Sociology

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Working people have less power than in many other democratic countries, so they have little chance to influence the political process.

Special interest groups

are political coalitions made up of individuals or groups that share a specific interest that they wish to protect or advance with the help of the political system.

Totalitarianism

is a political system in which the state seeks to regulate all aspects of people's public and private lives.

A welfare state

is a state in which there is extensive government action to provide support and services to the citizens.

Subcontracting

is an agreement in which a corporation contracts with other (usually smaller) firms to provide specialized components, products, or services to the larger corporation.

Democratic socialism

is an economic and political system that combines private ownership of some of the means of production, governmental distribution of some essential goods and services, and free elections.

Contingent work

is part-time work, temporary work, or subcontracted work that offers advantages to employers but that can be detrimental to the welfare of workers.

Dormant

Dysfunctions of education

Karl Marx: religion is the "opiate of the masses"

Monotheism

Monotheism is a belief in a single, supreme being or god who is responsible for significant events such as the creation of the world.

the shared emotions, goals, and beliefs that many people bring to crowd behavior

the state

traditional authority

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2014: Most people would be required to buy health insurance or pay a penalty for not having it. Insurance companies could not deny a policy to anyone based on health status, nor could they refuse to pay for treatment on the basis of preexisting health conditions. Annual limits on health care coverage would be abolished. Each state would have to open a health insurance exchange, or marketplace, so that individuals and small businesses without coverage could comparatively shop for health packages. Tax credits would make insurance and health care more affordable for those who earn too much to qualify for Medicaid.

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2018: Insurance companies and plan administrators would pay a 40 percent excise tax on all family plans costing more than $27,500 per year.

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2019: The health reform law should have reduced the number of uninsured people by 32 million, leaving about 23 million uninsured. About one-third of the uninsured would be immigrants residing in the country without legal documentation.

Stomach/intestinal disease

3 Chronic lower respiratory diseases

Diseases in early infancy

9 Nephritis, nephritic syndrome, and nephrosis

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A mob is a highly emotional crowd whose members engage in, or are ready to engage in, violence against a specific target—a person, a category of people, or physical property.

Nation-states as we know them began to develop in Europe between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries (see Tilly, 1975).

A nation-state is a unit of political organization that has recognizable national boundaries and whose citizens possess specific legal rights and obligations. Nation-states emerge as countries develop specific geographic territories and acquire greater ability to defend their borders. Improvements in communication and transportation make it possible for people in a larger geographic area to share a common language and culture. As charismatic and traditional forms of authority are superseded by rational-legal authority, legal standards come to prevail in all areas of life, and the nation-state claims a monopoly over the legitimate use of force.

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A population pyramid is a graphic representation of the distribution of a population by sex and age.

A relatively small religious group that has broken away from another religious organization to renew what it views as the original version of the faith is referred to as:

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A riot is violent crowd behavior that is fueled by deep-seated emotions, but not directed at one specific target.

Who makes up the U.S. power elite?

According to the sociologist C. Wright Mills (1959a), the power elite is made up of leaders at the top of business, the executive branch of the federal government, and the military. Of these three, Mills speculated that the "corporate rich" (the highest-paid officers of the biggest corporations) were the most powerful because of their unique ability to parlay the vast economic resources at their disposal into political power (see "Sociology Works!"). At the middle level of the pyramid, Mills placed the legislative branch of government, special interest groups, and local opinion leaders. The bottom (and widest layer) of the pyramid is occupied by the unorganized masses, who are relatively powerless and are vulnerable to economic and political exploitation.

Affirmative action describes policies or procedures that are intended to promote equal opportunity for categories of people deemed to have been previously excluded from equality.

Conglomerates

Are combinations of businesses in different commercial areas, all of which are owned by one holding company.

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Are global corporate interests and the concerns of the wealthy in this nation and elsewhere overshadowing the needs and interests of everyday people?

Transnational corporations

Are large corporations that are headquartered in one or a few countries but sell and produce goods and services in many countries.

Corporations

Are large-scale organizations that have legal powers, such as the ability to enter into contracts and buy and sell property, separate from their individual owners.

Interlocking corporate directorates

Are members of the board of directors of one corporation who also sit on the board(s) of other corporations.

Autonomy. Professionals are autonomous in that they can rely on their own judgment in selecting the relevant knowledge or the appropriate technique for dealing with a problem.

Conflict Perspective

Capitalists maximize profit by suppressing the wages of workers. Karl Marx referred to the propensity of capitalists to maximize profits by reducing wages as the falling rate of profit, which he believed to be one of the inherent contradictions of capitalism that would produce its eventual downfall. According to the political sociologist Michael Parenti, business is the economic system. Parenti believes that political leaders treat the health of the capitalist economy as a necessary condition for the health of the nation and that the goals of big business (rapid growth, high profits, and secure markets at home and abroad) become the goals of government (Parenti, 2007). To some conflict theorists, capitalism is the problem; to some functionalist theorists, however, capitalism is the solution to society's problems.

Catholicism

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Charter schools Charter schools (or "schools of choice") are primary or secondary schools that receive public money but are free from some of the day-to-day bureaucracy of a larger school district that may limit classroom performance. These schools operate under a charter contract negotiated by the school's organizers (often parents or teachers) and a sponsor (usually a local school board, a state board of education, or a university) that oversees the provisions of the contract. Some school districts "contract out" by hiring for-profit companies on a contract basis to manage charter schools, but the schools themselves are nonprofit. Among the largest educational management organizations are Imagine Schools, National Heritage Academies, the Leona Group, Edison Learning, White Hat Management, and Mosaica Education.

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Chronic diseases are illnesses that are long term or lifelong and that develop gradually or are present from birth.

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Cities are a relatively recent innovation.

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Civil disobedience refers to nonviolent action that seeks to change a policy or law by refusing to comply with it.

Civil religion is the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that makes sacred the values of the society and places the nation in the context of the ultimate system of meaning.

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Convergence Theory Convergence theory focuses on the shared emotions, goals, and beliefs that many people may bring to crowd behavior. Because of their individual characteristics, many people have a predisposition to participate in certain types of activities. From this perspective, people with similar attributes find a collectivity of like-minded persons with whom they can express their underlying personal tendencies. Although people may reveal their "true selves" in crowds, their behavior is not irrational; it is highly predictable to those who share similar emotions or beliefs.

Convergence theory focuses on:

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Convergence theory has been applied to a wide array of conduct, from lynch mobs to environmental movements. In a now-classic study of lynching, social psychologist Hadley Cantril (1941) found that the participants shared certain common attributes: They were poor and working-class whites who felt that their status was threatened by the presence of more-successful African Americans. Consequently, the characteristics of these individuals made them susceptible to joining a lynch mob even if they did not know the target of the lynching.

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Do the media accurately report what is going on at all levels of government? To what extent can individuals and grassroots organizations influence the media and the political process?

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Ecofeminism emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s out of the feminist, peace, and ecology movements. Prompted by the near-meltdown at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant, ecofeminists established World Women in Defense of the Environment. Ecofeminism is based on the belief that patriarchy is a root cause of environmental problems. According to ecofeminists, patriarchy not only results in the domination of women by men but also contributes to a belief that nature is to be possessed and dominated, rather than treated as a partner.

Economic and psychological support. Families are responsible for providing economic and psychological support for members. In preindustrial societies, families are economic production units; in industrial societies, the economic security of families is tied to the workplace and to macrolevel economic systems. In recent years, psychological support and emotional security have been increasingly important functions of the family.

Life with Economics

Economists study the complex workings of economic systems.Sociologists study the interconnections among the economy, other social institutions, and the social organization of work. Economic Systems in Global Perspectives The Economy is the social institution that ensures the maintenance of society through the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

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In the 2012-2013 school year, more than 500 new public charter schools opened; however, in the same time period, about 150 public charter schools closed their doors because of low enrollment, financial concerns, and low academic performance. Advocates for charter schools suggest that these figures show that there is both demand for charter schools and evidence that schools that do not meet the needs of their students will be closed (National Alliance for Public Charter Schools, 2013).

Latent functions of education:

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Level of prestige of religious institutions and symbols. Is there a decline in the influence of religious organizations?

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Life expectancy is higher for Whites than other racial groups.

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Life expectancy refers to an estimate of the average lifetime of people born in a specific year.

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Political opportunity theory has grown in popularity among sociologists who study social movements because this approach highlights the interplay of opportunity, mobilization, and political influence in determining when certain types of behavior may occur. However, like other perspectives, this theory has certain limitations, including the fact that social movement organizations may not always be not completely distinct from, or external to, the existing political system. For example, it is difficult to classify the Tea Party movement, which emerged in the aftermath of the election of President Barack Obama. Some supporters were outside the political mainstream and felt like they had no voice in what was happening in Washington. Keli Carender, who is credited with being one of the first Tea Party campaigners, complained that she tried to call her senators to urge them to vote against the $787 billion stimulus bill but constantly found that their mailboxes were full. As a result, she decided to protest against "porkulus"; in her words, "I basically thought to myself: 'I have two courses. I can give up, go home, crawl into bed and be really depressed and let it happen, or I can do something different, and I can find a new avenue to have my voice get out'" (qtd. in Zernike, 2010: A1).

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Take advantage of compact building design

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The medical-industrial complex encompasses local physicians and hospitals as well as global health-related industries such as insurance companies and pharmaceutical and medical supply companies.

Industrial Economies

The secondary sector production is the processing of raw materials (from the primary sector) into finished goods. In sum, the typical characteristics of industrial economies include the following:

a genuine rapport develops between physician and patient (Weiss and Lonnquist, 2012).

1.The _____ is the social institution that ensures the maintenance of society through the production of goods and services.

b.economy

3.A(n) _____ exists when several companies control an entire industry.

b.oligopoly

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Public opinion consists of the attitudes and beliefs communicated by ordinary citizens to decision makers. It is measured through polls and surveys, which use research methods such as interviews and questionnaires, as described in Chapter 2. Many people are not interested in all aspects of public policy but are concerned about issues that they believe are relevant to them. Even on a single topic, public opinion will vary widely based on race/ethnicity, religion, region, social class, education level, gender, age, and so on.

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Religious Movements Social movements that seek to produce radical change in individuals are typically based on spiritual or supernatural belief systems. Also referred to as expressive movements, religious movements are concerned with renovating or renewing people through "inner change." Fundamentalist religious groups seeking to convert nonbelievers to their belief system are an example of this type of movement. Some religious movements are millenarian—that is, they forecast that "the end is near" and assert that an immediate change in behavior is imperative. Examples include Hare Krishnas, the Unification Church, Scientology, and the Divine Light Mission, all of which tend to appeal to the psychological and social needs of young people seeking meaning in life that mainstream religions have not provided for them.

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Requiring people to enroll in training programs to help them find jobs if they are going to receive unemployment insurance.

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Researchers have found that boys and girls are equally likely to be home-schooled.

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Resegregation is also an issue because some school districts have abandoned programs that had produced greater racial integration in local schools. Raleigh, North Carolina, is a case in point: A local school board decided to end consideration of race and socioeconomic status in determining school assignments and stopped the district's busing-for-diversity program. Those who opposed this return to the "neighborhood school" concept argued that resegregation would quickly occur throughout the district (Mooney, 2011).

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Resistance Movements Also referred to as regressive movements, resistance movements seek to prevent change or to undo change that has already occurred. Virtually all of the social movements previously discussed face resistance from one or more reactive movements that hold opposing viewpoints and want to foster public policies that reflect their own beliefs. Examples of resistance movements are groups organized to oppose gay marriage, abortion, and gun control legislation.

