Sociology Chapter 7
apartheid
"apartness" the system of segregation of racial and ethnic groups that was legal in South Africa between 1948 and 1991 used to create great disparity among those in the different strata of society
the five categories of the caste system
1. Brahman (scholars and priests) 2. Ksatriya or Chhetri (rulers and warriors) 3. Vaisya (merchants and traders) 4. Sudra (farmers, artisans, and laborers) 5. the untouchables (social outcasts)
the two directions of intragenerational mobility
1. Horizontal social mobility 2. vertical social mobility
the three types of movement people among social classes
1. intergenerational mobility 2. intragenerational mobility 3. structural mobility
Four basic principles of social stratification
1. it is a characteristic of a society, rather than a reflection of individual differences (Japan men rank higher in the social hierarchy than women however a woman still can attain a higher status than a man) 2. it persists over generations (wealthy families remain wealthy through generations) 3. different societies use different criteria to rank the members of their society (industrialized nation societies-material wealth, hunter-gatherer societies-gender) 4. it is maintained through beliefs that are widely shared by members of society (In the United States, it is still common to think that people are poor because of existing class structure but also because they have somehow failed to "pull themselves up by their bootstraps")
racismo cordial
Brazilian term for polite racism (intermarriage may have eliminated clearly defined racial groups, but skin color still largely defines an individual's place in society, with light-skinned Brazilians enjoying privileges of wealth and power denied to their dark-skinned counterparts)
public housing projects
Residential segregation is accomplished most notably through what?
Structural Functionalism
Social inequality is a necessary part of society. Different reward structures are necessary as an incentive for the best qualified people to occupy the most important positions. Even poverty has functions that help maintain social order
wealth gap
The unequal distribution of assets across a population
1. debt: a person couldn't' repay what he owed might be taken into slavery by his creditor 2. warfare: groups of vanquished soldiers might become slaves to the victors, and the women and children of the losing side could also be taken into slavery 3. Criminal: a person who was caught committing a crime could become a slave as a kind of punishment and as a means of compensating the victim 4. Some people were captured of kidnapped
in what ways, historically, could a person become enslaved?
working class/lower-middle class
social class consisting of mostly blue collar or service industry workers who are less likely to have a college degree; they constitute about 30 percent of the U.S. population
upper-middle class
social class consisting of mostly highly educated professionals and managers who have considerable financial stability; they constitute about 14 percent of the U.S. population
postmodernism theory
social class is passed down from one generation to the next through cultural capital
conflict theory
social inequality creates intergroup conflict-poor and rich groups have different interests and may find themselves at odds as they attempt to secure and protect these interests
Symbolic Interactionism
social inequality is part of our presentation of self. we develop everyday class consciousness as a way to distinguish the status of others
slavery
social stratification based on the legal ownership of people
Social Stratification
the division of society into groups arranged in a social hierarchy members of a given society are categorized and divided into groups, which are then placed in a social hierarchy
residential segregation
the geographical separation of the poor from the rest of an area's population "wrong side of the tracks"
false consciousness
the inability to see the ways in which we may be oppressed (if we can credit anyone who does succeed, then logically we must also blame anyone who fails)
synbolic interactionism
we judge people's social class constantly during everyday interactions
India
what country is most closely associated with the caste system?
South Africa
what country remains on of the most unequal distributions of income in the world
functionalism
what emphasizes social order and solidarity based on commonly shared values about what is good and worthwhile?
social stratification
what is all about power?
status inequality
what is structured, categorical, and external; it is also internationally created and sustained
Slavery
what is the most extreme form of social stratification?
Paul Fussell
who created the "living room scale" which lists items that we may find in someone's living room and attaches point values to them (if you have a copy of the New York Review of Books on your coffee table, add five points or if you have a copy of Popular Mechanics, subtract five)
Marx
who developed false consciousness?
President John F. Kennedy President Lyndon B. Johnson
who developed programs like Medicaid and Head Start to solve a variety of social and economic problems and who instituted them?
President Franklin D. Roosevelt
who developed the New Deal to serve as a safety net for citizens, helping them in times of adversity or old age, poverty, or joblessness
President Bill Clinton
who developed the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act so encourage people on welfare to take responsibility for working themselves out of poverty
Karl Marx
who developed the conflict theory?
Melvin Lerner
who developed the just-world hypothesis?
