Sociology Chapter 3

characteristics of culture

All people share a culture with others in their societies. Culture evolves over time and is adaptive. The creation of culture is ongoing and cumulative. The transmission of culture is the feature that most separates humans from other animals.

folkways

customs or desirable behaviors that are not strictly enforced

mores

customs or desirable behaviors that have great moral significance and are more strictly enforced --coming to school naked/underwear. --stealing vs killing someone. Depending on what you steal --scratching someone's car and not saying anything instead of being a complete psychopath and running them over

culture shock

feelings of confusion and disorientation that occur when a person encounters a very different culture

emerging economies

formerly impoverished countries that over the past two or three decades have begun to develop a strong industrial base, like India or Singapore. -East Asian economies are investing abroad and at home. They affect the US. Called, "rise of the rest" -Industrialization doesn't indicate happiness-in China the life satisfaction index went down.

symbols

one item used to stand for or represent another- as in the case of a flag, which symbolizes a nation. Expressed in speech and writing- they are the chief ways in which cultural meanings are formed and expressed. Not the only ways. Material objects and aspects of behavior can generate meanings.

folk culture

opposite of high culture- it is art, dance, and music of working class and minority group members Subway art, break dancing, customized vehicles, spray paint art

high culture

tastes and creations supported and used by upper class and intelligentsia Requires elaborate training, technical proficiency and considerable resources Aesthetic gatekeepers- critics, reviewers

assimilation

the acceptance of a minority group by a majority population in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture. Different cultures are absorbed into a mainstream one. People in the US maintain similar views but like to keep cultural distinctions.

hegemony

the dominant cultural form in a society (hegemonic culture)

cognitive models

" are mental frameworks or blueprints that people share Example: Suppose you were chosen to set up a new school on a new island... How would you design it? How many grades? What subjects? How big would classes be? When would the school year be?

hunting gathering

-10-50K years ago -50-150 people -stone, wood technology -economy: subsistence; several week surplus -nomadic settlement -family or kin bands. little inequality because necessary material goods were limited, so there was little difference in material classes -differences came from age and gender -moved around, so they couldn't take much with them -no interest in wealth- main concern was with religion and rituals -cultures show that our institutions are far from natural features of human life. modernization doesn't mean progress -ex: mbuti of central africa

industrial

-18th-20th centuries -millions or billions -machine power, electric, petroleum, nuclear power -industrial, mass production and market economy -mostly urban life -distinct institutions; growth of state power -Ex: brazil; eastern europe

agrarian (later agricultural)

-5,000 years ago until 1750AD -millions of people. reliable food supply could support many people. people could gather more material possessions bc they weren't on the move -this is where civilizations where there is inequality of wealth and power come from. Based on settled agriculture and development of cities. -tech: animal drawn play, irrigation, and animals -economy: agriculture market exchange surplus -settlement: cities and empires; large rural populations -complex division of labor; complex economic, military and religious institutions; social inequality. subsistence comes from sowing crops. -ex: ancient egypt, feudal Europe, Rural China

pastoral (early agricultural)

-5K-10K years ago -150-10,000 people -tech: domesticated animals -economy: surpluses allowed (some elite) individuals to leave the land and trade -nomadic and seminomadic. subsistence comes from rearing of domesticated animals. -chiefdoms and marked inequality -ex: masai of kenya

horticultural

-5k-10k years ago -150-3000 people -sickle, hoe technology -economy: horticulture, several month surplus -semi-permanent settlement -social orgs: chiefdoms, specialized religious military roles ex: yanomano of brazil

speech and writing

-All societies have speech. -Writing: began as a way to store information and is linked to administrative needs of early civilizations. Major transition in human history- began as just pictures. If a societies has writing, they can locate themselves in space and time. -Texts can endure for a long time and can pass directly into our hands from past ages, but the effect of speech is limited to the contexts in which they are uttered and can only be passed through generations by word of mouth.