Revelers who are assembled at Mardi Gras or on New Year's Eve at Times Square in New York are an example of a(n):

Whereas political science focuses primarily on power and its distribution in different types of political systems, political sociology

is the area of sociology that examines the nature and consequences of power within or between societies, as well as the social and political conflicts that lead to changes in the allocation of power. Political sociology primarily focuses on the social circumstances of politics and explores how the political arena and its actors are intertwined with social institutions such as the economy, religion, education, and the media.

matchmaking and production of social networks

panic

frame transformation refers to the process whereby the creation and maintenance of new values, beliefs, and meanings induce movement participation by redefining activities and events in such a manner that people believe they must become involved in collective action.

going to school provides one with the essential attributes of one's culture.

handling international relations, including warfare.

Rational-legal authority

is power legitimized by law or written rules and regulations. Rational—legal authority—also known as bureaucratic authority—is based on an organizational structure that includes a clearly defined division of labor, hierarchy of authority, formal rules, and impersonality. Power is legitimized by procedures; if leaders obtain their positions in a procedurally correct manner (such as by election or appointment), they have the right to act. Rational-legal authority is held by elected or appointed government officials and by officers in a formal organization. However, authority is invested in the office, not in the person who holds the office. For example, although the U.S. Constitution grants rational—legal authority to the office of the presidency, a president who fails to uphold the public trust may be removed from office.

Charismatic authority

is power legitimized on the basis of a leader's exceptional personal qualities or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment that inspire loyalty and obedience from followers. Charismatic authority tends to be temporary and relatively unstable; it derives primarily from individual leaders (who may change their minds, leave, or die) and from an administrative structure usually limited to a small number of faithful followers. For this reason, charismatic authority often becomes routinized. The routinization of charisma occurs when charismatic authority is succeeded by a bureaucracy controlled by a rationally established authority or by a combination of traditional and bureaucratic authority (Turner, Beeghley, and Powers, 2007). According to Weber (1968/ 1922: 1148), "It is the fate of charisma to recede ... after it has entered the permanent structures of social action."

Traditional authority

is power that is legitimized on the basis of long-standing custom. In preindustrial societies the authority of traditional leaders, such as kings, queens, pharaohs, emperors, and religious dignitaries, is usually grounded in religious beliefs and custom. For example, British kings and queens historically traced their authority from God. Members of subordinate classes obey a traditional leader's edicts out of economic and political dependency and sometimes personal loyalty. However, as societies industrialize, traditional authority is challenged by a more complex division of labor and by the wider diversity of people who now inhabit the area as a result of high immigration rates.

Political sociology

is the area of sociology that examines the nature and consequences of power within or between societies, as well as the social and political conflicts that lead to changes in the allocation of power.

Cerebral hemorrhage

5 Accidents (unintentional injuries)

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An ecclesia is a religious organization that is so integrated into the dominant culture that it claims as its membership all members of a society.

False

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"A Blueprint for Reform"

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"Health" and "illness" are socially constructed.

placement

planning and directing society,

political subversion

polygamy

polygyny

their degree of responsibility for their impairment,

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA),

passed in 1990, prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability. Despite the ADA and other laws regarding disability rights, many persons with a disability remain unemployed or have been tracked into disability-related service roles (such as helping other persons with a disability). The economic recession and the slow recovery thereafter also hit workers with disabilities hard, particularly those individuals who have mobility impairments or difficulty performing routine daily activities. As of February 2013, only 20.7 percent of persons age 16 years and over with one or more disabilities were employed (as compared with 68.8 percent of people without disabilities). The 2013 unemployment rate for people with disabilities was 12.3 percent, as compared with 7.9 percent for people without disabilities. However, many other persons with disabilities were not in the labor force at all, nor were they actively seeking employment

Structural unemployment

arises because the skills demanded by employers do not match the skills of the unemployed or because the unemployed do not live where the jobs are located. This type of unemployment often occurs when a number of plants in the same industry are closed or when new technology makes certain jobs obsolete. Structural unemployment often results from capital flight—the investment of capital in foreign facilities, as previously discussed. Today, many workers fear losing their jobs, exhausting their unemployment benefits (if any), and still not being able to find another job.

Government is

the formal organization that has the legal and political authority to regulate the relationships among members of a society and between the society and those outside its borders.

underrepresentation of racial minority faculty

underrepresentation of racial minority students

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new insurance marketplace

nonviolence;

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private health insurance Over the years, some health care advocates have argued that a third-party fee-for-service approach is the best and most cost-efficient method of delivering medical care. Others have argued that fee for service is outrageously expensive and a very cost-ineffective way in which to provide for the medical needs of people in this country, particularly those who are without health insurance coverage. According to critics, third-party fee for service contributes greatly to medical inflation because it gives doctors and hospitals an incentive to increase medical services. In other words, the more services they provide, the more fees they charge, and the more money they make. Patients have no incentive to limit their visits to doctors or hospitals because they have already paid their premiums and feel entitled to medical care, regardless of the cost. This is one of the spiraling costs that advocates of health care reform hope will be reduced.

Super PACs can

raise as much money as they are able to and contribute that money to advocate for the election of candidates who will uphold the best interests of the corporation, union, or other organization. Super PACs can also provide funds to defeat those candidates whose political platforms will not benefit the major contributors of the super PAC.

rational-legal authority

Authority

refers to power that people accept as legitimate rather than coercive.

Global economic interdependence

refers to the mutual dependence that various countries have on one another with regard to importing and exporting goods and services. Commodities such as oil are produced in some countries and purchased by people in other countries that do not have a sufficient supply to meet existing demand. Over time, global interdependence emerges as countries come to rely on one another for specific products. Conflict may arise when competition over scarce goods and services occurs or when multiple suppliers flood the market with a product, such as a glut of Middle Eastern oil on the U.S. market.

The state

refers to the political entity that possesses a legitimate monopoly over the use of force within its territory to achieve its goals

Seasonal unemployment

results from shifts in the demand for workers based on conditions such as the weather (in agriculture, the construction industry, and tourism) or the season (holidays and summer vacations). Both of these types of unemployment tend to be relatively temporary.

revolutionary movements

save souls, but marginalize groups

social epidemiology

social etiology

social justice and equal opportunity;

social placement

socialization

sociobiology

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structural factors that increase the chances of people responding in a particular way

the institutional level (e.g., physicians are supervisors of treatment and gatekeepers to applying for benefits), and

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the institutionalization (or bureaucratization) stage an organizational structure develops, and a paid staff (rather than volunteers) begins to lead the group. When the movement reaches this stage, the initial zeal and idealism of members may diminish as administrators take over management of the organization.

the iron law of oligarchy

the iron triangle of power

the organizational structure in which they work, and

the patient provides full and open information to the physician and feels free to ask questions and seek clarifications, and

the perceived legitimacy of the condition.

Politics is

the social institution through which power is acquired and exercised by some people and groups.

the social-psychological aspects of collective behavior, including how moods, attitudes, and behavior are communicated

their individual needs and values.

Although conflict theorists acknowledge that the government serves a number of useful purposes in society, .

they assert that government exists for the benefit of wealthy or politically powerful elites who use the government to impose their will on the masses. According to the elite model, power in political systems is concentrated in the hands of a small group of elites, and the masses are relatively powerless. The pluralist model and the elite model are compared

The U.S. State Department recognizes 195 independent nation-states throughout the world.

today, everyone is born, lives, and dies under the auspices of a nation-state. Four main types of political systems are found in nation-states: monarchy, authoritarianism, totalitarianism, and democracy.

totalitarianism

tracking

Weber's outline of three ideal types of authority—

traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal—shows how different bases of legitimacy are tied to a society's economy.

polyandry

Great Britain

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HIV/AIDS

meeting social needs, and

Influenza/pneumonia

1 Heart disease

"Ideal"capitalism:

1. Private ownership of the means of production 2. Pursuit of personal profit 3. Competition 4. Lack of government intervention 5.Private ownership of the means of production

"Ideal" socialism:

1. Public ownership of the means of production 2. Pursuit of collective goals 3. Centralized decision making

Kidney disease

6 Alzheimer's disease

Accidents

7 Diabetes mellitus

Cancer

8 Influenza and pneumonia

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A crowd is a relatively large number of people who are in one another's immediate vicinity.

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A disaster is a "sudden ecological phenomenon of sufficient magnitude to require external assistance."

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AIDS

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Affirmative Action

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Alcohol

An institutionalized system for the scientific diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness is called:

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Animism is the belief that plants, animals, or other elements of the natural world are endowed with spirits or life forces that have an impact on events in society.

Canada

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Casual

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Conditions for Collective Behavior

Covert

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Create a range of housing opportunities and choices

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Create walkable neighborhoods

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Creating more government-funded jobs for unemployed people.

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Drug Use and Abuse

An oligopoly

Exists when several companies overwhelmingly control an entire industry. A shared monopoly is when four or fewer companies supply 50 percent or more of a particular market.

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Expanding innovations

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Explanations of Crowd Behavior

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Expressive

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Extent of differentiation in social institutions such as the economy, politics, and religion. Have these institutions become highly specialized and distinct from one another?

Feminist perspectives

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Fertility is the actual level of childbearing for an individual or a population.

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First cities in Mesopotamia or Jericho

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Flexner Report

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Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place

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Founder/Date: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob/2000 BCE

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Founder/Date: Jesus/first century CE

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Institutional Theory

In regard to religion, Max Weber asserted that:

Increased division of labor and specialization among workers.

Information and technological innovation displace property as the central preoccupations in the economy.

Manifest

Manifest functions of education:

Max Weber: religion could be a catalyst to produce social change

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Medicine Today

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Motivational framing provides a vocabulary of motives that compel people to take action. When successful framing occurs, the individual's vague dissatisfactions are turned into well-defined grievances, and people are compelled to join the movement in an effort to reduce or eliminate those grievances.

Movements that seek limited change in some aspect of people's behavior are:

Movements that seek to prevent change or to undo change that has already occurred are:

Nontheistic religion

Other Occupations

Occupations are categories of jobs that involve similar activities at different work site

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People who suffer relative deprivation are more likely to feel that change is necessary and to join a social movement in order to bring about that change.

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Postmodernist Perspective

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Race/Ethnicity and Social Class

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Rural Community Issues in the United States

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Scientific methods

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Sex

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Sexually Transmitted Diseases

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Split Labor-market Theory

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Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities

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The Neo-Malthusian Perspective

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The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act

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The Physical Environment

The assignment of students to specific courses and educational programs based on their test scores, previous grades, or both is called:

The concurrent marriage of one man with two or more women is:

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Theism is a belief in a god or gods who shape human affairs.

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There exists a network of nonprofit organizations through which members of the upper class and hired corporate leaders not yet in the upper class shape policy debates in the United States.

True

Many of the trends we examined in this chapter will produce dramatic changes in the organization of the economy and work in the twenty-first century.

U.S. workers may find themselves fighting for a larger piece of an ever-shrinking economic pie. In March 2013 the U.S. national debt was at more than $16.6 trillion, making each citizen's share more than $52,800, a figure that continues to rise.

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What will be the future of political parties? What have recent elections told us about the nature of these institutions?

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Will immigration and employment policies be based on the best interests of the largest number of people, or will these policies be based on the best interests of elites and major transnational corporations that are major contributors to political campaigns?

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Women live longer than men.

