a study where people apply for jobs and saw that- whites more preddered over blacks, non offenders, much more preferred than ex offenders. More oppression toward black people, suggests that the experience of being a black male in America is comparible to being a convicted white criminal -Need other means to deter crime.

Merton

-Robert K. Merton modified the concept of anomie to refer to the strain put on individuals' behavior when accepted norms conflict with society. -For Merton, deviance is also a by-product of inequality. -What Merton was proposing was that we need to examine the gap between socially prescribed goals, like material success, and ways of achieving those goals. It is a core American ideology that anyone can pull him- or herself up "by the bootstraps," work hard, and get ahead. -However, the reality is that this simply is not the case. -There are many people, particularly those who are in some way socially disadvantaged, who lack the opportunity to achieve along accepted or typical paths. -Consequently, Merton proposed a typology of deviance to consider five potential reactions to this mismatch between ideal and reality: the conformist, the retreatist, the ritualist, the innovator, and the rebel. -Conformists accept both societal values and the conventional means of realizing them, regardless of whether they meet with success. -The majority of the population falls into this category. Innovators accept socially approved values but use illegitimate or illegal means to pursue them. -Ritualists conform to socially accepted standards but have lost sight of the values behind these standards. -Retreatists reject both the dominant values of society and the approved means of achieving them. -Finally, rebels reject both the existing values and the means of pursuing them but wish to actively substitute new values and reconstruct the social system. -Which category do you feel you fall under?

What were the causes and costs of the great crime decline?

-Violence has gone down in almost every city. Sociologists are interested in explaining this phenomenon -Factors contributing to decline: prisons, the death penalty and policing.

Income

-Wages and salaries earned from paid occupations, plus unearned money (or interest) from investments. -Rising real income (excluding increases owing to inflation, which provides a fixed standard of comparison from year to year)- Reasons for increasing productivity- technology and almost everything we consume is made in countries where wages are extremely low, keeping costs (therefore, prices down) -Real income is rising, ut not distributed equally among all groups.

Theoretical conclusions- why do people commit deviant acts

-Whether someone engages in a criminal act or comes to be regarded as a criminal is influenced fundamentally by social learning and social surroundings. -That is, the ways in which crime is understood directly affect the policies developed to combat it. -For example, if crime is seen as a product of social disorganization or deprivation, policies might be redirected to reduce poverty and bolster social services. -However, if crime is merely viewed as the behavioral choice of individual psychopaths, policy attempts to counter crime will look very different.

A picture of the US Class Structure

-Social class= multifacetect concept, comparison how far we've gone in school, how much we earn, what w do for a living and how many assets we possess. -General cjharcteristcs that distinguish major social strata. -No sharply defined boundaries between the classes and no real agreement among sociologists about where the boundaries should fall The upper Class -Richest Americans, <$200,000. 5% of American households. -Wealthy, but not superrich. large suburban home, vacation home, expensive cars, vacation, etc -Lower levels of this gorup- a large part of income comes from salary (doctor, lawyer, etc) -7 million households -The supperuch- vast fortunes. $2million. wealth comes from their investments (stocks, bonds, real estate) and interest income derived from those investments (celebrities, athletes, CEOs, inheritance)- have significant influence on American politics -Opportunities to accumulate wealth- globalization- investing globally by selling pridcurts to foreign consumers and making profit by using low wage labor in developing countries. -# of superrich Americans exploded in recent years. The Middle Class -Stable and sometimes substantial incomes at primarily white collar jobs and highly skilled blue collar jobs -$40,00-200,000 -increasingly diverse -Most identify themselves in the middle class, few want to be identified as being too rich or too poor. -Subdivided into upper and lower middle class The Upper Middle Class -Highly educated professionals (doctors, lawyers, professors), mid-level corporate managers, small business owners and large farm owners -$100,000-200,000 -20% of all American housholds -More likely to be college educated with advanced degree Lower Middle Class -Trained office workers, teachers, nurses, salspeople, police, etc -40% of American housholds -College educated or highly paid persons with high school diplomas (plumbers) -$40,000-100,000 -Modest house, rental units The Working Class -20% of all American households -Blue-collar- factory workers, and mechanics -Pink collar- clerical aids and sales clerks and others earning modest weekly paycheck -$20-40k -At least 2 household members work to make ends meet. -Racially and ethnically diverse The Lower Class -15% of American households -Part tieme workers or not working at all -Used cars -Nonwhite -Lower than $20k -Dead end jobs, unstable. -Rent, some are homeless. Underclass -Beneath the class system -"New Urban poor" -Highest poverty neighborhoods in the inner-city -African Americans trapped in generations of poverty -Welfare, homeless. -Extremely difficult lives

Social Exclusion

-Social exclusion- new sources of inequality- ways in which individuals may become cut off from involvement in society -May occur in isolated rural areas with no opportunities or in inner-city neighborhoods with high income rates and substandard housing -Exclusion and inclusion may be seen in economic terms, polictal and social -Agency- our ability to act independently and use free will -Exclusion- someone or something is being shut out by another and is beyond and individual's control. -Can also result from people excluding themselves from aspects of mainstream society. -Dropping out of school, turning down a job, turning away from elections -Must be conscious of interaction between human agency and responsibility and the role of social forces in shaping people's circumstances Homeless Persons -Primarily young single men of working age -Blacks -Latinos and Asians less likely because of their close knot families -Reasons for homeless. families- lack of affordable housing, poverty, and unemployment. Individuals- substance abuse, lack of afordable housing, and mental illness -Declining incomes and rising rents

Biological view of deviance

-The biological (and psychological) perspective locates deviance in the person, whereas sociological perspectives locate deviance in the act. -Though this is, perhaps, an oversimplification, one way of thinking about the difference between biological and psychological approaches and sociological approaches is that the former are interested in deviants, whereas the latter is interested in deviance. -The underlying belief in early biological and psychological theories of deviance was that criminals are born, not made. -More recent work in both fields recognizes the importance of environment but still emphasizes innate characteristics in deviant individuals.

The functions of Deviance

-The deviant acts of others affect our personal behaviors in powerful ways. -Deviants help us understand what is considered "right" and "wrong." -Public punishments not only punish the guilty, but prevent others from behaving in a similar way. -The public humiliations of others affect us because they make us rethink whether it's really worthwhile to try to get away with a crime. -Crime takes a toll on the financial and emotional well-being of people with minimal or no contact with the criminal justice system. -Corporate crime can affect food quality, car safety, and air quality. -Additionally, tax outlays for street crime, criminal justice systems, and -incarceration are very high.