conflict theory (marxism) and culture

-Argues that power & culture are intertwined Marx: Ideas of a society are the ideas of the ruling class -Global level: Western economic domination is accompanied by cultural domination -Often called "Cultural Imperialism" -Westerners can effectively spread their culture via colonialism (and later via media, advertising) -Some argue that this helps maintain economic dominance -Non-Western people may reject their own culture, prefer to wear Western clothes, listen to Brittany Spears, and eat at McDonalds.

strip clubs vs burlesque

-Bourdieu's theory of distinction and taste looks at the intersection of culture and economics --Those in higher classes want to be seen as "respectable" and having "good taste" --Events like burlesque shows provide this distinction, while a local seedy strip club may not

culture and physical development of humans

-Culture allowed humans to compensate for physical limitations. Didn't have to depend on instinctual responses to the environment that other species had. Complex brain allowed for adaptive learning. -But, early humans could not modify their surroundings significantly. Cultures varied due to geographic and climatic conditions. Human inventiveness gave the rich tapestry of cultures around the world.

ways people were trying to explain the changes taking place in the IR

-Durkheim: organic solidarity (functional interdependence ties everyone together) -Marx: conflict theory (social class hampers technological potential) -Weber: rational-legal society- highly efficient form of social org that was also destructive of human freedom and potential

values/norms (ideas-what's good)

-Ideas about what is good or right or how things "should" be --Ex: Bush on Iraq 2003: "our mission to promote liberty around the world"; promotion of "democracy" --Ex: "Reports of eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and other eating disorders recently have increased in both Western and non-Western regions" (Edquist 2004) -Robin Williams (1970) made list of US culture --Individualism and Freedom, Equality, Achievement, Efficiency and Practicality, Progress and Technology, Material Comfort and Consumerism, Work and Leisure

cultural conformity

-Many americans share the same values (individualism) and these are rooted in norms because people are expected to work hard to get ahead. Cultures serve as a form of conformity because we learn from each other (our values, language, etc). You might think you're nonconformist, but you're still conforming -Way cultures instill conformity: 1. you learn norms in childhood, with parents playing a role. We learn what is "normal" 2. social control: comes into play when a person fails to conform and a person is informally rebuked. Can also be formal- like parking tickets. Durkheim: punishment guarantees conformity and reminds people what the norms are. -different cultures have different values of conformity. China, no. US, yes. Globalization is exposing Chinese people to individualistic Western values.

products, images, forms (materials)

-Most commonly thought of first when thinking about what is "culture" -Movies, technology, pictures, clothing, art, "fashion" -Architecture

definitions/assumptions (ideas-what's true)

-Shared beliefs, tradition, worldview, way of life -What exists --Ex: children -What existents can do --Ex: children cannot decide for themselves -How existents interrelate --Ex: children can hit each other; adults can hit children --Ex: the life course—you cannot "retire" in your 20s --Ex: statutory rape laws -we have defs about what exists. As you'll read, in ch 4, it talks about how this notion of childhood and how we even talk about and define the world "children" has changed over time. If we say children exist, we have to have a reason for that. -used to have an idea that 10 year old people should not be allowed to work. Defined childhood. We're done the same with sexuality. Statutory rape laws. "Children" haven't always been in existence. They weren't always treated as children the way they are today. -Our definition of what exists changes over time and is cultural -in a world where 7 year olds can run around with AK 47, they're deciding for themselves. We have an idea that maybe 7 year olds shouldn't be. Children cannot decide for themselves because their brains aren't developed. -how existents interrelate. Adults can hit kids, but this is changing.

structural functionalism and culture

-Structural-functional theories look for the functions or purposes behind the actions and practices of a culture. -Shared norms, values, and beliefs serve the function of holding a society or a subculture together -However, sometimes shared norms, values, and beliefs are dysfunctional for individuals or groups of individuals within a society.

symbolic interactionism and culture

-Symbolic interaction theory considers how we learn to share meanings of symbols. -Symbols are the basic element of all cultures. -We learn meanings of symbols through interaction with others. -We define how we should act through our definition of situations and symbols. -These interactions become our social construction of reality (the process by which individuals and groups shape reality through social interaction).