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World Systems Theory

a denomination

a matriarchical family

a matrilocal family

a patriarchical family

a patrilocal family

a sect

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a well-developed social organization

acting crowd

affirmative action

all of the choices

an ecclesia

assessment

authoritarianism

casual crowd

change and innovation

charismatic authority

children with less cultural capital coming into school will catch up with the rest of the nation.

cost of education

creation of a generation gap

credentialism

decentralization of wealth and power in social, political, and economic institutions;

democracy

desire to protect the offender, and

develops and articulates policy positions,

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dissatisfaction with the academic instruction available at traditional schools. Typically, the parents of home schoolers are better educated, on average, than other parents; however, their income is about the same.

documents such as the U.S. Constitution

ecological wisdom;

expressive and acting crowd

functionalist

gender inequality

increased enrollment

Professions are high-status,

knowledge-based occupations that have five major characteristics.

long-standing custom

positioning

reconstituted family

recruits candidates who agree with those policies, helps those candidates win office, and holds the candidates responsible for implementing the party's policy positions.

religion could be a catalyst to produce social change

sexual regulation and socialization of children

social control

the apparent seriousness of their condition, and

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the coalescence stage people begin to organize and to publicize the problem. At this stage, some movements become formally organized at local and regional levels.

the hidden curriculum

the physician engages in full and open communication with the patient and feels free to ask questions about psychosocial as well as physical conditions,

the political economy

those who work in the innovative, primary sector and

those whose jobs are located in the growing secondary, marginal sector.

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timing

Tuberculosis

2 Cancer (malignant neoplasms)

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2011: Medicare recipients would have access to free annual wellness visits with no cost for preventive care, and those recipients who had to pay out of pocket for prescription drugs would receive substantial discounts.

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2012: The federal government would provide additional money for primary-care services, and new incentives would be offered to encourage doctors to join together in accountability-care organizations. Hospitals with high readmission rates would face stiff penalties.

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A Brief Glimpse of International Feagin Theories

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A church is a large, bureaucratically organized religious organization that tends to seek accommodation with the larger society in order to maintain some degree of control over it.

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A panic is a form of crowd behavior that occurs when a large number of people react to a real or perceived threat with strong emotions and self-destructive behavior.

Increase in Women's Paid Employment

Across all marital categories, a larger share of women are working full time and year-round than in the past. Looking at all women who were employed at some point during 2010, we find that 59 percent of them worked full time and year-round, as compared with only 41 percent in 1970. In comparison, 69 percent of men who were employed in 2011 worked full time and year-round (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013a). Although about the same number of women and men lived below the official poverty level, the working-poor rate (the ratio of the working poor to all individuals in the labor force for at least 27 weeks) was higher for women (7.6 percent) than for men (6.7 percent). The difference was particularly striking across racial-ethnic categories: African American (black) and Hispanic women were significantly more likely than their white American or Asian American counterparts to be among the working poor. African American women had a working-poor rate of 14.5 percent, and Hispanic (Latina) women had a rate of 13.8 percent, as contrasted with white American women (6.6 percent) and Asian American women (5.2 percent).

Altruism. Ideally, professionals have concern for others that goes beyond their self-interest or personal comfort so that they can help a patient or client.

Chronic diseases

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Conflict Perspective

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Founder/Date: K'ung Fu-Tzu/500 BCE

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Founder/Date: Muhammad/600 CE

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Founder/Date: No specific founder/ 1500 BCE

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Founder/Date: Siddhartha Gautama/500-600 BCE

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Four-Year Colleges and Universities

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Racial and Ethnic Differences in Enrollment

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Secularization

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Social Unrest And Circular Reaction ocuses on the social-psychological aspects of collective behavior; it attempts to explain how moods, attitudes, and behavior are communicated rapidly and why they are accepted by others. Le Bon (1841-1931) argued that people are more likely to engage in antisocial behavior in a crowd because they are anonymous and feel invulnerable. Le Bon (1960/1895) suggested that a crowd takes on a life of its own that is larger than the beliefs or actions of any one person. Because of its anonymity, the crowd transforms individuals from rational beings into a single organism with a collective mind. In essence, Le Bon asserted that emotions such as fear and hate are contagious in crowds because people experience a decline in personal responsibility; they will do things as a collectivity that they would never do when acting alone.

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Social change is the alteration, modification, or transformation of public policy, culture, or social institutions over time.

Social class is a better indicator of health problems than race or ethnicity.

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Social control and support for the government. All societies attempt to maintain social control through systems of rewards and punishments. Sacred symbols and beliefs establish powerful, pervasive, long-lasting motivations based on the concept of a general order of existence. In other words, if individuals consider themselves to be part of a larger order that holds the ultimate meaning in life, they will feel bound to one another (and to past and future generations) in a way that might not be possible otherwise. Religion also helps maintain social control in society by conferring supernatural legitimacy on the norms and laws of a society. In some societies, social control occurs as a result of direct collusion between the dominant classes and the dominant religious organizations.

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Social movements are difficult to classify; however, sociologists distinguish among movements on the basis of their goals and the amount of change they seek to produce. Some movements seek to change people, whereas others seek to change society.

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Social movements make democracy more available to excluded groups. Historically, people in the United States have worked at the grassroots level to bring about changes even when elites sought to discourage activism. For example, the civil rights movement brought into its ranks African Americans in the South who had never before been allowed to participate in politics. The women's suffrage movement gave voice to women who had been denied the right to vote. Similarly, a grassroots environmental movement gave the working-class residents of Love Canal a way to "fight city hall" and Hooker Chemicals...

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Social movements provide people who otherwise would not have the resources to enter the game of politics a chance to do so. We are most familiar with those movements that develop around public policy issues considered newsworthy by the media, ranging from abortion and women's rights to gun control and environmental justice. However, a number of other types of social movements exist as well.

Socialization. Parents and other relatives are responsible for teaching children the necessary knowledge and skills to survive. The smallness and intimacy of families make them best suited for providing children with the initial learning experiences they need.

Strengthening of bureaucratic organizational structure and the enforcement of rules, policies, and procedures to make the workplace more efficient and profitable.

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Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

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Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives

grassroots democracy;

Authoritarianism

is a political system controlled by rulers who deny popular participation in government.

sandwich families

Social cohesion and a sense of belonging

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"the power of population is infinitely greater than the power of the earth to produce subsistence [food] for man."

Diphtheria

10 Suicide (intentional self-harm)

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2013: Households with incomes above $250,000 would be subject to higher taxes to help pay for health care reform. Medicare would launch "payment bundling" so that hospitals, doctors, and other health care providers could be paid on the basis of patient outcome, not services provided.

Heart disease

4 Stroke (cerebrovascular diseases)

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A cult (or NRM) is a loosely organized religious group with practices and teachings outside the dominant cultural and religious traditions of a society.

A family structure in which the authority is held by the eldest female is:

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A mass is a number of people who share an interest in a specific idea or issue but who are not in one another's immediate vicinity.

A type of political system in which the people hold the ruling power either directly or through elected officials is:

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APA's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)

Abstract, specialized knowledge. Professionals have abstract, specialized knowledge of their field based on formal education and interaction with colleagues.

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According to Turner and Killian (1993: 13), emergent norms occur when people define a new situation as highly unusual or see a long-standing situation in a new light.

According to functionalists, all of the following are key functions of families except the:

According to some analysts, schools teach girls that they are less important than boys. This is an example of:

According to some social analysts, a college education is a bargain and a means of upward mobility. However, other analysts believe that the high cost of a college education reproduces the existing class system: Students who lack money may be denied access to higher education, and those who are able to attend college receive different types of education based on their ability to pay. For example, a community college student who receives an associate's degree or completes a certificate program may be prepared for a position in the middle of the occupational status range, such as a dental assistant, computer programmer, or auto mechanic. In contrast, university graduates with four-year degrees are more likely to find initial employment with firms where they stand a chance of being promoted to high-level management and executive positions.

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According to the World Health Organization, health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being.

According to the _____ perspective, the hidden curriculum affects working class and poverty level students more than it does students from middle and upper income families.

According to the cultural capital model:

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Acting

Acute diseases

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Acute diseases are illnesses that strike suddenly and cause dramatic incapacitation and sometimes death.

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Alternative Movements Movements that seek limited change in some aspect of people's behavior are referred to as alternative movements. For example, early in the twentieth century the Women's Christian Temperance Union attempted to get people to abstain from drinking alcoholic beverages. Some analysts place "therapeutic social movements" such as Alcoholics Anonymous in this category; however, others do not because of their belief that people must change their lives completely in order to overcome alcohol abuse. More recently, a variety of "New Age" movements have directed people's behavior by emphasizing spiritual consciousness combined with a belief in reincarnation and astrology. Such practices as vegetarianism, meditation, and holistic medicine are often included in the self-improvement category. Some alternative movements have included the practice of yoga (usually without its traditional background in the Hindu religion) as a means by which the self can be liberated and union can be achieved with the supreme spirit or universal soul.

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Although raised blood pressure is a known risk factor for deaths from stroke and coronary heart disease, many people worldwide have undiagnosed or untreated hypertension. In Africa it is estimated that more than one-third of the population has high blood pressure, and this problem is growing worse.

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An Essay on the Principle of Population, As It Affects the Future Improvement of Society

Even as the gender and racial-ethnic composition of the labor force continues to diversify, many workers will remain in race- and/or gender-segregated occupations and industries.

At the same time, workers may increasingly be fragmented into two major labor market divisions:

Authority. Because of their authority, professionals expect compliance with their directions and advice. Their authority is based on mastery of the body of specialized knowledge and on their profession's autonomy.

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Being overweight or obese is a problem that increases the risk of coronary heart disease, ischemic stroke, type 2 diabetes, and some cancers, and the worldwide prevalence of these conditions has doubled over the past two decades.

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Beliefs: Brahma (creator), Vishnu (preserver), and Shiva (destroyer) are divine. Union with ultimate reality and escape from eternal reincarnation are achieved through yoga, adherence to scripture, and devotion.

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Beliefs: God's nature and will are revealed in the Torah (Hebrew scripture) and in His intervention in history. God has established a covenant with the people of Israel, who are called to a life of holiness, justice, mercy, and fidelity to God's law.

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Collective Behavior

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Collective actions are based on politics, ideology, and culture. New social movement theory looks at a diverse array of collective actions and the manner in which those actions are based on politics, ideology, and culture. It also incorporates factors of identity, including race, class, gender, and sexuality, as sources of collective action and social movements. Examples of "new social movements" include ecofeminism and environmental justice movements.

Labor Unions

Collective bargaining: negotiations between employers and labor union leaders on behalf of workers

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Community Colleges

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Conflict Perspectives on Religion

Credentialism refers to a process of social selection in which class advantage and social status are linked to the possession of academic qualifications.

Cultural capital refers to social assets that include values, beliefs, attitudes, and competencies in language and culture.

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Current Followers: 1 billion

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Current Followers: 1.6 billion

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Current Followers: 14 million

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Early sociologists studied collective behavior because they lived in a world that was responding to the processes of modernization, including urbanization, industrialization, and the proletarianization of workers. Contemporary forms of collective behavior, such as the Occupy Wall Street movement and similar social protests, are variations on the theme that originated during the transition from feudalism to capitalism and the rise of modernity in Europe. Some forms of collective behavior and social movements are directed toward public issues such as air pollution, water pollution, and the exploitation of workers in global sweatshops by transnational corporations.

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Education legislation

Efficiency

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Emergent Norm Theory much the same way. Unlike contagion and convergence theories, emergent norm theory emphasizes the importance of social norms in shaping crowd behavior. Drawing on the symbolic interactionist perspective, the sociologists Ralph Turner and Lewis Killian (1993: 12) asserted that crowds develop their own definition of a situation and establish norms for behavior that fit the occasion:

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Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions

Epidemics

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Establishing longer and higher unemployment insurance benefits or changing unemployment insurance to "reemployment insurance" that is coordinated with job search and career counseling. (based on Van Horn, 2013)

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Fads & Fashion As you will recall from Chapter 3, a fad is a temporary but widely copied activity enthusiastically followed by large numbers of people. Fads can be embraced by widely dispersed collectivities: TV, the Internet, and social media bring the latest fads—such as top memes, YouTube videos of cats or dogs doing funny things, zombie films and TV series like The Walking Dead, and Ben & Jerry's latest ice cream flavor—to the attention of audiences around the world.