Social Stratification

-The existence of structured inequalities among groups in society in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards -Sociologists speak of social stratification to describe inequalities among individuals and groups within human societies. -Stratification is a way of dividing people into vertical or hierarchical layers, where those at the top have the most power. Systems of stratification are those where social structures hold certain groups in ranked order and where it is difficult, if not impossible, to change that order. -As such, you can likely imagine several bases for stratification—which amount to structured inequality—including economics, gender, race, age, occupation, and more. -Despite the obvious differences between such systems of inequality, what is at stake for the most part is power: who has it, who does not, whether this can change, and so on.

The Death penalty

-The use of capital punishment also makes the United States stand out in comparison to other democratic nations. -The United States is one of the last Western countries to legally permit the practice. -In 2016, there were 2,814 inmates on death row, with five states (including California, Florida, and Texas) accounting for 49 percent of the death row inmates (U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics 2014). -Moreover, support for capital punishment in the United States remains high, though it has been declining in the last two decades.

Chapter 6- PPT overview

-This chapter covers the topic of deviance. -Who gets to define what is normal and what is not? -Why is it that while most of us conform to the norms of our society, other people behave outside the norm? -Who are the people most likely to act outside the norm—to deviate from either the written or the unwritten rules of behavior? -We will touch upon theoretical approaches to answering these questions.

Social stratification

-To describe inequalities among individuals and groups within human societies -Can be in wealth, property, but can also occur on the basis of gender, age, race, or religious affiliation. -Important area of research in social stratificaiton- social mobility; or one's movement up or down social class strata -Key aspects of social stratification- class, status, and power. Frequently overlap, but not always the case (EX: drug- lords are wealthy and powerful, but have a low status) -Focus on stratification in. terms of inequalities based on wealth, income, status, and power.

How do we document crime?

-UCR and victimization studies -UCR contain data on crime, reported to law enforcement agencies to FBI. Focus on "index crimes" : murder, no negligent manslaughter, robbery, rape, agg assault, burglary, larceny, theft , motor vehicle theft, arson. -Only known/reported - limitation -Don't include less serious crimes -NCVIS- victims themselves, reveals more

Conflict theory

-Why people commit crime? -Marxist thought: deviance is deliberately chosen and often political in nature -Purposefully engage in deviant behavior as a response to inequalities of the capitalist system. -Laws are tools by the powerful to maintain their own privileged positions -The powerful are rarely caught when they break the rules

Globalization by the numbers- incarceration rates

-With all of this prison time in the United States, one might ask how our approach compares to that of other countries. -Looking at figures outlined in "Globalization by the Numbers: Incarceration Rates," we can see that millions of people are currently being held in penal institutions across the globe. -Unfortunately, jail and prison do not seem to do much to either dissuade bad behavior or to change people. -In short, incarceration is not much of a deterrent, and the research suggests that it actually creates more social problems. -Additionally, we know that minorities are disproportionately represented in prisons, we know that men make up overwhelming numbers of the population, and we know that the United States has one of the highest incarceration rates in the world.

Youth and crime

-Young working class males 9theft, burglary, assault, and rapes) -1/5 of offenders were 21 or younger 2016 -Control theory: age crime curve- as young people transition to adulthood, they aciwure social attachment and commitments that make "conventional" behavior rewarding. "Cost" of deviance rises and risks of loss increases. -Moral outrage can defect attention from larger societal issues -War on drugs criminalizes large segments of the youth population who are generally law abiding -Different drugs tend to be associated with different groups and behaviors -Crack- black people -Ectsasy and prescription drugs= white people

Ch. 7 example

-Your textbook begins this chapter with the story of -Viviana Andazola Marquez, a young woman raised by a single mother who was an undocumented Mexican immigrant and who was often homeless, but who ultimately beat the odds and finished her Harvard degree in 2018. Sadly, her father was detained by ICE and ultimately deported and banned from reentering the United States. -Many people in the United States hold up the stories of people like Viviana as evidence that anyone who works hard can get ahead. -The reality, however, is not so straightforward. -Many people work very hard but, for reasons beyond their control, find it extremely difficult to change their life circumstances. -Sometimes this is for lack of opportunities due to life in poorer neighborhoods, sometimes it is the result of deeply ingrained perceptions of gender roles, and sometimes it is the result of intentionally unequal treatment. -Often it is the combination, or intersection, of marginalized social positions. -Viviana Andazola Marquez offers an example of what your textbook calls an extreme case of social mobility. -Social mobility is indeed far more possible than it has been for much of human history, but for significant proportions of the population, it still seems more myth than reality. Inequality grounded in economics, race, gender, and other social forms has been central to what sociology is about, and that continues to be the case. -In this chapter in your textbook, you are introduced to some of the basic forms of stratification, and also to notions of social class and economic inequality. -So what are some of the big questions we'll be covering? -What exactly is stratification? -How important and relevant is it today? -What causes social inequality? What are the effects of systems of inequality?

The psychological view of deviance

-associate criminality with particular types of personality -Some individuals have a psychopathic personality (withdrawan, emotionless, and delight in violence for its won sake). -Can only explain some aspects of crime; highly improbable that the majority of criminals display distinct characteristics in personality. -Something wrong with individual; not society; outside of their control.

How does social inequality affect your life?

-benefits: low costs from cheap labor; rising standard of living -Costs-competition for jobs with workers in other countries who work for lower wages

Functionalist Theories

-crime and deviance- structural tensions and a lack of moral regulation in a society. if aspirations held by individuals and groups in society do not coincide with available rewards, disparity between desires and fulfillment will lead to deviant behavior. Crime and anomie (Durkheim and merton) Durkheim: -Anomie- social norms lose hold over individual behavior, no clear standards to guide behavior, people feel disconnected and anxious (suicide) -Deviance and crime- social facts; both inevitable and necessary in modern societies as they are less constrained by social expectations than in traditional societies. Nonconformity- never in complete consensus. -Deviance- necessary for society. 1. It is adaptive and brings about change. 2. ultimately enhances group solidarity and clarify social norms. -Stability of society (prostiiton to meet sexual needs example) -Focuses on social forces Merton -Strain theory- strain put on individual's behavior when accepted norms conflict with social reality (material success). Deviance- byproduct of economic inequalities -Reactions to tensions between socially enforced values and limited means of achieving them: -Conformity (accepting means and goals), ritualism (accepting means, rejecting goals), innovation (rejecting means accepting goals), retreatism (rejecting means, rejecting goals). rebellion (new means, new goals) -Majority of pop- conformists -innovators- acquire goals through illegal means -Ritualist- conform but no values -Retreatist- reject both -Rebels- substitute goals and means (heaven's gate) -Relative deprivation- recognition that one has less than his or her peers has an important element in deviant behavior Subcultural explanations (Albert Cohen, Cloward, and Ohlin) -Contraditions in society- cause of crime -Responses occur collectively through subcultrues -Boys in lower working class frustrated with their position join in delinquent subcultures such as gangs (reject middle-class valies and celebrate deferance -Cloward and Olin- gangs arise in communities where chances of achieving success are slim. Deviant values are in response to lack of opportunity. Functionalist theories emphasize connections between conformityy and deviance in different social contexts.