Oscar Lewis
who developed the term culture of poverty?
blue collar
a description characterizing skilled and semi-skilled workers who perform manual labor or work in service or clerical jobs
marcosociologists
who believe that there is little an individual can so to change systems of inequality
the way social structure shapes and sustains inequality
What metaphor was created by Erik Olin Wright that describes an animated film in which the pawns on a chessboard attempt to overthrow the aristocracy (kings, queens, knights, and bishops) but realize that the "rules of the game" doom them to realize the same unequal roles
Sweden
Which country has a system of stratification based on minimizing economic inequality with government support programs for all
Michelle Alexander
Who developed the New Jim Crow and argues that there is a similar caste system in the United States but that it operates through the criminal justice system it is no longer legal or acceptable to discriminate against people based on race, we still allow discrimination based on criminal convictions Since black men are disproportionately represented in the prison population, they are also disproportionately affected by felon disenfranchisement and the lifelong stigmatization associated with the identity of ex-con
ideology
a belief system that explains and justifies some sort of social arrangement (The American Dream: everyone has the same chance to get ahead and that success of failure depends on the person)
Intersectionality
a concept that identifies how different categories of inequality (race, class, gender, etc.) intersect to shape the lives of individuals and groups acknowledges that multiple dimensions of status and inequality intersect to shape who we are and how we live (our life chances are influenced by our class and our race and our gender and our religion and our age all together, not at one time)
white collar
a description characterizing lower-level professional and management workers and some highly skilled laborers in technical jobs
Caste System
a form of social stratification in which status is determined by one's family history and background and cannot be changed it creates a highly stratified society where there is little or no chance of a person changing her position within the hierarchy, no matter what she may achieve individually
simplicity movement
a loosely knit movement that opposes consumerism and encourages people to work less, earn less, and spend less, in accordance with nonmaterialistic values (grow your own vegetables, riding your bike to work, wearing secondhand clothes, and spending more time with friends and family and less time commuting, shopping, or watching TV)
socioeconomic status
a measure of an individual's place within a social class system; often used interchangeably with "class"
wealth
a measure of net worth that includes income, property, and other assets
freegans
a person who eats no animal products one example in the simplicity movement people who avoid consumerism and who engage in strategies to support themselves without participating in a conventional economic system sometimes means scavenging for usable food, clothing, and other goods, sometimes called "urban foraging: or "dumpster diving" along with sharing housing and transportation with others in order to work less and minimize their impact on the planet
relative deprivation
a relative measure of poverty based on the standard of living in a particular society
status inconsistency
a situation in which an individual holds differing levels of status in terms of wealth, power, prestige or other elements of socioeconomic status (Sam Walton, founder of Walmart. farm boy and state college graduate, obtained a huge fortune, yet still stuck to his rural roots)
open system
a social system with ample opportunities to move from one class to another (the United States)
closed system
a social system with very little opportunity to move from one class to another (India)
meritocracy
a system in which rewards are distributed based on merit (talent or effort)
feudal system
a system of social stratification based on a hereditary nobility who were responsible for and served by a lower stratum of forced laborers called serfs (forced laborers)
social class
a system of stratification based on access to such resources as wealth, property, power, and prestige (although children tend to "inherit" the social class of their parents, during the course of a lifetime they can move up or down levels in the strata) It is not based on race, ethnicity, gender, or age
wealth, power, and prestige
according to Max Weber, what three things are interrelated because they often come together?