Faith refers to a confident belief that cannot be proven or disproven but is accepted as true.

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Illegal Drugs

From a conflict perspective, religion tends to:

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Functionalist Perspective

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Functionalist Perspectives

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Fundamentalism

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Funding

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Gender roles and gender socialization also contribute to the difference in life expectancy.

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Georg Simmel, Thorstein Veblen, and Pierre Bourdieu have all viewed fashion as a means of status differentiation among members of different social classes. Simmel (1957/1904) suggested a classic "trickle-down" theory (although he did not use those exact words) to describe the process by which members of the lower classes emulate the fashions of the upper class. As the fashions descend through the status hierarchy, they are watered down and "vulgarized" so that they are no longer recognizable to members of the upper class, who then regard them as unfashionable and in bad taste (Davis, 1992). Veblen (1967/1899) asserted that fashion serves mainly to institutionalize conspicuous consumption among the wealthy. More than eighty years later, Bourdieu (1984) similarly (but more subtly) suggested that "matters of taste," including fashion sensibility, constitute a large share of the "cultural capital" possessed by members of the dominant class.

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Global health

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Global politics

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Globalization

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Grassroots environmental activists (including the Love Canal residents) have attempted to influence public opinion for many years. However, it is less clear that public opinion translates into action by either decision makers in government and industry or by individuals (such as a willingness to adopt a more ecologically sound lifestyle).

Healing; disease

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Health Care in the Future

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Health Care in the United States

Health Care: U.S. versus...

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Health Effects of Disasters

Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs) provide, for a set monthly fee, total care with an emphasis on prevention to avoid costly treatment later.

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Health care is any activity intended to improve health.

Health care; disease

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Health in Global Perspective

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Health in the United States

Health; healing

Health; illness

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Herbert Blumer (1969) disagreed with the trickle-down approach, arguing that "collective selection" best explains fashion. Blumer suggested that people in the middle and lower classes follow fashion because it is fashion, not because they desire to emulate members of the elite class. Blumer thus shifted the focus on fashion to collective mood, tastes, and choices: "Tastes are themselves a product of experience.... They are formed in the context of social interaction, responding to the definitions and affirmation given by others. People thrown into areas of common interaction and having similar runs of experience develop common tastes" (qtd. in Davis, 1992: 116). Perhaps one of the best refutations of the trickle-down approach is the way in which fashion today often originates among people in the lower social classes and is mimicked by the elites.

High levels of urbanization and a decline in population occur in many rural areas.

s. are categories of jobs that involve similar activities at different work sites. More than 600 different occupational categories and 35,000 occupation titles, ranging from motion-picture cartoonist to drop-hammer operator, are currently listed by the U.S. Census Bureau.

Historically, occupations were classified as blue collar and white collar. Blue-collar workers were primarily factory and craft workers who did manual labor; white-collar workers were office workers and professionals. However, contemporary workers in the service sector do not easily fit into either of these categories; neither do the so-called pink-collar workers, primarily women, who are employed in occupations such as preschool teacher, dental assistant, secretary, and clerk.

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Holistic medicine is an approach to health care that focuses on prevention of illness and disease and is aimed at treating the whole person—body and mind—rather than just the part or parts in which symptoms occur.

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Home schooling Another alternative, home schooling, has been chosen by some parents who hope to avoid the problems of public schools while providing a quality education for their children. It is estimated that about 1.5 million children are homeschooled in grades K through 12 (Kerkman, 2011). This is a significant increase from the estimated 1.1 million students who were home-schooled in 2003. The primary reasons that parents indicated for preferring to home-school their children are

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How will elected politicians and appointed government officials handle the challenges regarding ongoing budget crises and the changing demographics of the United States?

Lack of government intervention

Ideally, capitalism works best without government intervention in the marketplace. The policy of laissez-faire was advocated by economist Adam Smith in his 1776 treatise An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Smith argued that when people pursue their own selfish interests, they are guided "as if by an invisible hand" to promote the best interests of society

Super PACs came into existence in 2010 following two important legal cases.

In SpeechNow.org v. Federal Election Commission, a federal court ruled that it was a violation of the First Amendment to establish limitations on individual contributions to independent organizations that seek to influence elections. In the second case, as previously discussed, the U.S. Supreme Court decided in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission that it was a violation of the U.S. Constitution to establish spending limits for corporations and unions. This decision opened the door for corporations, unions, and other organizations to bypass existing spending limits and give unlimited amounts of money to various "independent groups" that support candidates. However, it should be noted that these groups were not allowed to give the money to the candidates themselves or to specific political parties.

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In fact, violent incidents are reported by nearly 75 percent of all public schools, grades K through 12 each year, and 40 percent of these are reported to the local police. Estimates of the most common incidents reported include physical attack or fight without a weapon (about 70 percent), threat of physical attack without a weapon (about 46 percent), vandalism (about 45 percent), theft/larceny (about 44 percent), possession of a knife or other sharp object (about 40 percent), and distribution, possession, or use of illegal drugs (about 25 percent) (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012b). Yet despite these numbers, statistics related to school safety continue to show that U.S. schools are among the safest places for young people. According to "Indicators of School Crime and Safety," jointly released by the National Center for Education Statistics and the U.S. Department of Justice's Bureau of Justice Statistics, young people are more likely to be victims of violent crime at or near their home, on the streets, at commercial establishments, or at parks than they are at school (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2012b). However, these statistics do not keep many people from believing that schools are becoming more dangerous with each passing year and that all schools should have high-tech surveillance equipment and police officers in every school to help maintain a safe environment.

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Is it possible to prevent future terrorist attacks in the United States (and other nations as well) through tightening organizational intelligence and reorganizing some governmental bureaucracies?

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Is mental illness of myth?

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In this chapter we have focused on collective behavior and social movements as potential forces for social change in contemporary societies. For example, the Love Canal disaster and the social movement it produced were, to a large extent, responsible for passage of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act, which led to the formation of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. The BP oil spill and the collective behavior following the disaster were responsible for new legislation and guidelines for offshore drilling and emergency preparedness by corporations and the federal government. Will Occupy Wall Street and similar inequality-based protests generate long-term effects in our society? It is too soon to tell because a number of other factors also contribute to social change, including the physical environment, population trends, technological development, and social institutions.

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Initially, most grassroots environmental activists attempt to influence public opinion so that local decision makers will feel the necessity of correcting a specific problem through changes in public policy. Although activists usually do not start out seeking broader social change, they often move in that direction when they become aware of how widespread the problem is in the larger society or on a global basis. One of two types of social movements often develops at this point—one focuses on NIMBY ("not in my backyard"), whereas the other focuses on NIABY ("not in anyone's backyard").

Job satisfaction is often related to both intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

Intrinsic factors pertain to the nature of the work itself, whereas extrinsic factors include such things as vacation and holiday policies, parking privileges, on-site day-care centers, and other amenities that contribute to workers' overall perception that their employer cares about them. Some studies of job satisfaction link this issue to employee engagement.

Introduction of wage labor, time discipline, and workers' deferred gratification, which means that employees should be diligent at work and pursue personal activities on their own time only.

Socialism

Is an economic system characterized by public ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of collective goals, and centralized decision making.

Latent

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Lifestyle Factors

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Major Religion: Buddhism

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Major Religion: Christianity

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Major Religion: Confucianism

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Major Religion: Hinduism

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Major Religion: Islam/Muslim

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Major Religion: Judaism

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Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost effective

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Making available long-term education and training programs to help people make career changes that will help them find work.

Managed care refers to any system of cost containment that closely monitors and controls health care providers' decisions about medical procedures, diagnostic tests, and other services that should be provided to patients.

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Mortality is the incidence of death in a population.

Napoleon, Julius Caesar, Martin Luther King, Jr., Caesar Chavez, and Mother Teresa are examples of:

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Neoclassical Economic Approach

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Network Theory

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New Households Economics of Migration Approach

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New Social Movement Theory

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Nicotine (Tobacco)

Political systems as we know them today have evolved slowly. In the earliest societies, politics was not an entity separate from other aspects of life.

Political institutions first emerged in agrarian societies as they acquired surpluses and developed greater social inequality. Elites took control of politics and used custom or traditional authority to justify their position. When cities developed circa 3500-3000 b.c.e., the city-state—a city whose power extended to adjacent areas—became the center of political power.

The Underground (Informal) Economy

Some social analysts make a distinction between the legitimate and the underground (informal) economies in the United States

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Protest

Job Satisfaction

The term job satisfaction is used to refer to people's attitudes toward their work, based on

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Parents who educate their children at home believe that their children are receiving a better education at home because instruction can be individualized to the needs and interests of their children. Some parents also indicate religious reasons for their decision to home-school their children. An association of home schoolers now provides communication links for parents and children, and technological advances in computers and the Internet have made it possible for home schoolers to gain information and communicate with one another. In some states, parents organize athletic leagues, proms, and other social events so that their children will have an active social life without being part of a highly structured school setting. According to advocates, home-schooled students typically have high academic achievements and high rates of employment.

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People who are satisfied with their present condition are less likely to seek social change.

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People who are sick are not responsible for their condition.

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People who are sick must seek competent help from a medical professional to hasten their recovery.

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People who are sick must want to get well.

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People who assume the sick role are temporarily exempt from their normal roles and obligations.

Religion serves as a reference group.

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Political Opportunity Theory

Religion tends to promote conflict between groups and societies.

Polytheism

Polytheism is a belief in more than one god.

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Population Changes in population size, distribution, and composition affect the culture and social structure of a society and change the relationships among nations. As discussed in Chapter 19, the countries experiencing the most-rapid increases in population have a less developed infrastructure to deal with those changes. How will nations of the world deal with population growth as the global population continues to move toward seven billion? Only time will provide a response to this question.

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Population Growth in Global Context

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Population and Urbanization in the Future

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Population composition refers to the biological and social characteristics of a population, including age, sex, race, marital status, education, occupation, income, and size of household.

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Provide a variety of transportation choices

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Providing additional tax credits to businesses to hire new workers.

Provision of social status. Families confer social status and reputation on their members. These statuses include the ascribed statuses with which individuals are born, such as race/ethnicity, nationality, social class, and sometimes religious affiliation. One of the most significant and compelling forms of social placement is the family's class position and the opportunities (or lack thereof) resulting from that position. Examples of class-related opportunities are access to quality health care, higher education, and a safe place to live.

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Racial segregation Although some people believe that the issue of racial segregation has long been solved in America's schools, in many areas of the United States schools remain racially segregated or have become resegregated. In 1954 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled (in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas) that "separate but equal" segregated schools are unconstitutional because they are inherently unequal. Today, racial segregation remains a fact of life in education: Efforts to bring about desegregation—the abolition of legally sanctioned racial-ethnic segregation—or integration—the implementation of specific action to change the racial-ethnic and/or class composition of the student body—have failed in many districts. Some school systems have bused students across town to achieve racial integration. Others have changed school attendance boundaries or introduced magnet schools with specialized programs such as science or the fine arts to change the racial-ethnic composition of schools. But school segregation does not exist in isolation: Racially segregated housing patterns contribute to high rates of school segregation.

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Reform Movements Grassroots environmental movements are an example of reform movements, which seek to improve society by changing some specific aspect of the social structure. Members of reform movements usually work within the existing system to attempt to change public policy so that it more adequately reflects their own value system. Examples of reform movements (in addition to the environmental movement) include labor movements, animal rights movements, antinuclear movements, Mothers Against Drunk Driving, and the disability rights movement.