Class

-important for analyzing stratification in industrial societies like the US. -Class- a large group of people;le who occupy a similar economic position in the wider society. -Life changes (Max Weber)- the opportunities you have for achieving economic prosperity. -Starting off wealthy in the first place- best chance of being wealthy in life -Emphasizes that although class is a powerful incfluence on what happens in our lives, it is not completely determining. Affects neighborhoods we live in, lifestyles we follow, and even romantic partners we choose -Don't fit people for life in specific scocial positions as the older systems of stratification did -Class systems differ from slavery and castes in 4 main respects: 1. Caste systems are fluid -Not established by legal or religious previsions -Boundaries between classes- never clear-cut -No formal restrictions on intermarriage between different classes 2. Class positions are in some part achieved -Social mobility (up and down class structure) is relatively common 3. Class is economically based -Depend on inequalities in the possession of material resouces 4. Class systems are large and impersonal -Large scale, impersonal associations (pay or working conditions) Are class boundaries weakening? -2 important debates about the declining importance of social class: 1. Will caste systems give way to class systems against the backdrop of globalization? -Some evicedne that globalization will hasten the end of legally sanctioned caste systems throughout the world. Ridged restrictions in caste systems interfere with necessary freedom of enconomic mobility. elements of caste systemm persist even in industrial societies (ex: Indian immigrants in caste-aligned marriages) 2. Is inequality declining in class based societies due in part to educational expansion and other social policies? -Some evidence that at least until recently, mature capitalist societies have been increasingly open to movement between classes, thereby reducing level of inequality. however, trend has reversed in recent years; inequality increasing since 70s.

Global inequality

-the systematic differences in wealth and power among countries Defining Poverty Absolute poverty: the minimal requirements necessary to sustain a healthy existence Relative poverty: poverty defined according to the living standards of the majority in any given society Global inequality, simply stated, is the systematic differences in wealth and power among countries. We'll begin by thinking about inequality both between and within countries. In other words, we need to explore the idea that there is a kind of global hierarchy of countries, but that within every one of those countries there is also a local hierarchy to consider. Next we'll address the question of how, as sociologists, we can better understand what causes global inequality, what reproduces the status quo, and what might lead to shifts. Once we have a sense of how we might explain inequality on a global level, we should consider what it actually looks like. As such, we will spend a bit of time outlining some of the characteristics of the poorest people and countries, which we can, implicitly at least, compare to our own existence here in the United States. When sociologists define poverty, they distinguish between absolute poverty and relative poverty. Absolute poverty is the minimum requirements necessary to sustain a healthy existence. Relative poverty is defined according to the living standards of the majority in any given society. Let's look a little closer at the current system of global stratification. Just as in our own society, we have higher and lower classes, in the world there are countries that are higher and lower in the rankings. One measure of global inequality is per person gross national income (GNI). In this "Globalization by the Numbers," we can see how the World Bank uses GNI to classify countries into four economic classes: low income, lower middle income, upper middle income, and high income. Infographic exercise Break into small groups and answer the following questions: What is the difference in gross national income per capita between low-income countries and high-income countries? Which type of country has the largest total population? Which type of country has the smallest annual population growth? Discuss the findings with your group and then share them with the rest of the class.

Social mobility

-upward or downward movement of individuals and groups among different class positions as a result of changes in occupation, wealth, or income -Intragenerational mobility- how far they move up and down the economic scale in the course of their working lives -Intergenerational mobility-Across the generations Opportunities for mobility Who gets ahead? -Social production- process whereby parents pass down to their children a range of resources, including both financial and cultural capital -Working to upperclass intergenerational mobility- rare. -Aspirations are reproduced from generation to generation bc parents and children share the social location and social ties that may shape apsirations- Peter blowout Otis dudly Duncan -Pierre Bourdieu- among factors respondents bible for social status, the most important is the transmission of cultural capital, or the cultural advantages that coming from a "good home" confers. Working class parents are concerned about their children's education, but they lack the economic cultural capital to make a difference. -Race and education play a major role in determining social mobility -upward mobility is far lower for blacks than it is for whites -Differences in education- poor blacks do not get the same educational opportunities as whites Downward Mobility -Occurs when one's own wealth, income, or occupational status is lower than one's parents had -Short-range downward mobility- Moves from one Job to another that is similar in Pau and presitge -Some people aren't able to sustain the lifestyle into which they were born in or it happens through no fault go their own (losing jobs because of bankruptcy, etc)

Three Systems of Social Stratification

1. Slavery -A form of social stratification in which some people are owned by others as their property 2. Caste -A social system in which one's social status is determined at birth and set for life -Endogmy- the forbidding of marriage or sexual relations outside of one's social group 3. Class -Socioeconomic variations among groups of individuals that create variations in their material prosperity and power -Historically speaking, there are three major types of systems of social stratification: slavery, caste, and class. -The first type of stratification is slavery, in which some peoples are considered less than human and are owned as property. -Their legal rights are limited, certain relationships are prohibited, and social power is essentially nonexistent. -The second type is the caste system, in which societal groupings are based on deeply held cultural ideals and boundaries. -The Indian caste system exemplifies this societal form of stratification, having both cultural and economic impacts. -Caste systems are characterized by hereditary status, endogamy, and social barriers, and are sanctioned by custom, law, and religion. -Endogamy is the forbidding of marriage or sexual relations outside one's social group. -The third type of stratification is the class system, with which we are familiar. -People are divided according to economic markers such as income, wealth, ownership, and so on. -There are many different characterizations of what constitutes class, and we will be talking about these characterizations today.

Three primary characteristics of social stratification

1. The rankings apply to social categories of people who share a common characteristic, such as ethnicity or gender 2. People's life experiences and opportunities depend heavily on how their social category is ranked 3. The ranks of different social categories tend to change very slowly over time. -All socially stratified systems share three characteristics (explained in the next three slides). -One of the first things to note about systems of stratification is that they primarily rank groups. Women may be ranked differently from men, wealthy people differently from the poor, and so on. -This does not mean that individuals from a particular category cannot change their rank, but it does mean that the category continues to exist even if individuals move out of it and into another category. -Moreover, members of groups sometimes exceed (or fail to meet) expectations, but that does not change the reality that rankings refer to groups. -This idea is often a tough sell in the United States, given our strongly held ideal of individualism, but when we look at the way our society is organized, differentials among certain socioeconomic groups, racial groups, and even birth cohorts are significant at the group level. -As a result, we must study stratification as a group, and not an individual, concern. -The second thing to note is that people's life experiences and opportunities depend heavily on how their social category is ranked. -Whether you are male or female, Black or white, and so on makes a big difference in terms of your life chances. -And third, the ranks of different social categories tend to change very slowly over time.

primary deviance

According to Edwin Lemert, the actions that cause others to label one as a deviant.