advertising

-TV creates influence of popular culture -advertising is a major agent of socialization Right question: what impact does advertising have on culture? Advertising is where values of a culture are expressed. Stories of advertising dominate cultural field. Main storyteller of our society. The question is not whether or not it sells, but what are the consistent stories about what is good/bad? -see advertising as a cultural thing. To not be influenced by advertising is to not be a part of a culture. -Advertising tells us that the way to happiness is through consumption -Importance of stories: we understand our world via stories. We relate stories we hear to ones we already know.

subculture

-Values and norms distinct from those of the majority, held by a group within a wider society --Compatible with mainstream/dominant culture --a social unit smaller than a nation but large enough to sustain people throughout the life span --Ex: Music fans form subcultures—Phishheads, Deadheads Others are there because they have been excluded from conventional society (prison inmates)

globalization and world culture

-We are familiar with the idea that European/Western forms of consumption have spread around the globe -Issue: Perhaps other kinds of culture and ideas are spreading around the globe: Ideas about: How to set up governments How to organize the economy How to organize school systems How to protect the environment How to raise children That could be "culture", too... -today's world culture is a modern world culture

counterculture

-a group with expectations and values that contrast sharply with the dominant values of a particular society --In opposition to mainstream/dominant culture --Terrorist groups operate counter cultures within their countries --Typically thrive among the young who have least investment in the existing culture -Ex: Radical environmentalists -Ex: Goths, Emo—previously a counterculture, may now be more subculture due to mainstreaming -Ex: antigovernment "Patriot" groups found in the United States

aesthetics

-a set of principles that define what is beautiful and/or artistic --Related to "taste" (Re: Bourdieu and class distinction) --Subjective --Social Factors

how does culture affect us?

-by providing norms -by providing scripts -by providing cognitive models

linguistic relativity hypothesis

-by sapir and whorf. A hypothesis based on their theories that perceptions are relative to language. -Languages influence the perceptions of the world. -We are more likely to be aware of things if we have words for them. -Ex: skiers have a different perception of the world because they have different names for kinds of ice

cultural relativism

-evaluate other culture by their own standards, not ours --Relativist fallacy- guard against viewing all cultural practices as being equally valid and worthy of respect (female genital mutilation) -pros: we can better understand a -cons: it's hard to see things from a completely different point of view. Are all practices legitimate, even brutal ones? Are there universal standards people should adhere to? -Clitoridectomies are controversial bc they are illegal in some places but some people say it's a violation of cultural rights to outlaw them

instincts

-fixed patterns of behavior that have genetic origins and that appear in all normal animals within a given species. Biologically fixed patterns of action found in all cultures. -Sociologists recognize that all known human cultures have some common characteristics. But, there's variety in how these common characteristics play out. It's not a biological disposition that makes American males feel attracted to a particular type of woman, but cultural exposure.

two categories of norms

-folkways -mores (taboos)

Bourdieu, "Distinction"

-he argued that people in different classes engage in cultural activity for the purpose of distinguishing their class taste from another class taste

global south

-majority underwent colonial rule in South Asia, Africa, and South America. Some got independent early, like Haiti, South America, Brazil. Most only became independent after WW2 (India, Malaysia) -some countries weren't under colonial rule, but felt the burn (China and European trade agreements who took over Hong Kong). -They are unlike earlier forms of traditional society. They are nation-states, have rapid urban progress happening, put crops on the world market, all created by Western industrialism. -Lots of poverty in the global south. About 1/3 of the world's poor and 2/3 of hungry people live in the GS. Not as bad in China. Central and south America also have problems. Gains in reducing global poverty and hunger have resulted from economic growth in China and East Asia. -Poverty tends to be worse in rural areas due to malnutrition, housing, lack of education. Women have it worse than men. -connections btwn poverty in the US and global poverty: almost half of poor ppl in the US emigrated from poor countries. True of descendants of black slaves and ppl from latin America.

society

-not the same as culture -Group of people living in a given territory governed by a common political authority and guided by a common culture. Distinct identity from other groups -Culture makes this possible -system of interrelationships that connects individuals. These bonds can be informal or not. -they are relatively enduring over time. Requires some degree of common culture a set of shared values and norms to guide behavior. No society could exist without culture. No culture could exist without society.