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Relative Deprivation Theory

Relatively large gatherings of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time are referred to as a(n):

Religion is a competitive marketplace in which religious organizations (suppliers) offer a variety of religions and religious products to potential followers (consumers), who shop around for the religious theologies, practices, and communities that best suit them.

Religion is a cultural universal found in all societies because it meets basic human needs and serves important societal functions.

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Religion is a social institution composed of a unified system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals—based on some sacred or supernatural realm—that guides human behavior, gives meaning to life, and unites believers into a community.

Religion is essentially a rational response to human needs.

Religion provides a social meaning.

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Revolutionary Movements Grassroots environmental movements are an example of reform movements, which seek to improve society by changing some specific aspect of the social structure. Members of reform movements usually work within the existing system to attempt to change public policy so that it more adequately reflects their own value system. Examples of reform movements (in addition to the environmental movement) include labor movements, animal rights movements, antinuclear movements, Mothers Against Drunk Driving, and the disability rights movement.

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Rituals refers to regularly repeated and carefully prescribed forms of behaviors that symbolize a cherished value or belief.

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Rumors are unsubstantiated reports on an issue or subject. Whereas a rumor may spread through an assembled collectivity, rumors may also be transmitted among people who are dispersed geographically, including people spreading rumors on Twitter, posting messages on Facebook, or talking on the phone. Although rumors may initially contain a kernel of truth, they may be modified as they spread to serve the interests of those repeating them.

Despite these pressing problems, some economists and political leaders suggest that we can be cautiously optimistic about the future of the U.S. economy.

Some researchers and politicians stress that we need reform in workforce policies such as these:

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Sacred refers to those aspects of life that exist beyond the everyday, natural world that we cannot experience with our senses.

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School dropouts High dropout rates are a major problem facing contemporary schools. Dropout rates are computed in various ways, but one of the most telling is the status dropout rate—the percentage of people in a specific age range who are not currently enrolled in high school and who do not have a high school degree or its equivalent. In recent years, slightly more than three million 16- to 24-year-olds were not enrolled in high school and had not earned a high school diploma or its equivalent.

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Secularization is the process by which religious beliefs, practices, and institutions lose their significance in society and nonreligious values, principles, and institutions take their place.

Self-regulation. In exchange for autonomy, professionals are theoretically self-regulating. All professions have licensing, accreditation, and regulatory associations that set professional standards and that require members to adhere to a code of ethics as a form of public accountability.

Service industries dominate over manufacturing.

Simple supernaturalism

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Social Change in the Future

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Social cohesion and a sense of belonging. By emphasizing shared symbolism, religious teachings and practices help promote social cohesion. An example is the Christian ritual of communion, which not only commemorates a historical event but also allows followers to participate in the unity ("communion") of themselves with other believers. All religions have some form of shared experience that rekindles the group's consciousness of its own unity.

Social control and support for the government

Social control factors. If there is a high level of social control on the part of law enforcement officials, political leaders, and others, it becomes more difficult to develop a social movement or engage in certain types of collective action.

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Social epidemiology is the study of the causes and distribution of health, disease, and impairment throughout a population.

Spirituality is the relationship between the individual and something larger than oneself, such as a broader sense of connection with the surrounding world.

Spread of a generalized belief. For a movement to develop, there must be a clear statement of the problem and a shared view of its cause, effects, and possible solution.

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Stage 1: Preindustrial societies Little population growth occurs because high birth rates are offset by high death rates. Food shortages, poor sanitation, and lack of adequate medical care contribute to high rates of infant and child mortality.

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Stage 2: Early industrialization Significant population growth occurs because birth rates are relatively high whereas death rates decline. Improvements in health, sanitation, and nutrition produce a substantial decline in infant mortality rates. Overpopulation is likely to occur because more people are alive than the society has the ability to support.

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Stage 3: Advanced industrialization and urbanization Very little population growth occurs because both birth rates and death rates are low. The birth rate declines as couples control their fertility through contraceptives and become less likely to adhere to religious directives against their use. Children are not viewed as an economic asset; they consume income rather than produce it. Societies in this stage attain zero population growth, but the actual number of births per year may still rise due to an increased number of women of childbearing age.

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Stage 4: Postindustrialization Birth rates continue to decline as more women gain full-time employment and the cost of raising children continues to increase. The population grows very slowly, if at all, because the decrease in birth rates is coupled with a stable death rate.

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Stages of Social Movements

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Status dropout rates vary by gender, race/ethnicity, and region of the country (see Figure 16.4). Males (9.1 percent) have a higher status dropout rate than females (7.0 percent). Status dropout rates also vary by race/ethnicity: Hispanics/Latinos/as (17.6 percent), American Indian/Alaska natives (13.2 percent), and blacks/African Americans (9.3 percent) have higher status dropout rates than whites (5.2 percent), Asian/Pacific Islanders (3.4 percent), and persons reporting two or more races (6.5 percent) (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2012a). Finally, region is also an issue in status dropout rates: The Northeastern United States has the lowest status dropout rates, while the South and West have the highest.

Structural strain. When a society or community is unable to meet people's expectations that something should be done about a problem, strain occurs in the system. The ensuing tension and conflict contribute to the development of a social movement based on people's belief that the problem would not exist if authorities had done what they were supposed to do.

For the most part the occupations previously described in this chapter operate within the legitimate economy:

Taxes on income are paid by employers and employees, and individuals who hold jobs requiring a specialized license (such as craftspeople or taxi drivers) possess the appropriate credentials for their work. By contrast, the underground economy is made up of a wide variety of activities through which people make money that they do not report to the government or through endeavors that may involve criminal behavior (Venkatesh, 2006). Sometimes referred to as the "informal" or "shadow economy," one segment of the underground economy is made up of workers who are paid "off the books," which means that they are paid in cash, their earnings are not reported, and no taxes are paid.

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Technology Technology is an important force for change; in some ways, technological development has made our lives much easier. Advances in communication and transportation have made instantaneous worldwide communication possible but have also brought old belief systems and the status quo into question as never before. Today, we are increasingly moving information instead of people—and doing it instantly. Advances in science and medicine have made significant changes in people's lives in high-income countries.

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The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 2010: Adults who had been unable to get coverage because of a preexisting condition could join a high-risk insurance pool (as a stopgap measure until the competitive health insurance marketplace was scheduled to begin in 2014). Insurance companies would have to cover children with preexisting conditions. Policies could not be revoked when people get sick. Preventive services would be fully covered without co-pays or deductibles. Dependent children could remain on their parents' insurance plans until they reached the age of twenty-six.

Earlier studies have found that worker satisfaction is highest when employees have some degree of control over their work, when they are part of the decision-making process, when they are not too closely supervised, and when they feel that they play an important part in the outcome (Kohn et al., 1990). A study by the Heldrich Center for Workplace Development at Rutgers University (Godofsky, Zukin, and Van Horn, 2011) found that overall job satisfaction and job security declined significantly in the first decade of the twenty-first century.

The Society for Human Resource Management (2012) found that on certain dimensions of job satisfaction, less than 30 percent of workers in their study indicated they were "very satisfied" with compensation/pay, communication between employees and senior management, benefits, and career advancement opportunities, among other things.

The Uninsured

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The crude birth rate is the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year.

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The crude death rate is the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year.

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The denomination is a large organized religion characterized by accommodation to society but frequently lacking in ability or intention to dominate society.

Functionalist Perspective

The economy is a social institution that produces and distributes goods and services. Functionalists view the economy as a vital social institution because it is the means by which needed goods and services are produced and distributed. When the economy runs smoothly, other parts of society function more effectively. However, if the system becomes unbalanced, such as whterm-51en demand does not keep up with production, maladjustment occurs

Conflict Perspectives: Elite Models

The elite model refers to power in political systems is concentrated in the hands of a small group of elites, and the masses are relatively powerless.

Mills' power elite is made up of leaders at the top of business, the executive branch of the federal government, and the military.

The elite model refers to power in political systems is concentrated in the hands of a small group of elites, and the masses are relatively powerless.

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The functionalist perspective on religion finds its roots in the works of early sociologist Emile Durkheim, who emphasized that religion is essential to the maintenance of society. He suggested that religion is a cultural universal found in all societies because it meets basic human needs and serves important societal functions.

The hidden curriculum is the transmission of cultural values and attitudes, such as conformity and obedience to authority, through implied demands found in the rules, routines, and regulations of schools.

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The infant mortality rate is the number of deaths of infants under 1 year of age per 1,000 live births in a given year.

Functionalist Perspectives: The Pluralist Model

The pluralist model is rooted in a functionalist perspective, which assumes that people share a consensus on central concerns, such as freedom and protection from harm, and that the government serves important functions that no other institution can fulfill. According to Emile Durkheim (1933/1893), the purpose of government is to socialize people to be good citizens, to regulate the economy so that it operates effectively, and to provide necessary services for citizens. Contemporary functionalists state the four main functions as follows:

Preindustrial Economies

The primary sector production is the extraction of raw materials and natural resources from the environment. These materials and resources are typically consumed or used without much processing. The production units in hunting and gathering societies are small; family members produce most goods. The division of labor is by age and gender. In horticultural and pastoral societies, the economy becomes distinct from family life. The distribution process becomes more complex, with the accumulation of a surplus such that some people can engage in activities other than food production. In agrarian societies, production is primarily related to producing food. However, workers have a greater variety of specialized tasks, such as warlord or priest; for example, warriors are necessary to protect the surplus goods from plunder by outsiders. Once a surplus is accumulated, more people can also engage in trade. white men earned a livelihood through agricultural work or as small-business owners who ran establishments such as inns, taverns, and shops. During this period, white women worked primarily in their homes, doing such tasks as cooking, cleaning, and child care. Some also developed cottage industries—producing goods in their homes that could be sold to nonfamily members. However, a number of white women also worked outside their households as midwifes, physicians, nurses, teachers, innkeepers, and shopkeepers (Hesse-Biber and Carter, 2000).

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The sex ratio is the number of males for every hundred females in a given population.

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The sick role is the set of patterned expectations that defines the norms and values appropriate for individuals who are sick and for those who interact with them.

The social institution through which power is acquired and exercised by some people and groups is:

The study of the causes and distribution of health, disease, and impairment throughout a population is called:

Employee Engagement

The term employee engagement refers to the emotional commitment the employee has to the organization and its goals (Kruse, 2012). Based on this definition, employee engagement does not mean the same thing as employee happiness or satisfaction:

Postindustrial Economies

The tertiary sector production is the provision of services rather than goods. Contemporary World Economics Systems. Tertiary sector production includes a wide range of activities, such as fast-food service, transportation, communication, education, real estate, advertising, sports, and entertainment. As shown in "Census Profiles," a majority of U.S. jobs are in tertiary sector employment, as contrasted with primary or secondary sector employment, and some of the employment sectors are segregated by gender and/or race/ethnicity.

The three-way arrangement in which a private interest group, a congressional committee, and a bureaucratic agency make the final decision on a political issue that is to be decided by that agency is known as:

Tracking refers to the practice of assigning students to specific curriculum groups and courses on the basis of their test scores, previous grades, or other criteria.

Traditional authority is based on:

Traditional boundaries between work and home (public and private life) no longer exist because digital technologies such as cell phones and computers make global communication possible.

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Transcendent idealism is a belief in sacred principles of thought and conduct.

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Trends in Race, Class, Gender, and Religion

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Unlike fads, fashions tend to be longer lasting. In Chapter 3 fashion is defined as a currently valued style of behavior, thinking, or appearance. Fashion also applies to art, music, drama, literature, architecture, interior design, and automobiles, among other things. However, most sociological research on fashion has focused on clothing, especially women's apparel and how this may relate to culture and social customs in a specific era.