Labelling theory

An approach to the study of decviance that suggests that people become "deviant" because certain labels are attached to their behavior by political authorities and others.

Functionalist Approaches

As always, functionalist theory attempts to see what function, or role, a social institution fulfills. In this case, the institution in question is gender inequality, and functionalist theory makes the case that gender differences are good for social harmony. You may have noticed that the language being used is one of difference rather than inequality. What functionalists claim is that essentially we have a gendered division of labor that works well and, as such, is a good thing. The problems are that this approach ignores inequality and its ramifications (for women and for society as a whole), and also that it assumes that gender roles and social organization are the same everywhere and are unchanging. It also assumes that what we have (or had) was truly harmonious or good. It does not take into consideration that gender is socially constructed—that society itself is socially constructed—and therefore misses the fact that a reduction of gender "differences" could be responded to actively by society.

organized crime

Criminal activities carried out by organizations established as businesses.

white collar crime

Criminal activities carried out by those in white-collar, or professional, jobs.

Explaining poverty: the sociological debate

Culture of poverty The thesis, popularized by Oscar Lewis, that poverty is not a result of independent inadequacies but is instead the outcome of a larger social and cultural atmosphere into which successive generations of children are socialized When we try to explain poverty more generally, there are really only two basic trains of thought: explanations either blame the poor people themselves or they blame society. The culture of poverty is the thesis, popularized by Oscar Lewis, that poverty is not a result of independent inadequacies but is instead the outcome of a larger social and cultural atmosphere into which successive generations of children are socialized. The culture of poverty refers to the values, beliefs, lifestyles, habits, and traditions that are common among people living under conditions of material deprivation and maintains that poverty, or more specifically a culture that aligns with poverty, is transmitted intergenerationally via socialization. This perspective then finds blame in the pathological culture of the poor. In the second vein, we find theories that suggest that the deck is stacked against the poor; structural factors produce conditions of poverty. They live in neighborhoods with terrible schools, no jobs, high crime rates, and so on. In other words, there are social structures that make it incredibly difficult, if not impossible, to get ahead.

How does poverty affect individuals?

Despite the wealth of resources and opportunities in the United States, poverty remains a significant social problem. This photo shows fast-food workers, many of whom are counted among the working poor. Many earn minimum wage, and many lack health benefits due to part-time work schedules. Much of our sense that social mobility is imminently possible for everyone may be the result of a kind of denial of poverty. Most middle-class Americans have little, if any, contact with those here in the United States who are truly impoverished. Absolute Poverty The minimal requirements necessary to sustain a healthy existence Relative Poverty Poverty defined according to the living standards of the majority in any given society Absolute poverty is the minimal requirements necessary to sustain a healthy existence. Absolute poverty is more likely to refer to conditions in developing societies. In the United States, we are typically talking about relative poverty, though there are cases of absolute poverty. Relative poverty is poverty defined according to the living standards of the majority in any given society. We should not diminish the significance of relative poverty; living without basic amenities such as health care or running water certainly constitutes a social problem in a society with as many resources as the United States. And we can't ignore the reality that poverty rates in the United States are far higher than those in other developed countries, as explained in your textbook. As a society, we have to decide whether it is acceptable to allow such conditions to go on. A full 13 percent of the U.S. population in 2016 was in poverty (over 40 million people). Nearly 19 million people in the United States live in extreme poverty—near the starvation level. So here are a couple of basic numbers: Thirteen percent of our population lives in poverty, where poverty is based on the government-designated "poverty line"—this is the second highest rate among our peer nations. This is more than 40 million people. Nearly 6 percent of the U.S. population, about 18.5 million Americans, live in deep poverty, with incomes at half of the official poverty level. What do you think when you see these numbers? Think back to C. Wright Mills's sociological imagination: when some social phenomenon affects just a few people, perhaps the fault lies in those individuals. But when it affects huge parts of the population, perhaps we need to think a bit differently. First we need to think about how we define who is poor.

Emerging economies

Developing countries that, over the past two or three decades, have begun to develop a strong industrial base, such as Singapore and Hong Kong Emerging economies are developing countries that over the past two or three decades have begun to develop a strong industrial base, such as Singapore and Hong Kong. The economic success of the East Asian emerging economies can be attributed to a combination of factors. Some East Asian countries have experienced rapid economic growth. Sociologists speculate this is due to five main reasons, including cultural, historic, and economic factors. Some of these factors are historical, including those stemming from world political and economic shifts. Some are cultural. Still others have to do with the ways these countries pursued economic growth. For example, between the 1950s and the mid-1970s, the growing economies of Europe and the United States provided a big market for the clothing, footwear, and electronics that were increasingly being made in East Asia, creating a window of opportunity for economic development. Whether the growth of these economies will continue is unclear. In 1997 and 1998, a combination of poor investment decisions, corruption, and world economic conditions brought these countries' economic expansion to an abrupt halt. Their stock markets collapsed, their currencies fell, and the entire global economy was threatened. Yet the "Asian meltdown," as the newspapers called it in early 1998, turned out to have been merely a blip in the region's recent growth. China in particular has been growing at a high rate.

What is deviance?

Deviance -modes of action that do not conform to the Norns or values held by most members of a group or society Deviant subculture -A subculture whose members hold values that differ substantially from those of the majority -Now that we've established the definition of the "norm,'" we will establish a formal definition of what constitutes deviant behavior. -In a sense, deviance is just what you think: behavior that does not conform to social norms. Sociologically, deviance is action that does not conform to the norms or values held by most members of a group or society. Deviance, technically, can be negative, as in robbery, or positive, as in unexpectedly offering assistance when no help was the norm. -Usually, though, when we think about deviance, we are thinking of the former. -And, typically, when we think about deviance, we think of individuals as the ones behaving outside the norm. -Groups, however, can also be deviant. -Corporations, governments, organizations, and social groups can all take part in deviance. Group deviance can take place among formal or informal organizations, but again, it must be understood within the context of a particular set of norms. For example, nations can be deviant actors if they choose, as North Korea has, to pursue goals that fly in the face of international laws (which, of course, are codified norms). -For North Koreans, however, it is the behavior of the rest of the world that is deviant for refusing to allow them to pursue their national interests. Right here in the United States we have had religious groups—which many call cults—that clearly illustrate the notion of group deviance. -Heaven's Gate, one such group, practiced in the West and Midwest and, in 1997, perpetrated a mass suicide in line with its beliefs, which were clearly perceived as deviant by society at large. -This is one example of a deviant subculture. -A deviant subculture is a subculture whose members hold values that differ substantially from those of the majority. Another example is adolescents and young adults who wear only black, listen to particular, dark kinds of music, and seem to present themselves as sullen, and who are sometimes called Goths. Goths are a deviant subculture in that this presentation of self runs counter to American social norms of fitting in, being pleasant, and putting on a happy face. In some societies, this subculture might not seem deviant at all. As already mentioned, deviance can only be defined in relation to norms. -Moreover, what is regarded as deviant is as variable as the norms and values that distinguish different cultures and subcultures from one another.