locations of culture

-products, images, forms (materials) -values/norms (ideas-what's good) -definitions/assumptions (ideas-what's true)

norms

-rules of behavior shared by members of a society and rooted in the value system. -indicate proper behavior in a given situation -You could come to class wearing scuba gear... but norms discourage it. -In fact, we rarely consider actions that are against these -All human groups follow definite norms, which are always backed by sanctions of one kind or another, varying from informal disapproval to physical punishment --cultural conflicts occur when norms perceived as culturally incompatible collide. Ex: banning headscarves in Christian schools. Muslim women clash with prevailing beliefs that emphasize the separation of church and state, or the belief that a headscarf symbolizes a women's subservience to male-generated beliefs and thus threatens women's rights. -norms, like the values they reflect, can change over time. Ex: smoking

industrialized societies

-strongly developed nation-states in which the majority of the pop works in factories or offices rather than in agriculture. -Most ppl live in urban areas. Tech innovation was rapid because discoveries in one field led to innovations in others. -differ from traditional civs: most people work in buildings, not land and live in towns/cities. Largest cities are way bigger than urban settlements of traditional civs. Modern life is more impersonal socially and businesses and the gov dominate the lives of everyone. Modern societies have more developed government. Transportation became easier, promoting a more integrated "national" community.

popular culture

-tastes and creations that apply to the masses -Many say it favors vulgarity, common place and the lowest denominator. -Video clip from "Advertising and the End of the World" -Advertising is one of the main storytellers in our culture

ethnocentrism

-tendency to evaluate the customs of other groups according to one's own cultural standards --Related: Eurocentrism, Afrocentrism -Pro—enhances group stability by providing members with roots and a strong sense of meaning and purpose -Con—viewing ones values and customs as natural and right and those of the other as inferior and wrong leads to prejudice, discrimination, conflict exploitation and ethnic cleansing -remove your cultural blinders. you can only study a culture in terms of its own meanings and values

material culture

-the physical objects that a society creates that influence the ways in which people live. Include consumer goods (clothes, houses), tools and tech to make the goods, and towns and cities that serve as places for people to live and work. Central aspect of this is technology. -this is rapidly becoming globalized, largely via modern information tech. US was the forefront of this revolution, but most other countries are catching up. Examples of globalization of material culture: technology is not exclusively American- the iPod embodies technology developed in Japan, the US, and Europe. Another ex: classrooms and department stores across the world are increasingly resembling one another. There's no a McDonalds on nearly every continent.

industrialization

-the process of the machine production of goods. Emergence of machine production based on the use of inanimate power. Destroyed premodern societies up to 2 centuries ago. -originated in 18th century Britain as a result of the Industrial Rev. Changed lives by inventing new machines (spinning jenny), harnessing power resources (water/steam), & use of science to improve production methods.

semiotics

-the study of the ways in which nonlinguistic phenomena can generate meaning- as in the example of a traffic light. The analysis of nonverbal cultural meanings-opens up a fascinating fields for sociology bc it allows us to contrast the ways in which different cultures are structured. -buildings usually have symbolic character. Temples might sit in the middle of a city. -we need to study both the practical and symbolic aspects of material culture to understand it

modern world culture

1. Rationalized (disenchanted) -interconnected, predictable, purposive --We create causal, contrived explanations for reality in order to function --We believe this is an explicable world—one that can be explained -natural and social worlds organized in means-ends chains -oriented on progress, not tradition 2. Individualized Actorhood -Action capacities located in human beings instead of divine beings -Humans conceived in terms of individual, not corporate, bodies --Individuals separate from families -Aka personhood 3. Universalized Constitutive features of reality and rules by which they operate are the same everywhere Human individuals are the same everywhere (and thus fundamentally equal)

two main universal cultural characteristics

1. ways of expressing communication. Language is the primary vehicle of meaning and communication. 2. material means of production. Material culture itself carries meanings.