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Urban Problems in the United States

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Urban sociology is a subfield of sociology that examines social relationships and political and economic structures in the city.

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Urbanization in Global Perspective

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Value-Added Theory

One of the greatest concerns for the future is the employment of U.S. workers.

Well-paid jobs have been the backbone of the middle class in this country, as well as a major source of upward mobility for people throughout history, so there is cause for concern over the lack of availability of jobs for many people. In the mid- to late twentieth century, permanent, stable jobs were the norm. These jobs provided opportunities for advancement and employee benefits such as health insurance and a retirement plan. In the second decade of the twenty-first century, the norm has become a greater concentration of temporary and/or contingent work in an ever-changing work environment that provides little job security and feelings of stagnation rather than hope for advancement. More current and future workers are of the belief that they may never be able to retire or that they will have to continue employment in one or more jobs, if they can find them, to make ends meet.

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What are some specific applications of political action theory? Urban sociologists and social movement analysts have found that those cities that provided opportunities for people's protests to be heard within urban governments were less likely to have extensive protests or riots in their communities because aggrieved people could use more-conventional means to make their claims known. By contrast, urban riots were more likely to occur when activists believed that all conventional routes to protest were blocked. Changes in demography, migration, and the political economy in the United States (factors that were seemingly external to the civil rights movement) all contributed to a belief on the part of African Americans in the late 1960s and early 1970s that they could organize collective action and that their claims regarding the need for racial justice might be more readily heard by government officials.

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Zero population growth refers to the point at which no population increase occurs from year to year.

_____ are illnesses that strike suddenly, cause dramatic incapacitation, and sometimes result in death.

_____ functions are hidden, unstated, and sometimes unintended consequences of activities within an organization or institution.

_____ is a belief in a single supreme being who is responsible for significant events.

_____ is the belief that supernatural forces affect people's lives either positively or negatively.

_____ refers to the positive sense of complete well-being; while _____ refers to an interference with health.

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a breakdown in social control mechanisms and a corresponding feeling of normlessness

a corresponding increase in nonreligious values or principles and greater significance given to secular institutions.

a decline in religious values and institutions in everyday life and

a leader's exceptional personal qualities

alternative movements

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an advanced technology

Democracy

is a political system in which the people hold the ruling power either directly or through elected representatives.

5._____ is an agreement in which a corporation contracts with other (usually smaller) firms to provide specialized components, products, or services to the larger corporation.

b.Subcontracting

belief that such violence is a private or personal matter,

belief that the police will not help or will be ineffective (Catalano, 2007).

boomerang family

4._____ is an economic system characterized by public ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of collective goals, and centralized decision making.

c.Socialism

children with less cultural capital coming into school will have fewer opportunities for succeeding.

church and state should be separated

A mixed economy

combines elements of a market economy (capitalism) with elements of a command economy (socialism).

community-based economics and economic justice;

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concern about the school environment,

conflict

conventional crowd

economic and psychological support

educates voters about issues and simplifies the choices for them, and

end strife and bring people together

Marginal jobs differ from the employment norms of the society in which they are located;

examples in the U.S. labor market include jobs in personal service industries such as eating and drinking places, hotels, and laundries, as well as private household workers. Marginal jobs are frequently not covered by government work regulations—such as minimum standards of pay, working conditions, and safety standards—or do not offer sufficient hours of work each week to provide a living.

expressive crowd

fear of retaliation,

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fee-for-service

feminism and gender equity;

feminist

frame amplification occurs when movements appeal to deeply held values and beliefs in the general population and link those to movement issues so that people's preexisting value commitments serve as a "hook" that can be used to recruit them,

frame bridging is the process by which movement organizations reach individuals who already share the same worldview as the organization,

frame extension occurs when movements enlarge the boundaries of an initial frame to incorporate other issues that appear to be of importance to potential participants, and

10.

future focus and sustainability to protect valuable natural resources and develop sustainable economies that are not dependent on continual expansion for survival(GreenParty.org, 2013).

going to a school where a student will be taught by teachers of one's own culture is highly effective.

health care

Competition among leadership groups in government, business, labor, education, law, medicine, and consumer organizations, among others,

helps prevent abuse of power by any one group. Everyday people can influence public policy by voting in elections, participating in existing special interest groups, or forming new ones to gain access to the political system. In sum, power is widely dispersed, and leadership groups that wield influence on some decisions are not the same groups that may be influential in other decisions (Dye, Zeigler, and Schubert, 2012).

high cost of education What does a college education cost? According to the Chronicle of Higher Education(2012), the average total cost of attendance for full-time students living on campus and paying in-state tuition was $21,447 at public four-year schools and $42,224 at private nonprofit institutions in the 2011-2012 academic year. The lowest total costs were for students living with family and paying in-state tuition at public two-year institutions ($7,900) and public four-year institutions ($12,600) (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012a). However, nearly 90 percent of students who attend public institutions go to colleges with tuitions and fees of less than $15,000 (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2012). Although public institutions such as community colleges and state colleges and universities typically have lower tuition and overall costs—because they are funded primarily by tax dollars—than private colleges have, even the cost of attending public institutions has increased significantly over the past decade (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012a).

how social unrest is transmitted by a process of circular reaction

Monarchy

is a political system in which power resides in one person or family and is passed from generation to generation through lines of inheritance.

Power

is the ability of persons or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others.

Representative democracy

is when citizens elect representatives to serve as bridges between themselves and the government.

the religious teachings of the Catholic Church were directly related to the rise of capitalism

Engagement

means that the workers have a genuine commitment to their work and the company or organization that employs them. According to some business professionals, engaged employees help create higher profits, better workplace morale, and overall better business outcomes (Kruse, 2012). From a sociological perspective, the question remains as to whether having engaged employees who provide better service, higher customer satisfaction, increased sales, higher levels of profit, and higher shareholder returns also brings about workers who are highly satisfied with their work environment and their work life.

medicalization

medicine

meritocracy

mob

monarchy

multicultural education

nontraditional authority

Cyclical unemployment

occurs as a result of lower rates of production during recessions in the business cycle; a recession is a decline in an economy's total production that lasts at least six months. Although massive layoffs initially occur, some of the workers will eventually be rehired, largely depending on the length and severity of the recession.

Political action committees (PACs) are

organizations of special interest groups that solicit contributions from donors and fund campaigns to help elect (or defeat) candidates based on their stances on specific issues.

personal and global responsibility; and

politics

According to the pluralist model,

power in political systems is widely dispersed throughout many competing interest groups.

According to the pluralist model,

power in political systems is widely dispersed throughout many competing interest groups. In the pluralist model the diverse needs of women and men, people of all religions and racial-ethnic backgrounds, and the wealthy, middle class, and poor are met by political leaders who engage in a process of bargaining, accommodation, and compromise.

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preventive health care services

promote strife between groups and societies

protest crowd

religion retards social change

religious movements

resistance movements

respect for diversity;

restricting some activities

revolutionary movements

separate contributing members of society from nonfunctional members

symbolic-interactionist

the conceptual level (e.g., the use of medical terminology to define the problem),

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the desire to provide religious or moral instruction, and

the importance of social norms in shaping crowd behavior

the interactional level (e.g., when physicians treat patients' conditions as medical problems).

Unemployment is

the percentage of unemployed persons in the labor force actively seeking jobs. The second decade of the twenty-first century has seen a significant increase in unemployment. The U.S. unemployment rate in 2000 was 4.0 percent. By 2011, the overall rate hovered around 9 percent before falling to 7.7 percent in February 2013. In 2013 the overall U.S. unemployment rate for men was 8.5 percent, as compared to 7.6 percent for women. However, the breakdown across racial-ethnic and age categories tells a more complete story: African Americans of all ages had a 13.8 percent unemployment rate, Hispanics (Latinos/as) had a rate of 10.3 percent, white Americans (non- Hispanics) had a rate of 7.2 percent, and Asian Americans had a rate of 6.1 percent.

the power elite

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the preliminary (or incipiency) stage , widespread unrest is present as people begin to become aware of a problem. At this stage, leaders emerge to agitate others into taking action.

According to Domhoff (2005),

the upper class and the corporate rich influence politics in the following ways:

their job responsibilities,

transmission of culture

written rules and regulations of law

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"[t]he Earth's finite capacity to sustain human civilization"

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Conventional

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Diet and Exercise

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Emergence and Evolution of the City

People's Republic of China

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Postmodernist Perspectives

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Social Constructionist Theory: Frame Analysis

government

view of the violence as a "minor" crime,

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"The rich" coalesce into a social upper class that has developed institutions by which the children of its members are socialized into an upperclass worldview and newly wealthy people are assimilated.

A self-fulfilling prophecy is an unsubstantiated belief or prediction resulting in behavior that makes the originally false belief come true.

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A social movement is an interactive, symbolically defined, and negotiated process that involves participants, opponents, and bystanders.

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A social movement is an organized group that acts consciously to promote or resist change through collective action.

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A second crucial factor in understanding disability is how a person with a disability is viewed and treated by other people. Many examples could be given of persons with a disability who have been made uncomfortable by "able-bodied" individuals who think they are "helping" the person with a disability when they make some comment about the disability or the perceived inadequacies it causes. However, Dr. Adrienne Asch (2001), director of the Center for Ethics at Yeshiva University, speaks volumes about what her life has been like as an outstanding academic and as a person with a visual impairment—blindness:

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A sect is a relatively small religious group that has broken away from another religious organization to renew what it views as the original version of the faith.

provision of social status

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Age

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Advanced technologies

Advanced technologies create options for people and for society, but these options alter human relationships.

Advanced technologies increase the cost of medical care.

Advanced technologies such as cloning and stem cell research raise provocative questions about the very nature of life.

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Although race/ethnicity and social class are related to issues of health and mortality, research continues to show that income and the neighborhood in which a person lives may be equally or more significant than race or ethnicity with respect to these issues. How is it possible that the neighborhood you live in may significantly affect your risk of dying during the next year? Numerous studies have found that people have a higher survival rate if they live in better-educated or wealthier neighborhoods than if the neighborhood is low income and has low levels of education. Among the reasons that researchers believe that neighborhoods make a difference are the availability (or lack thereof) of safe areas to exercise, grocery stores with nutritious foods, and access to transportation, education, and good jobs. Many low-income neighborhoods are characterized by fast-food restaurants, liquor stores, and other facilities that do not afford residents healthy options.

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Beliefs: Jesus is the Son of God. Through good moral and religious behavior (and/or God's grace), people achieve eternal life with God.

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Beliefs: Muhammad received the Qur'an (scriptures) from God. On Judgment Day, believers who have submitted to God's will, as revealed in the Qur'an, will go to an eternal Garden of Eden.

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Beliefs: The sayings of Confucius (collected in the Analects) stress the role of virtue and order in the relationships among individuals, their families, and society.

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Beliefs: Through meditation and adherence to the Eightfold Path (correct thought and behavior), people can free themselves from desire and suffering, escape the cycle of eternal rebirth, and achieve nirvana (enlightenment).

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But how might students and teachers who come from diverse religious heritages feel about Christian religious instruction or organized prayer in public schools? Some social analysts believe that such practices would cause conflict and perhaps discrimination on the basis of religion. In addition to schools, members of the contemporary media are also key players in the framing of religious and scientific debates, and journalists may influence how we view a number of these key issues

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By contrast, other active supporters of the Tea Party movement are players in the mainstream political process. An example is Sarah Palin, the former Alaska governor and Republican vice presidential candidate, who was a frequent spokesperson at Tea Party rallies across the United States. In political movements, social activists typically create their own opportunities rather than wait for them to emerge, and activists are often political entrepreneurs in their own right, much like the state and federal legislators and other governmental officials whom they seek to influence on behalf of their social cause. Political opportunity theory calls our attention to how important the degree of openness of a political system is to the goals and tactics of persons who organize social movements.