Karma
according to this belief, membership in a particular caste is seen as well deserved reward or punishment for virtuous or sinful behavior in a past life. caste is then considered a spiritual rather than material status
upper class
an elite and largely self-sustaining group who possess most of the country's wealth; they constitute about 1 percent of the U.S. population
absolute deprivation
an objective measure of poverty, defined by the inability to meet minimal standards for food, shelter, clothing, or health care
just-world hypothesis
argues that people have a deep need to see the world as orderly, predictable, and fair, which creates a tendency to view victims of social injustice as deserving of their fates
everyday class consciousness
awareness of one's own social status and that of others
"redlining"
banks and mortgage lenders identify high-risk areas (unusually low-income or minority neighborhoods) and either refuse mortgage to applicants from those neighborhoods or offer loans at prohibitively high rates. keeps low-income people from acquiring assets (such as real estate) that might allow them to rise out of poverty and move to a more affluent neighborhood
interactionists
believe that all social structures-including systems of inequality-are constructed from the building blocks of everyday interaction
structural mobility
changes in the social status of large numbers of people as a result of structural changes in society when large numbers of people move up or down the social ladder because of these changes in society as a whole, particularly when the economy is affected by large-scale events
Culture of Poverty
entrenched attitudes that can develop among poor communities and lead the poor to accept their fate rather than attempt to improve their lot tends to blame the victims of poverty for their own misfortunes while overlooking the force of their social conditions
federal poverty line
federal index that defines "official" poverty in the Unites States based on household income; updated annually
hypogamy
marrying "down" in the social class hierarchy
hypergamy
marrying "up" in the social class hierarchy
1. B 2. E 3. C 4. A 5. F 6. D
match these social classes with their characteristics Classes : 1. upper class 2. upper-middle class 3. middle class 4. working (lower-middle) class 5. working poor 6. underclass Characteristics: A. semiskilled labor, service, manual, and clerical jobs B. investors, heirs, executives, media/sports personalities C. semi-professionals, lower-level managers, white collar and highly skilled blue collar jobs D. seldom employed or unemployed, part-time labor, many rely on public or private assistance E. professionals and managers F. low and unskilled worker, lower-paid manual and service jobs, seasonal work
intergenerational mobility
movement between social classes that occurs from one generation to the next (when a child eventually moves into a different social class from that of her parents)
minimum wage
pay sufficient for basic survival
oligarchy
political rule by a small group of people, usually members of a wealthy or otherwise dominant class as the wealth of the very rich grows, it translates into more austerity, less purchasing power, and more insecurity (in employment, housing, health, and environment) for the rest of the population
working poor
poorly educated manual and service workers who may work full-time but remain near or below the poverty line; they constitute about 13 percent of the U.S. population
middle class
social class composed primarily of white collar workers with a broad range of education and incomes; they constitute about 30 percent of the U.S. population
inequality
stratification systems all result in patterns of what?
karma
the complex moral law of cause and effect that governs the universe
living wage
the minimum income necessary for a decent standard of living
vertical social mobility
the movement between different class statuses, often called either upward mobility or downward mobility movement up or down the social ladder (the therapist marries a president of a large corporation, he might experience upward mobility. however, if he or his wife becomes unemployed, he might experience downward mobility)
intragenerational mobility
the movement between social classes that occurs during the course of an individual's lifetime (the social class a person is born into and the social class status she achieves during her lifetime)
horizontal social mobility
the movement of individuals or groups within a particular social class, most often a result of changing occupations (a therapist who shifts careers so that he can teach college)
social mobility
the movement of individuals or groups within the hierarchical system of social classes
underclass
the poorest group, comprising the homeless and chronically unemployed who may depend on public or private assistance; they constitute about 12 percent of the U.S. population
Disenfranchisement
the removal of the rights of citizenship through economic, political, or legal means is a correlate of poverty: he impoverished are less likely to vote or otherwise participate in political life
Prestige
the social honor people are given because of their membership in well-regarded social groups (physicians are near the top and janitors are near the bottom)
cultural capital
the tastes, habits, expectations, skills, knowledge, and other cultural assets that help us gain advantages in society and also shapes the perceptions that others form about a person (having highly educated parents who can help with homework and enforce useful study habits makes it more likely a child will succeed in school)
social reproduction
the tendency of social classes to remain relatively stable as class status is passed down from one generation to the next social class is passed down from one generation to the next and thus remains relatively stable
heterogamy
the tendency to choose romantic partners who are dissimilar in terms of class, race, education, religion, and other social group membership (marrying someone who is different from us)
Homogamy
the tendency to choose romantic partners who are similar to us in terms of class, race, religion, education, or other social group membership ("like marries like")
digital divide
the unequal access to computer and Internet technology, both globally and in the united states many Americans lack basic computer literacy, experience, and access necessary access to compete in a job market that increasingly demands such skills
Social inequality
the unequal distribution of wealth, power, or prestige among members of a society Some groups will be ranked higher in the social strata (levels), while others will fall into the lower ranks The higher-level groups enjoy more access to the rewards and resources within that society, leaving lower-level groups with less
Steve Biko and Nelson Mandela
two high profile anti-apartheid leaders in South Africa that became known worldwide
Weberian Theory
which theory of social class is this? wealth, power, and prestige are interrelated , but one can also be converted into another
structural functionalism
what perspective does this case study fall under? Poverty is functional for society: the poor take otherwise undesirable jobs and housing, purchase discount and secondhand goods, and provide work for thousands, including social service caseworkers and others who work with the poor
conflict theory
what perspective does this case study fall under? Social welfare programs that assist the poor are funded by tax dollars, which some wealthy citizens may be reluctant to provide because taxes reduce their net income. this can create conflict between rick and poor groups in society
Symbolic Interactionism
what perspective does this fall under? poor and wealthy persons have differential access to the "props" used to project particular versions of self. In particular, professional clothing such as business suits can be too expensive for poor individuals to purchase, which can put them at a disadvantage in job interviews for which a professional image is necessary. Organizations like Dress for Success provide professional clothing for those who can't afford it, leveling the playing field a bit in terms of impression management
Structural Functionalism
what theory of social class is this? stratification is necessary for society to function
anomie and dense population
what two characteristics have an extremely high impact on crime rates?