Feminist Approaches

Feminist theories A sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the experience of women Liberal feminism Form of feminist theory that believes that gender inequality is produced by unequal access to civil rights and certain social resources, such as education and unemployment, based on sex Radical feminism Form of feminist theory that believes that gender inequality is the result of male domination in all aspects of social and economic life Black feminism and transnational feminism Black feminism A strand of feminist theory that highlights the multiple disadvantages of gender, class, and race that shape the experiences of nonwhite women Transnational feminism A branch of feminist theory that highlights the way that global processes, including colonialism, racism, and imperialism, shape gender relations and hierarchies Feminist theory jumped in to address some of the critiques of functionalist theory. One of the first things it sought to do was to bring a female voice into the scholarly discussion of gender inequality. One of the main problems of such theorizing to date was that it had been all from a male perspective. Another aspect of feminist theory is that it takes an activist approach. Feminist theorists see inequality as a wrong that can, and must, be righted. Today, feminist theory is used to explain inequality in many social institutions and concerns aside from those explicitly dealing with gender. Feminist theories are sociological perspectives that emphasize the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the experience of women. There are many versions of feminist theory, which do not necessarily agree with each other. Liberal feminism sees inequality as stemming from discrimination in a variety of arenas. Liberal feminism is a form of feminist theory that believes that gender inequality is produced by unequal access to civil rights and certain social resources, such as education and unemployment, based on sex. Liberal feminists seek to right the wrongs of inequality by working within established systems; for example, through laws and policies. Radical feminism asserts that the liberal approach is unlikely to promote real change. Radical feminism is a form of feminist theory that believes that gender inequality is the result of male domination in all aspects of social and economic life. Radical feminists begin from a more conflict-oriented perspective, which is based on a radical rejection of patriarchy. Men are seen as exploiters, and the only path to change is the overthrow of all patriarchal systems. Black feminist theory adds the element of race to already serious concerns about gender. Black feminism is a strand of feminist theory that highlights the multiple disadvantages of gender, class, and race that shape the experiences of nonwhite women Black feminists reject the idea of a single, unified gender oppression that is experienced evenly by all women. Black feminist theory explicitly recognizes the compounding social effects of being both nonwhite and female and insists that these things be addressed in concert. Transnational feminism is a branch of feminist theory that highlights the way that global processes, including colonialism, racism, and imperialism, shape gender relations and hierarchies. It focuses primarily on intersections among nationhood, race, gender, sexuality, and economic exploitation against the contemporary backdrop of global capitalism. As you can see, though they all begin with the central problem of how to end inequality, various types of feminist theory emphasize different problems and solutions.

Sociological Perspectives on Deviance

Functionalist theories -Crime and anomie: Durkheim and merton -Anomie- a concept first Brought into wide usage in sociology by Durkheim, referring to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior. -functionalist, reinforcement, conflict, symbolic interactionist -Sociological theories of deviance typically focus on deviant behavior (deviance), rather than on inherent traits of particular people (deviants). -Sociological perspectives on deviance are wide-ranging. -There are many sociological perspectives to consider: functionalist theories, reinforcement theories, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionist approaches. -We will begin with functionalist theories of deviance. Remember what functionalist theories are interested in: how social institutions play a role in the proper functioning of a society. -The big questions here, then, are what role does deviance play, is there too much deviance, and is there more or less deviance than in earlier periods? -To the last question, asking whether there is more or less deviance today than in the past, we might well add the question, if so, why? -Émile Durkheim thought quite a bit about deviance. -He thought some amount was normal and necessary to all societies. -It is normal, as some deviance is found in every society, and necessary because it both defines the boundaries of group norms and behaviors and serves as a force of innovation. -Durkheim was, however, a bit concerned about increases in deviant behavior with the rise of modernity. -He theorized that anomie, or normlessness, might explain these increases. -Anomie is a concept first brought into wide usage in sociology by Durkheim, referring to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior. In modern societies, many norms have been lost but not replaced, leaving people without a center. -Thus, deviance and crime are both normal and necessary. -Robert Merton, a middle-range theorist, also applied functionalist logic to deviance. We'll look at his typology of deviance on the next slide.

Sociological perspectives on deviance (Cont'd)