Non white's in preindustrial US

By contrast, the experiences of people of color were quite different in preindustrial America. According to the sociologists Sharlene Hesse-Biber and Gregg Lee Carter (2000), slavery, which came about largely as a result of the demand for cheap agricultural labor, was a major force in the exploitation of people of color, particularly women of color who suffered a double burden of both sexism and racism. By contrast, Native American women in some agricultural communities held greater power because they were able to maintain control over land, tools, and surplus food (Hesse-Biber and Carter, 2000).

Deprofessionalization

Certain professions are undergoing a process of deprofessionalization, in which some of the characteristics of a profession are eliminated. Occupations such as pharmacist have already been deskilled.

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Collective behavior is voluntary, often spontaneous activity that is engaged in by a large number of people and typically violates dominant-group norms and values. Unlike the organizational behavior found in corporations and voluntary associations (such as labor unions and environmental organizations), collective behavior lacks an official division of labor, hierarchy of authority, and established rules and procedures. Unlike institutional behavior (in education, religion, or politics, for example), it lacks institutionalized norms to govern behavior. Collective behavior can take various forms, including crowds, mobs, riots, panics, fads, fashions, and public opinion.

Pursuit of personal profit

Competition In theory, competition acts as a balance to excessive profits. When producers vie with one another for customers, they must be able to offer innovative goods and services at competitive prices. However, from the time of early industrial capitalism, the trend has been toward less, rather than more, competition among companies. In early monopoly capitalism, competition was diminished by increasing concentration within a particular industry, a classic case being the virtual monopoly on oil held by John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company

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Conflict Perspectives Conflict theorists emphasize that schools solidify the privileged position of some groups at the expense of others by perpetuating class, racial-ethnic, and gender inequalities (Ballantine and Hammack, 2012). Contemporary conflict theorists also focus on how politics and corporate interests dominate schools, particularly higher education.

Thorstein Veblen

Conspicuous consumption is the ostentatious display of symbols of wealth, such as owning numerous mansions and expensive works of art, wearing extravagant jewelry and clothing, or otherwise flaunting the trappings of great wealth. By contrast, conspicuous leisure involves wasteful and highly visible leisure activities such as casino gambling or expensive sporting events that require costly gear or excessive travel expenses

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Contagion Theory ocuses on the social-psychological aspects of collective behavior; it attempts to explain how moods, attitudes, and behavior are communicated rapidly and why they are accepted by others. Le Bon (1841-1931) argued that people are more likely to engage in antisocial behavior in a crowd because they are anonymous and feel invulnerable. Le Bon (1960/1895) suggested that a crowd takes on a life of its own that is larger than the beliefs or actions of any one person. Because of its anonymity, the crowd transforms individuals from rational beings into a single organism with a collective mind. In essence, Le Bon asserted that emotions such as fear and hate are contagious in crowds because people experience a decline in personal responsibility; they will do things as a collectivity that they would never do when acting alone.

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Current Followers: 2.2 billion

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Current Followers: 488 million

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Current Followers: 6.3 million

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Decline of popular involvement in institutionalized religion. What are the rates of church attendance and membership?

Five characteristics are central to the postindustrial economy:

Defined

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Deinstitutionalization refers to the practice of rapidly discharging patients from mental hospitals into the community.

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Demographic Transition Theory

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Demographic transition is the process by which some societies have moved from high birth and death rates to relatively low birth and death rates as a result of technological development.

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Demography is a subfield of sociology that examines population size, composition, and distribution.

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Demography: The Study of Population

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Diagnostic framing identifies a problem and attributes blame or causality to some group or entity so that the social movement has a target for its actions.

Disabilities

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Disability

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Disability refers to a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major activities that a person would normally do at a given stage of life and that may result in stigmatization or discrimination against the person with a disability. Some disabilities involve physical conditions, while others involve mental abilities. However, according to disability rights advocates, social attitudes and the social and physical environments in which people live are contributing factors to the extent to which a person may be considered "disabled." An example of a disabling environment is a school or office building in which elevator buttons and faucets on public restroom sinks are located beyond the reach of a person using a wheelchair. In such a setting the person's disability derives from the fact that necessary objects in everyday life have been made inaccessible. According to advocates, disability must be thought of in terms of how society causes or contributes to the problem—not in terms of what is "wrong" with the person with a disability (Albrecht, Seelman, and Bury, 2001).

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Economies affect people's behaviors and attitudes. According to symbolic interactionists, work is an important source of self-identity for many people; it can help people feel positive about themselves, or it can cause them to feel alienated. Alienation occurs when workers' needs for self-identity and meaning are not met and when work is done strictly for material gain, not a sense of personal satisfaction. According to Marx, workers are resistant to having very little power and no opportunities to make workplace decisions. This lack of control contributes to an ongoing struggle between workers and employers. Job segmentation, isolation of workers, and the discouragement of any type of pro-worker organizations (such as unions) further contribute to feelings of helplessness and frustration. Some occupations may be more closely associated with high levels of alienation than others.

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Efforts to reduce and eliminate violence in schools Today, officials in schools from the elementary level to two-year colleges and four-year universities are focusing on how to reduce or eliminate violence. In many schools, teachers and counselors are instructed in anger management and peer mediation, and they are encouraged to develop classroom instruction that teaches values such as respect and responsibility (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2012b). Some schools create partnerships with local law enforcement agencies and social service organizations to link issues of school safety to larger concerns about safety in the community and the nation. Nationwide, many people are seeking more-stringent gun laws to help prevent future crises such as the Newtown, Connecticut, school shooting in 2012.

Families that consist of a husband, wife, and children from previous marriages and (if any) children from the new is called a:

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Gossip refers to rumors about the personal lives of individuals. Whereas a rumor may spread through an assembled collectivity, rumors may also be transmitted among people who are dispersed geographically, including people spreading rumors on Twitter, posting messages on Facebook, or talking on the phone. Although rumors may initially contain a kernel of truth, they may be modified as they spread to serve the interests of those repeating them.

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In the United States the separation of church and state reduces religious legitimation of political power. Nevertheless, political leaders often use religion to justify their decisions, stating that they have prayed for guidance in deciding what to do. This informal relationship between religion and the state has been referred to as civil religion—the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that makes sacred the values of the society and places the nation in the context of the ultimate system of meaning. Civil religion is not tied to any one denomination or religious group; it has an identity all its own. For example, many civil ceremonies in the United States have a marked religious quality. National values are celebrated on "high holy days" such as Memorial Day and the Fourth of July. Political inaugurations and courtroom trials often require people to place their hand on a Bible while swearing to do their duty or tell the truth, as the case may be. The U.S. flag is the primary sacred object of our civil religion, and the Pledge of Allegiance includes the phrase "one nation under God." U.S. currency bears the inscription "In God We Trust."

A labor union

Is a group of employees who join together to bargain with an employer or a group of employers over wages, benefits, and working conditions.

Capitalism

Is an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, from which personal profits can be derived through market competition and without government intervention.

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Meaning and purpose. Religion offers meaning for the human experience. Some events create a profound sense of loss on both an individual basis (such as injustice, suffering, or the death of a loved one) and a group basis (such as famine, earthquake, economic depression, or subjugation by an enemy). Inequality may cause people to wonder why their own situation is no better than it is. Most religions offer explanations for these concerns. Explanations may differ from one religion to another, yet each tells the individual or group that life is part of a larger system of order in the universe. Some (but not all) religions even offer hope of an afterlife for persons who follow the religion's tenets of morality in this life. Such beliefs help make injustices easier to endure.

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Mass behavior is collective behavior that takes place when people (who are often geographically separated from one another) respond to the same event in For people to respond in the same way, they typically have common sources of information that provoke their collective behavior. The most frequent types of mass behavior are rumors, gossip, mass hysteria, public opinion, fashions, and fads. Under some circumstances, social movements constitute a form of mass behavior. However, we will examine social movements separately because they differ in some important ways from other types of dispersed collectivities.

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Maternal deaths are a continuing problem in lower-income nations, where women face fifteen times the risk of dying during pregnancy or from childbirth-related complications than women in higher-income nations.

Meaning and purpose

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Medicalization refers to the process whereby nonmedical problems become defined and treated as illnesses or disorders.

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Medicine is an institutionalized system for the scientific diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness.

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Members of a social movement acquire resources and mobilize people in order to advance their cause.

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Members of the upper class, with the help of their high-level employees in profit and nonprofit institutions, are able to dominate the federal government in Washington.

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Members of this upper class control corporations, which have been the primary mechanisms for generating and holding wealth in the United States for upwards of 150 years now.

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Mental Illness

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Mental disorder versus mental illness

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Migration is the movement of people from one geographic area to another for the purpose of changing residency.

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Mixed land use

Mobilization for action. At this stage, leaders emerge to organize others and give them a sense of direction.

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Propaganda is information provided by individuals or groups that have a vested interest in furthering their own cause or damaging an opposing one. Although many of us think of propaganda in negative terms, the information provided can be correct and can have a positive effect on decision making.

New forms of energy, mechanization, and the growth of the factory system.

Another factor in providing opportunities in the workplace is better coordination between the social institutions of education and the economy so that there will be better understanding and alignment among schools, students, and employers.

Of course, problems in regard to the U.S. economy and work are not confined to our own national boundaries: Our lives are also intertwined with the global economy.

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Perspectives on Urbanization and the Growth of Cities

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People will choose those options for collective action that are most readily available to them and those options that will produce the most favorable outcome for their cause. Why do social protests occur? According to political opportunity theorists, the origins of social protests cannot be explained solely by the fact that people possess a variety of grievances or that they have resources available for mobilization. Instead, social protests are directly related to the political opportunities that potential protesters and movement organizers believe exist within the political system at any given point in time. Political opportunity theory is based on the assumption that social protests that take place outside of mainstream political institutions are deeply intertwined with more-conventional political activities that take place inside these institutions. As used in this context, opportunity refers to "options for collective action, with chances and risks attached to them that depend on factors outside the mobilizing group" (Koopmans, 1999: 97). Political opportunity theory states that people will choose those options for collective action that are most readily available to them and those options that will produce the most favorable outcome for their cause.

Lower-Tier and Marginal Jobs

Positions in the lower tier of the service sector are part of the secondary labor market, characterized by low wages, little job security, few chances for advancement, higher unemployment rates, and very limited (if any) unemployment benefits.

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Poverty, not overpopulation, is the most important issue with regard to food supply in a capitalist economy.

Precipitating factors. To reinforce the existing generalized belief, an inciting incident or dramatic event must occur. With regard to technological disasters, some (including Love Canal) gradually emerge from a long-standing environmental threat, whereas others (including the meltdown of a nuclear power plant) involve a suddenly imposed problem.

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Preconditions for a city to develop:

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Preserve open spaces, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas

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Prevention, reduction, and treatment

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Problems in Global Cities

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Profane refers to the everyday, secular, or "worldly" aspects of life that we know through our senses.

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Professional Medicine

Professional and technical classes grow more predominant, and workplace culture shifts from factories to diversified work settings.

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Prognostic framing pinpoints possible solutions or remedies, based on the target previously identified.

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Racial-ethnic differences are also visible in statistics pertaining to life expectancy. Projections for infants born in 2013 reveal this sobering fact: Even with improvements in life expectancy among persons of color in recent years, life expectancy for African American males is estimated at 71.6 years as compared to 78.9 for Latino (Hispanic) males and 76.4 for white (non- Hispanic) males. For African American females, life expectancy is 77.8 compared to 83.7 for Latina (Hispanic) females and 81.1 for white females (Minino, 2013). For both sexes, the widest life expectancy gap is 6.6 years between Hispanics at 81.4 years and African Americans (non-Hispanic) at 74.8 years.