postindustrial

20th-21st century -millions of billions of people -computer information, photonics, robotics, biogenetics -global information service economy -megalopolises -growth of scientific and technical institutions -Ex: US, Canada, Japan

culture

Typically used to describe the "whole of human experience" Definition (text): the way of life shared by a group of people—the knowledge, beliefs, values, rules or laws, language, customs, symbols, and material artifacts within a society that help meet human needs. The location of * is diverse...i.e. there are many types and forms of what may be considered "*" -the values, norms, and material culture characteristic of a given group. Like the concept of society, the notion of culture is widely used in sociology and the other social sciences (particularly anthropology). Culture is one of the most distinctive properties of human social association. Consists of the values the members of a group hold, the norms they follow, the material goods they create, and the languages and symbols they use to construct their understanding of the world, including both speech and writing -some elements of culture are components of all social relations- especially people's beliefs and expectations about one another and about the world their inhabit -therefore, culture refers to the ways of life of individual members or groups within a society: how they dress, their marriage customs, and family life, their patterns of work, their religious ceremonies, and their leisure pursuits. -the concept also covers the goods they create -culture is like a "design for living" or "tool kit" of practices acquired through learning that enable people to live in a society. Without culture, we would have no language in which to express ourselves and no sense of self-consciousness; our ability to think or reason would be severely limited.

multiculturalism

a condition in which ethnic groups exist separately and share equally in economic and political life Instead of everyone changing to be like mainstream culture (i.e. the "melting pot"), groups retain initial culture (i.e. the "salad bowl"). In the first, initial/original cultural markers are no longer seen/practiced/obvious. In the second (multiculturalism), initial/original cultural markers are retained. Issue: there is still no recognition of hierarchical disadvantage—based on idea of political equality or egalitarianism, where everyone is treated the same NOT equity/justice where power differentials would come into play

marriage

a socially approved sexual relationships between two individuals. This almost always involves two person of opposite sexes, but in some cultures, homosexual types are tolerated. This normally forms the basis of a family of procreation- that is, it is expected that the married couple will produce and bring up children. Some societies permit polygamy.

values

abstract ideas held by individuals or groups about what is desirable, proper, good, and bad. What individuals value is strongly influenced by the specific culture in which they happen to live. Ex: monogamy, individualism, collectivism. China vs America -conflict may even occur within the same society

sociobiology

an approach that attempts to explain the behavior of both human beings in terms of biological principles. Refers to the application of biological principles to explain the social activities of animals, including human beings. -Edward Wilson: genes influence physical traits AND behavior. Human courtship and sexual behavior is similar to that of animal. Genetic factors might explain why men hold higher positions than women. -Reproductive strategy: a pattern of behavior developed through evolutionary selection that favors the chances of survival and of offspring. Women have to put more into reproduction, so they won't squander sexual relations and aren't driven to have a lot of sex, but men are, which is a sound strategy in preserving species. Accounts for differences in sexual behavior and attitudes between men and women. -sociobiologists don't say that genes determine 100% of behavior. They get ripped for claiming that a propensity for certain behaviors, like violence, are somehow genetically programmed.

signifier

any vehicle of meaning and communication. Ex: the sounds made in a speech, marks on a paper for writing, dress, architecture, modes of eating. Clothes can signify differences between the sexes.

nature vs nurture debate

are we shaped by our biology, or are we products of learning from life's experiences (nurture)? Biologists and psychologists stress nature, but sociologists stress nurture. Bc humans can make conscious choices, neither biology nor culture fully determines behavior.

sanctions

behaviors that reinforce norms through rewards and penalties -formal and informal

globalization

is the process where the entire globe is becoming a "single sociocultural place." Globalization has emerged through modernization, the domination of a "Western" worldview, and Western control over resources. Westernization, Disneyization, McDonaldization

global north

most of the industrialized world. not necessarily culturally superior

laws

norms that have been formally encoded by those holding political power in society

nation states

particular types of states, characteristic of the modern world, in which governments have sovereign power within defined territorial areas, and populations are citizens who know themselves to be part of single nations. Nation-states are closely associated with the rise of nationalism, although nationalist loyalties do not always conform to the boundaries of specific states. Developed as part of an emerging nation-state system, originating in Europe; in current times, they span the whole globe. -have delimited borders and shared culture, instead of vague frontier areas. Govs have a lot of power over citizens' lives.