Functionalist theorists -Crime and anomie: Durkheim and merton; Relative deprivation -Subcultural explanations Merton also examined one of the main issues facing studies of criminology at the time: Why were crime rates continuing to rise even as society as a whole was becoming more affluent? To explain this phenomenon, Merton pointed to the idea of relative deprivation—the recognition that one has less than his or her peers. Later researchers located deviance in terms of subcultural groups that adopt norms that encourage or reward criminal behavior. Like Merton, Albert Cohen saw the contradictions within American society as the main cause of crime. However, Cohen saw responses as collective and occurring within subcultures, whereas Merton emphasized the individual and individual responses. Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960) further argued that gangs emerge in subcultural communities because legitimate avenues to success are limited, especially for ethnic minorities. Cloward and Ohlin emphasized the connections between deviance and conformity. They argued that individuals follow rules when they have the opportunities, but reject them when they do not. Interactionist theories -Learned deciance: differential association; criminal behavior is learned through association with others who regularly engage in crime Labeling theory -Poeple become "deviant" because certain labels are attached to their behavior by political authorities and others -primary deviance- actions that cause others to label one as deviant. -Secondary deviance- secondary deviance occurs when an individual accepts the label of deviant and acts accordingly. Control theory -Interactionist theories begin with the premise that behavior is learned, and deviant behavior is no exception. -Deviance is seen as a learned, even normalized, behavior: we act based on perceived rewards and costs, which may be economic, social, and so on. -Differential association, labeling theory, and control theory are among the better-known interactionist theories. -We all learn, sometimes from a very early age: which behaviors will be rewarded, which punished, and which merely tolerated. -This is the basis for differential association, an interpretation of the development of criminal behavior proposed by Edwin H. Sutherland, according to whom criminal behavior is learned through association with others who regularly engage in crime. -According to differential association, the claim is that if your primary groups—your family, friends, and neighbors—have adopted criminal norms, chances are that you will learn those norms as your own. -In other words, people who are surrounded by those engaged in criminal or deviant behavior are likely to learn those norms and join in. -Gang membership in crime-ridden neighborhoods is the most frequently cited example of differential association. The key here is that the behaviors are learned from being part of a particular kind of community. Labeling theory suggests that people become "deviant" because certain labels are attached to their behavior by political authorities and others. -That is, deviance is found, not in the act, but rather in the response, in the label applied. The act of applying a label to a behavior is powerful, because the label is then attached to the person. -Children who are labeled as juvenile delinquents, for example, then wear that label in such a way that it affects the way they are treated in schools, jobs, and other situations. -This relates to the notion of a self-fulfilling prophecy, wherein once a label has been applied, it is actually adopted by its wearer as real or true. -The initial act of deviance is called primary deviance. -According to Edwin Lemert, acts of primary deviance are the actions that cause others to label one as a deviant. -The deviant behavior that occurs after labeling is called secondary deviance. -Though more than one symbolic interactionist approach to deviance exists, labeling theory is one of the dominant theoretical perspectives in criminology. Control theory sees deviant behavior as the result of a risk-reward analysis, which may be affected by external social controls such as attachment to values and individuals that deter such choices. -The four primary controls are attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief, and if they are sufficiently strong, they serve to maintain social control. Conflict theory -Conflict theorists begin with the claim that rules and laws are structures that allow people in power to maintain that power, and that deviance or crime is a challenge to those structures. -As such, conflict theory explains deviance as a choice individuals and groups make in response to a system that leaves them with few alternatives. -Conflict theory also locates much of this problem in the actual structure of capitalism and is derived from Marxian theory. Conflict theorists want to know why people commit crimes. -Crime is seen as political action intended to challenge the power structure.

Are gender differences due to nature, nurture, or both?

Gender binary The classification of sex and gender into two discrete, opposite, and nonoverlapping forms of masculine and feminine Nonbinary A gender identity that does not fit squarely into the male-female gender binary classification Why are boys and girls, men and women, different from one another? Gender scholars strive to understand this question, and also to understand persons who do not conform with the gender binary. Scholars disagree as to the extent that nurture is an influence, or nature. Sex The biological and anatomical differences distinguishing females from males Gender Social expectations about behavior regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex As sociologists, we begin by separating sex and gender. There is a very important distinction between sex and gender. Sex is comprised of the biological and anatomical differences distinguishing females from males, and the term refers to the physical differences of the body. The term gender refers not to the physical attributes distinguishing men from women, but rather to socially formed traits of masculinity and femininity. Gender is the sum of the social expectations we have about the behavior that is regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex.

Future of Global Inequality

Globalization appears to be inevitable. Some predictions for inequality are negative. Some predictions are more optimistic. A realistic appraisal should include some concerns. Globalization appears to be inevitable, and the consequences for inequality are not clear. Scenarios range from dire to optimistic. Negative predictions see a world dominated by large global corporations, with workers everywhere competing with one another at a global wage. This might result in falling wages for many in high-income countries and rising wages for a few in low-income countries. Optimistic scenarios see more opportunities for everyone, with the benefits of technology stimulating worldwide economic growth. A realistic appraisal should include some serious concerns. Growing inequality may spark more nationalism, as we have seen in the European Union. Another concern is that global climate change will spark violent conflict and famine. A well-informed awareness of global inequality may be an essential step toward trying to eradicate the vast gap between the haves and have-nots Despite an enduring digital divide, smartphone ownership in developing countries has jumped from just 21 percent in 2013 to 37 percent in in 2015. Think about how you use your smartphone. Can you think of ways that you might use your smartphone to improve the well-being of millions of people living in poor nations? A number of app developers are working on solutions to improve individuals' access to information that can impact their health. Smartphones are also emerging as a particularly effective way to diagnose eye disorders. According to the WHO, more than 280 million people around the world have vision problems or are blind. An app called Peek (for Portable Eye Examination Kit), which uses a phone's camera to scan people's eyes for cataracts and other problems, has been used successfully in Kenya, Botswana, and India. Such smartphone apps as Peek are bringing vision care to poor, remote communities in the developing world. The future of global inequality remains an open question—one whose answer will depend, in large part, on whether global economic expansion can be sustained in the face of ecological constraints and a global economy that has proven to be surprisingly fragile. It remains to be seen whether the countries of the world will learn from one another and work together to create better lives for their peoples.

Ch. 9- Gender inequality

In this chapter, we will take a sociological view of gender. This includes social movements such as #MeToo and public expressions of violence and discrimination. It also includes exploring gender itself as a concept, and gender categories used in society. The #MeToo movement began in the entertainment industry, and has since exposed nearly every industry as the site of rampant sexual harassment and discrimination. Your chapter also begins with stories from Uber, Ford Motor Company, and the finance industry. Sexual harassment of women is demeaning, demoralizing, and dangerous, and it occurs at all levels of industry. This chapter takes a sociological approach to the exploration of gender differences and gender inequality. Men and women are different and also unequal in terms of power, prestige, and wealth. Sociologists emphasize the importance of intersectionality, or the ways multiple identities and social locations shape people's experiences.

Class

Life Chances -a term introduced by Max Weber to signify a person's opportunities for achieving economic prosperity 1. Class systems are fluid 2. Class positions are in some part achieved 3. Class is economically based 4. Class systems are large-scale and impersonal -Are class boundaries weakening? -With the onset of modernity, we saw a shift toward class-based systems of stratification. These systems are largely concerned with economic indicators, as opposed to more permanent, unchangeable social characteristics. Because class has a strong impact on many life outcomes and choices, what this means is that members of certain groups will have fewer life chances than members of certain other groups. "Life chances" is a term introduced by Max Weber to signify a person's opportunities for achieving economic prosperity. Moreover, class systems differ from slavery and castes in four main respects (outlined on the next four slides). Class systems are fluid. Unlike other types of strata, classes are not established by legal or religious provisions. The boundaries between classes are never clear-cut. There are no formal restrictions on intermarriage between people from different classes. Class positions are in some part achieved. An individual's class in not simply assigned at birth, as is the case with other types of stratification systems. Social mobility (movement up and down the class structure, which will be discussed in a moment) is relatively common. The category of class is economically based. Classes depend on inequalities in the possession of material resources. And last, class systems are large-scale and impersonal. In other types of stratification systems, inequalities are expressed primarily in personal relationships of duty or obligation. -As scholars continue to grapple with inequality, a couple of big questions have emerged. -The first has to do with what is happening as developing countries grow their economies and begin to change. -Are they developing into class systems, as much of the Western world did? -The second asks us to really examine what inequality looks like today—is it on the decline?—and then to ask why it looks the way it does. -In particular, this second set of questions wonders about the effects of social policies, such as universal education, which are designed to simultaneously reduce inequality and promote economic growth. -It does indeed appear that with modern, industrialized societies as the model of today's nations, class systems are the most common form. -Countries such as India, which until fairly recently had legally sanctioned caste systems, have shifted dramatically as they have fully entered the modern economy. -In the United States, we have the troubling trend whereby class lines were increasingly blurring up until the 1970s but are becoming clearer once again.