Cause of Death—1900

Rank Cause of Death—2011

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Rates of illness and death are highest among the old and the young.

Rational Choice Perspectives

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Scholars who examine public opinion are interested in the extent to which the public's attitudes are communicated to decision makers and the effect (if any) that public opinion has on policy making (Turner and Killian, 1993). Some political scientists argue that public opinion has a substantial effect on decisions at all levels of government; others strongly disagree. Table 20.1 shows a public opinion survey of the top policy priorities of the U.S. public in 2013. As you will note, the environment is not listed among the top ten items that the Pew Research Center (2013b) survey identified as the public's top priorities for 2013. Slightly over half (52 percent) of Americans indicated that they believed the environment should be a top priority for the president and Congress in 2013. Of course, other pressing issues such as the economy, jobs, and the budget deficit were also on their minds when they were taking this survey.

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School vouchers school choice is a persistent issue in education. Much of the discussion about school choice focuses on school voucher programs in which public funds (tax dollars) are provided to parents so that they can pay their child's tuition at a private school of their choice. Many parents praise the voucher system because it provides them with options for schooling their children. Some political leaders applaud vouchers and other school choice policies for improving public school performance. However, voucher programs are controversial: Some critics believe that giving taxpayer money to parents so that they can spend it at private (often religious) schools violates constitutional requirements for the separation of church and state. However, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, a case involving a Cleveland, Ohio, school district, that voucher policies are constitutional because parents have a choice and are not required to send their children to church-affiliated schools. Other critics claim that voucher programs are less effective in educating children than public schools. According to studies in the District of Columbia, Milwaukee, and Cleveland, public school students outperformed voucher students in both reading and math on state proficiency tests; however, neither group reached state proficiency requirements (Ott, 2011). In sum, advocates like the choice factor in voucher programs, while critics believe that vouchers undermine public education, lack accountability, and may contribute to the collapse of the public school system.

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Social Movements Because social movements initially are not institutionalized and are outside the political mainstream, they offer "outsiders" an opportunity to have their voices heard.

Sexual regulation. Families are expected to regulate the sexual activity of their members and thus control reproduction so that it occurs within specific boundaries. At the macrolevel, incest taboos prohibit sexual contact or marriage between certain relatives. For example, virtually all societies prohibit sexual relations between parents and their children and between brothers and sisters.

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Sociological Perspectives on Health and Medicine

G. William Domhoff and the Ruling Class

Sociologist G. William Domhoff (2002) asserts that this nation in fact has a ruling class—members of the upper class and the corporate rich, who constitute less than 1 percent of the U.S. population. Domhoff uses the term ruling class to signify a relatively fixed group of privileged people who wield power sufficient to constrain political processes and serve underlying capitalist interests. Although the power elite controls the everyday operation of the political system, who governs is less important than who rules.

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Simple supernaturalism refers to the belief that supernatural forces affect people's lives either positively or negatively.

Social Implications of Advanced Medical Technology

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Social Movement Theories

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Sociologists using the emergent norm approach seek to determine how individuals in a given collectivity develop an understanding of what is going on, how they construe these activities, and what type of norms are involved. For example, in a study of audience participation, the sociologist Steven E. Clayman (1993) found that members of an audience listening to a speech applaud promptly and independently but wait to coordinate their booing with other people; they do not wish to "boo" alone.

Sociologists who study the social organization of medicine will continue to look for new insights on the physician-patient relationship in the future. What other sociological perspectives do you believe might be useful in explaining the dynamics of doctor-patient communications or other social interactions (such as between physicians and other health professionals) that routinely take place within the health care system?

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Some critics have attempted to eliminate all vestiges of civil religion from public life. However, sociologist Robert Bellah (1967), who has studied civil religion extensively, argues that civil religion is not the same thing as Christianity; rather, it is limited to affirmations of loyalty and patriotism that adherents of any religion can accept. However, Bellah's assertion does not resolve the problem for those who do not believe in the existence of God or for those who believe that true religion is trivialized by civil religion.

Structural conduciveness. People must become aware of a significant problem and have the opportunity to engage in collective action. According to Smelser, movements are more likely to occur when a person, class, or agency can be singled out as the source of the problem; when channels for expressing grievances either are not available or fail; and when the aggrieved have a chance to communicate among themselves.

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Students with disabilities. Another concern in education has been how to provide better educational opportunities for students with a disability—any physical and/or mental condition that limits students' access to, or full involvement in, school life. The U.S. Department of Education's Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) collects information on students with disabilities as part of the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and uses categories of disabilities that include autism, deafness/blindness, developmental delay, emotional disturbance, hearing impairment, intellectual disability, multiple disabilities, orthopedic impairment, other health impairment, specific learning disabilities, speech or language impairments, traumatic brain injury, visual impairments, and preschool disability. Traditional public schools have the highest rate (34 percent) of enrollment for students with disabilities, as compared to 23 percent in charter schools. Some analysts believe that this difference remains persistent because public schools may have more resources to assist students with disabilities in their learning; however, some critics of charter schools argue that some of these schools have discouraged enrollment of special-needs students or have indicated their inability to continue serving such students after the school year started (Resmovits, 2012). Among the students served by public schools, specific learning disabilities are the most common concern (about 38 percent), followed by speech or language impairments (nearly 22 percent), other health impairments (10.6 percent), and intellectual disability (7.1 percent) (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012a). Only about 15 percent of students with disabilities (who are enrolled in regular school settings) spend more than 60 percent of their school time outside the general ("mainstream") classrooms: Nearly 60 percent of students with disabilities (who are enrolled in regular school settings) spend at least 80 percent of their school time in regular classrooms. About 3 percent of all public school students with disabilities attend a separate school for students with disabilities. Top categories served in these schools are students with multiple disabilities, deafness/blindness, and emotional disturbances (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012a).

maintaining law and order,

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The rich, and corporate leaders, nonetheless claim to be relatively powerless.

maintenance of workers so that they can function effectively in the workplace

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The Lack of Faculty Diversity and Equity

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The Malthusian Perspective

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The Marxist Perspective

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Unequal funding of public schools. Most educational funds come from state legislative appropriations and local property taxes (see Figure 16.3). Some legislatures provide far fewer funds for schools in their state because they have fewer resources or because they have other political priorities. The same is true for local communities. Some cities have properties that are more expensive than others. Other cities have large amounts of land that is under the control of various levels of the government and thus not subject to school taxation.

Universal application of scientific methods to problem solving and profit making.

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Violence

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Will we be able to balance the need for national security with the individual's right to privacy and freedom of movement within this country?

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Worldwide, the amount of money spent on health care varies widely, and the extent to which persons derive improved medical attention or quality of life through higher expenditures (such as in the United States) is not easily measured. However, lack of adequate funds to pay for appropriate health care is also a pressing concern. (World Health Organization, 2012)

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a favorable physical environment

prejudice and discrimination

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public health insurance

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For Durkheim, the central feature of all religions is the presence of sacred beliefs and rituals that bind people together in a collectivity. In his studies of the religion of the Australian aborigines, Durkheim found that each clan had established its own sacred totem, which included kangaroos, trees, rivers, rock formations, and other animals or natural creations. To clan members, their totem was sacred; it symbolized some unique quality of their clan. People developed a feeling of unity by performing ritual dances around their totem, causing them to abandon individual self-interest. Durkheim suggested that the correct performance of the ritual gives rise to religious conviction. Religious beliefs and rituals are collective representations—group-held meanings that express something important about the group itself. Because of the intertwining of group consciousness and society, functionalists suggest that religion has three important functions in any society:

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Fundamentalism is a traditional religious doctrine that is conservative, is typically opposed to modernity, and rejects "worldly pleasures" in favor of otherworldly spirituality. In the past, traditional fundamentalism primarily appealed to people from lower-income, rural, southern backgrounds; however, newer fundamentalist movements have had a much wider appeal to people from all socioeconomic levels, geographical areas, and occupations in the United States. One reason for the rise of fundamentalism has been a reaction against modernization and secularization. Around the world, those who adhere to fundamentalism—whether they are Muslims, Christians, or followers of one of the other world religions—believe that sacred traditions must be revitalized. For example, public education in the United States has been the focus of some who follow the tenets of Christian fundamentalism. Various religious and political leaders vow to bring the Christian religion "back" into the public life of this country. They have been especially critical of educators who teach what they perceive to be secular humanism—the belief that human beings can become better through their own efforts rather than through belief in God and a religious conversion.

There is also cause for concern because many jobs that are being created do not provide sufficient income for people to pay for fundamentals such as housing, utilities, food, health care, and transportation (Rich, 2011). In recent years, workers who have only a high school diploma have fared badly in the job market because of the recession and the slow recovery of the U.S. economy. By contrast, college-educated professionals have fared somewhat better, but even many who were best off saw their income and wealth diminish at least slightly.

Many people who lost their jobs during the Great Recession that started in 2007 have not fully recovered. Among workers age 55 and older, only 15 percent were reemployed between 2009 and 2011. Among workers 18-34, that percentage rose to 41 percent, but among workers 35-54, only 32 percent were able to find new employment. For those workers who did find another job after the recession, about 48 percent took a position that was "a step down" from their previous job. Likewise, 54 percent took lower pay than they previously had earned (Van Horn, 2013).

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Mass Hysteria & Panic is a form of dispersed collective behavior that occurs when a large number of people react with strong emotions and self-destructive behavior to a real or perceived threat. Does mass hysteria actually occur? Although the term has been widely used, many sociologists believe that this behavior is best described as a panic with a dispersed audience.

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Social movements are more likely to develop in industrialized societies than in preindustrial societies, where acceptance of traditional beliefs and practices makes such movements unlikely. Diversity and a lack of consensus (hallmarks of industrialized nations) contribute to demands for social change, and people who participate in social movements typically lack the power and other resources to bring about change without engaging in collective action. Social movements are most likely to spring up when people come to see their personal troubles as public issues that cannot be solved without a collective response. Although the government is most frequently the target of social movement activity, other organizations—such as schools, corporations, or financial institutions—are also the targets of social activism.

biosociology

blended family

Typical lower-tier positions

include janitor, waitress, messenger, sales clerk, typist, file clerk, migrant laborer, and textile worker. Large numbers of young people, people of color, recent immigrants, and white women are employed in this sector.

In the innovative sector,

increased productivity will be the watchword as corporations respond to heightened international competition. In the marginal sector, alienation will grow as temporary workers, sometimes professionals, look for avenues of upward mobility or at least a chance to make their work life more tolerable.

The unemployment rate

is the percentage of unemployed persons in the labor force actively seeking jobs. Union membership has also been shrinking over the past three decades. In 2012 only 11.3 percent of wage and salary workers were union members, compared with 20.1 percent in 1983, the first year for which the federal government compiled such data (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013d). The total number of wage and salary workers belonging to unions was 14.4 million in 2012, down from 17.7 million in 1983. Union membership is higher for public sector workers (35.9 percent) than for private sector employees (6.6 percent). More men (12.0 percent) are union members than women (10.5 percent). In 2012, among major race and ethnic groups, African American workers were more likely to be union members (13.4 percent) than workers who were white American (11.1 percent), Hispanic (9.8 percent), or Asian American (9.6 percent). The highest rate of union membership was among African American men (14.8 percent), whereas Asian American men had the lowest rate (8.9 percent).

Politics

is the social institution through which power is acquired and exercised by some people and groups. In contemporary societies the government is the primary political system. Government is the formal organization that has the legal and political authority to regulate the relationships among members of a society and between the society and those outside its borders. Some social analysts refer to the government as the state—the political entity that possesses a legitimate monopoly over the use of force within its territory to achieve its goals.

Sociology

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