formal sanctions

rewards or punishments conferred by recognized officials.

nationalism

set of beliefs and symbols expressing identification with a national community. Sense of identification with one's people expressed though a common set of strongly held beliefs. Can lead to genocide. It's possible a bad reaction could happen to globalization. -When you celebrate traditional holidays w ur fam, you're sustaining your culture. The very technologies that promote globalization can aid with sustaining cultures.

cultural turn

sociology's recent emphasis on the importance of understanding the role of culture in daily life. Has caused us to challenge the assumption that culture rigidly determines our values and behaviors. -Ann Swidler: culture is a tool kit you can select things from. Tool kit can be large and varied because people participate in many different cultures -"scripts"- we can draw and improvise on to shape our beliefs, values, and actions. We take scripts we are familiar with that are appropriate for a set of circumstances to follow them and recall events after they have occurred. Ex: running away from a strange man and then remembering him as tall and dark -after the cultural turn, sociologists are trying to understand cultural scripts. What influenced their choice? They will also consider alternative scripts someone might have taken. -These cultural scripts show that there's not a single reality to social encounters and many cultural scripts can play out in a single situation.

scripts

taken-for-granted "recipes" for behavior that we share and understand Example: If you are interested in courting someone, you ask them on a date You do not show up at their house with a dowry gift and ask their father's permission to marry People in a common culture generally follow similar ones.

language

the primary vehicle of meaning and communication in a society, language is a system of symbols that represent objects and abstract thoughts. Demonstrates the unity and diversity of human culture, because there are no cultures without a language, but there are thousands of languages across the world. Most major languages have no words in common at all. -language is involved in virtually all our activities. It is the means by which we organize most of what we do. It allows us to extend the scope of our thought and experience. Using language, we can convey info about events remote in time or space and can discuss things we have never seen. Abstract. -languages are symbols, representations of reality. They may signify things we imagine or they may represent things initially experienced through our senses -human behavior is oriented toward the symbols we use to represent reality, rather than reality itself. These symbols are determined within a particular culture. -Ex: you see a 4 footed furry animal- what cultural symbol do you attach to it? If you determine it's dog, what cultural meaning does it convey? -diversity of cultural meanings attached to the word dog thus requires an act of interpretation. Human beings are freed from being directly tied to the physical world. --language gives permanence to a culture and identity to a people. It outlives it speakers/writers, which gives historical and cultural continuity. People will try to restrict languages that are expanding or ones that are

colonialism

the process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories. Shaped social map bc in places with only pastoral communities, Europeans became the majority population. -settler colonialism: takes the form of large-scale European settlement -in some places, the local pops remained in majority but were managed by a home country -societies created via settler colonialism became more industrialized than those with large native populations because mother countries took the money. Nowadays, some have booming economies. -No way to describe degrees of industrialization. Developed vs not developed has an air of cultural judgement. Global north and global south are used bc most of the industrialized world is in the north. Neither of those terms are culturally preferable. Shows sensitivity and importance of language.

taboos

the strongest form of mores; actions considered unthinkable or unspeakable in a culture ---abuse ---cannibalism ---pedophilia ---bestiality ---incest, necrophilia ---tattoos and piercings in the past

informal sanctions

unofficial rewards or punishments such as smiles, frowns, or ignoring unacceptable behaviors.

subcultures

values & norms distinct from those of the majority, held by a group within a wider society. Industrialized societies may have these, making them culturally diverse. Happens as a result of slavery, colonialism, war, and migration. Can imply different backgrounds and different cultural patterns (goths) -shows us culture can perpetuate norms and reject them

cultural universals

values or modes of behavior shared by all human cultures; common features of human behavior found in virtually all societies -Grammatically complex language -Family systems and marriage -Incest prohibition -Art, dancing, and body adornments -Games, gift giving, and joking -Rules of hygiene

cultural imperialism

western economic domination carries with it cultural stories we have in the west related to the ideals that we have. The adoption of these ways of being to the point where non western people reject their own cultures is CI. Seen as problematic in the Conflict Theory eyes