Evaluating global theories of inequality

Market-oriented theories Dependency theories World-systems theory Global capitalism theory Each theory has strengths and weaknesses. Together, they enable us to better understand the causes of and cures for global inequality. Market-oriented theories recommend the growth of modern capitalist institutions. These theories tend to blame the poor for being poor, and ignore ways government can work with the private sector. They also fail to explain why some countries take off economically whereas others remain poor. Dependency theories emphasize how wealthy nations have exploited poor ones. These theories do not explain occasional success stories. A new concept, "dependent development," argues that under certain circumstances, some development is possible even when a nation is constrained by more powerful core nations. World-systems theory analyzes the world economy as a complex global web. It is difficult for this theory to model the complex world economy. It is criticized for emphasizing economy over culture. Global commodity chains theory is an offshoot of world-systems theory and focuses on global businesses rather than on nations. Global capitalism theory argues that capitalism is inherently exploitative. It fails to account for countries in which state power continues to play an important role. This photo shows part of the global commodity chain, and the global nature of economic activities. Manufacturing has shifted to such countries as China. Today the social and economic forces leading to a single global capitalist economy appear to be irreversible.

What is Deviance (Cont'd)?

Norms and sanctions -Sanctions- a mode of reward or punishment that reinforces socially expected forms of behavior -Laws-Rules of behavior established by a political authority and backed by state power -Crimes- Any actions that. contravene the laws established by a political authority -Whether deviance is enacted by an individual or group, if the norm being breached is an important one, there will be a response. -That response is called a sanction. -As indicated, sanctions can be positive or negative and may be formal or informal—it all depends on what norm is violated and to what degree. -Can you think of an act of deviance where the sanction might be positive? -How about if you are the last one at a party and you unexpectedly stay and help clean up? -The great feedback you would receive would be a positive sanction. -What about formal versus informal sanctions? -What might lead to informal sanctions? -Social groups—peer groups, for example—frequently utilize informal sanctions. Imagine two couples in a tight-knit neighborhood. -They are great friends, socializing and traveling together. Then it is discovered that the husband of one couple and the wife of the other are having an affair. -The resulting ostracism in the neighborhood—which could be very severe—is an informal sanction. -Formal sanctions include, for instance, criminal prosecution for breaking the law, governmental economic sanctions (boycotts, embargoes, and so on) for unacceptable policies, and expulsion from a university for cheating. -Typically, the penalties associated with formal sanctions are codified. -When formal sanctions established by a political authority are codified and backed by state power, that is a law. -The degree of sanctions varies according to the importance and type of norm that is broken. -A crime is any type of behavior that breaks the law. -Specifically, crimes are any actions that contravene the laws established by a political authority.

His and her apps

Our face-to-face interactions at school, at work, in the family, and in our everyday lives are powerfully shaped by gender. But how does gender shape our digital lives? Do men and women use the same apps? Researchers are only beginning to document the digital lives of men and women, yet most of the evidence shows that men and women aren't all that different from one another. A recent study by Pew (Purcell 2011) asked American adults what kinds of apps they had downloaded. Overall, the most popular were apps that provided regular updates on news, weather, sports, or finances (74 percent), that helped people communicate with family and friends (67 percent), and that helped them learn about something they were interested in (64 percent). The study found gender differences on just two dimensions. Men are more likely than women to use apps that help them with work-related tasks (56 percent versus 39 percent) and that advise them in making a purchase (51 percent versus 42 percent). The results of the Pew study suggest that men and women are more similar than different when it comes to their digital lives. Men are also more likely than women to visit high-tech websites and play violent video games. Women favor puzzles, word games, and fashion-oriented apps and sites.

Measuring poverty

Poverty line An official government measure to define those living in poverty in the United States The poverty line is an official government measure to define those living in poverty in the United States. The poverty line for a family of four in 2016 works out to an annual cash income of about $24,440, or around $2,000 a month to cover all expenses. Some critics believe this overestimates the amount of poverty, because an income standard does not take into account noncash items such as food stamps, Medicare, Medicaid, and public housing subsidies. Others believe that the government's formula greatly underestimates the amount of poverty because it overemphasizes the proportion of income needed for food, and underestimates the share needed for housing.

Globalization

The development of social and economic relationships stretching worldwide Before discussing global inequality, it seems important to take a look at a concept that now drives much of the research in this area: globalization. In current times, we are all influenced by organizations and social networks located thousands of miles away. A key part of the study of globalization is the emergence of a world system: For some purposes, we need to regard the world as forming a single social order. Globalization is actually an ongoing process of interconnectedness between nations, multinational corporations (MNCs), international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), and individuals. Globalization is organized both formally (through organizations like the United Nations) and informally (through, for example, pirated Hollywood movies sold around the world), and is taking place particularly in the realms of economics, politics, and culture. Globalization has led to a growing gap between those who have access and opportunities by which to thrive and those who do not. Although the world has many billionaires, millionaires, and others who are doing quite well, at the same time there are millions of workers laboring in conditions we would likely consider inhumane, and doing so for starvation-level wages. And still, there are people who do not even have access to jobs, whose living conditions are even worse.

Prisons

The mark of a criminal record -One of the biggest transformations in U.S. social policy in recent decades is the rise of mass incarceration. -The United States locks up more people per capita than any other country and has by far the most punitive justice system in the world. -While we might suppose that imprisoning large numbers of people would have a deterrent effect, there is little evidence to support this. Instead, we see very high recidivism rates. -Mass incarceration has had a particularly deleterious effect on black communities. -Devah Pager (2003) showed the long-term consequences of prison on the lives of ex-offenders. -Pager had pairs of young Black and white men apply for jobs, under various conditions, throughout Milwaukee. -The results of Pager's study reveal striking conclusions. -Not surprisingly, Pager discovered that whites applicants were much preferred over black applicants and that nonoffenders were much preferred over ex-offenders. -But what was surprising and troubling, Pager also found that Blacks with no criminal record fared no better than whites with a felony conviction. -These results suggest that the experience of being Black in the United States today is comparable with the experience of being a convicted white felon. -Being a Black felon is an even more daunting obstacle to overcome. -The prison boom in the United States began in the 1970s, with the number of prison inmates nearly quintupling. -In 2015, more than 1.4 million people were under the "supervision" of the U.S. correctional system.

Who. are the poor?

The working poor Working poor People who work but whose earnings are not enough to lift them above the poverty line Poverty, race, and ethnicity The feminization of poverty Feminization of poverty An increase in the proportion of the poor who are female The working poor are those who work at least 27 weeks a year, but whose earnings still do not lift them above poverty. In 2015, there were an estimated 8.6 million individuals among the working poor, about 6 percent of the labor force. Race and ethnicity are important variables to consider in understanding poverty. Fully 43 percent of the poor are white, but poverty rates are much higher among most minority groups. Blacks and Latinos, in particular, often work at the lowest-paying jobs, and experience racial discrimination. The feminization of poverty is an increase in the proportion of the poor who are female. Growing rates of divorce, separation, and single-parent families have placed women at a particular disadvantage, especially those who are unskilled, semiskilled, or poorly educated Children in poverty The elderly in poverty Social Security A government program that provides economic assistance for persons faced with unemployment, disability, or old age Medicare A program under the U.S. Social Security Administration that reimburses hospitals and physicians for medical care provided to qualifying people over sixty-five years old Given that over 40 million Americans live in poverty, and that you now know that households led by single moms are significantly more likely to be in poverty, it should come as no surprise that there are millions of children living in poverty. In 2010, the child poverty rate had swelled to 22 percent, dropping back down to 18 percent by 2016. It's one thing just to look at these numbers and worry over what it must be like for poor children, but as sociologists we must also imagine what this really means for poor children in general, and then for our society at large. Health care is the single biggest problem for the elderly when it comes to economics. Think about how most of us obtain health care coverage. What kinds of programs and policies are in place to assist the elderly with these costs? Social Security is a government program that provides economic assistance for persons faced with unemployment, disability, or old age. Medicare is a program under the U.S. Social Security Administration that reimburses hospitals and physicians for medical care provided to qualifying people over sixty-five years old.

Why are women the target of violence

Violence against women is institutionalized in varying ways around the world. A less data-driven measure of gender inequality is the way in which violence against women continues the world over. Sadly, violence against women is so common that it is correct to say that it is, in fact, normal. You are likely all familiar—at least in theory—with such practices as foot binding, genital mutilation, and sex trafficking, and it is fairly easy to agree that these things are wrong. Although we here in the United States are vocally against physical violence against women, we still harbor a culture of misogyny that sometimes silently, sometimes more explicitly, reinforces male power and female victimhood. All it takes is time spent observing our popular culture to see that our culture both reflects and reproduces long-standing power structures. There are exceptions, but their very presence as something new or different seems to prove the rule. Rape The forcing of nonconsensual vaginal, oral, or anal intercourse Sexual violence against women: Evidence of "rape culture"? Rape culture: social context in which attitudes and norms perpetuate the treatment of women as sexual objects and instill in men a sense of sexual entitlement Toxic masculinity: a cluster of potentially destructive values or behaviors that have been historically part of boys' socialization This culture of misogyny seems to also play out in the sexual behaviors of Americans, especially young people. Rape, sexual coercion, and stalking are not far-off possibilities but instead have become real events that college women are taught to prepare for and prevent against. Colleges are now one of the central sites of sexual violence. Of course, they are not the only places. Women face coercion and violence in many social locations. There are varying statistics, but some researchers suggest that as many as one in five women will experience sexual violence in her lifetime. Some radical feminists claim that men are socialized to regard women as sex objects, to feel a sense of sexual entitlement, and to instill fear in women by dominating them (Brownmiller 1986). This context of socialization is described as rape culture. Brownmiller claims that this culture may make men more insensitive to the difference between consensual and nonconsensual sex and contribute to the high levels of victimization of women (Dworkin 1981, 1987; Griffin 1979). Rape culture is closely tied to the notion of toxic masculinity. Colleges are making new efforts toward reducing rape and assault.

Ch. 8 global inequality

We've spent some time now thinking about inequality and systems of stratification. Today we'll widen our view a bit, and I will talk about what inequality looks like on a global scale. We'll begin by thinking about two very different countries and their abilities to respond to natural disasters as it relates to social location. In December 2017, powerful winter storms resulted in a very cold January. In the United States, people experienced inconveniences, damage, and there were some deaths. At the same time, half a world away, the residents of Xinjie County in a remote, agricultural region of China's Yunan Province, people faced severe winter challenges. Nearly 500 million people in China survive on less than $5.50/day. The freezing temperatures that mostly caused inconvenience in the United States posed brutal hardship for millions of Chinese farmers. Eight-year-old Wang Fuman (dubbed "frost boy" by the Chinese media) arrived at school one day in January 2018 with icicles in his hair. He had trudged through icy mountains and streams for two hours, hatless and gloveless, to get to his school three miles away. Many rural children are "left behind" by parents who have to work in the cities, and these children, while raised by grandparents and other family members, often suffer from malnutrition, live in run-down houses, and lack access to transportation. The experience of "frost boy," in comparison to most U.S. residents, is illustrative of gross inequities in health and well-being throughout the globe. Global inequality is a major area of study for sociologists.

Does the digital divide still matter?

What does the Internet tell us about class and class mobility in the United States? Aside from basic access to the Internet, how we use the World Wide Web can also reveal something about the way the United States is stratified. Social class permeates our digital lives in other ways. For example, although more people now have access to the internet thanks to smartphones, how might the use of these technologies differ according to someone's income and education? At the turn of the twenty-first century, only 34 percent of households with an annual income under $30,000 used the Internet, compared with 81 percent of households over $79,000. But by 2015 these gaps had narrowed considerably (Rainie 2015). Over the past three decades, our society has shifted from an industrial economy to an information economy. This is a huge shift and has had significant consequences for large numbers of people. Manufacturing jobs have left the country, leading many typically male industries to cut jobs. Job growth is coming mainly in the "pink" sector of female-typed jobs in service industries. Minimum wage is coming up a bit but remains inadequate to support a family. The majority of families now require two incomes to achieve the standard of living the previous generation accomplished with one. It is also worth remembering that inequality has been on the rise for the past three to four decades here in the United States. Many sociologists and economists have been studying this phenomenon and will continue to do so, putting all our tools to work to better understand this shift.