1. White (English and Dutch heritage) 2. Indian (from India) 3. "colored" (mixed race) 4. black
what where the four categories of racial groups in South Africa?
working class/lower-middle class
which class are blue collar jobs found in?
India
which country believes in Karma
Iran
which country has a system of stratification based on Muslim versus non-Muslim?
Brazil
which country has a system of stratification based on skin color rather than race?
The United States
which country has social classes that are upper class, middle class, and lower class?
middle class
which social class comprises primarily white collar workers?
Dalton Conley
which sociologist argues that to solve the problem of poverty, we must examine wealth as well there are alternative explanations for why people are poor and even suggests that extreme wealth ought to be conceptualized as a social problem similar to that of extreme poverty
David Sudnow
which sociologist argues that we make split-second judgments about who people are and which social status they occupy based on appearance
Karl Marx
which sociologist focused on social inequality between the capitalists (bourgeoisie), who owned the means of production, and the workers (proletariat), who owned only their labor economic relationships were becoming the only social relationships that mattered
Max Weber
which sociologist noted that the owning the means of production was not the only way of achieving upper-class status; a person could also accumulate wealth consisting of income and property power should be considered as part of the equation when measuring a person's class standing also believed in prestige
Erving Goffman
which sociologist noted that we "read" different aspects of identity by interpreting the behavior of others and that we become accustomed to others "reading" our behavior in the same way (out clothing, speech, gestures, cars we drive, homes we live in, people we hang out with, and the things we do on vacation are all part of our presentation of self and provide information that others use to make judgments about our SES-socioeconomic status)
Pierre Bourdieu
which sociologist studied French schools to examine social reproduction which happens through cultural capital
Aaron Cicourel
which sociologist suggests that we make inferences about the status of others when we encounter them in different social situations (you may assume that the passengers sitting in the first-class cabin of an airplane are wealthier than those in coach but perhaps one of those first-class passengers in a "starving student" whose seat go upgraded because coach was overbooked-by thrifty millionaires)
Thomas Piketty
which sociologist talked about how the top 1% of the population earn an average of twenty five to thirty times what the other 99% earn "supermanagers" earning "supersalaries"
Kathryn Edin and H. Luke Shaefer
which sociologists began investigating what had happened to families and individuals affected by welfare reform (those who had "maxed out" their states' benefit caps and who were on their own, without the social safety net that social welfare programs had once provided) plasma "donations" hit an all-time high, food pantry usage doubled the poorest of our citizens are not getting by
Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore
which sociologists discuss some of the principles of stratification that result in a system of rewards that are unequally distributed among various roles? (doctors)
Christine Mallinson and Becky Childs
which sociologists studied the linguistic patterns of groups of black Appalachian women, found that the locations of group interactions tended to reinforce class divisions in the larger society: the group of women who met formally at a local church engaged in talk that reflected topics and vocabularies associated with higher SES, while the women who met informally on a friend's front porch engaged in talk that reflected topics and vocabularies associated with lower SES. The linguistic patterns in these "communities of practice" reinforce class divisions within and between groups
conflict theory
which theory of social class is this? social classes are highly stratified and continue to grow further apart
Karyn R. Lacy
who studied black middle-class suburbanites in the Washington DC region and found that the respondents' identities were shaped by their income, occupation, residential status, and race many reported being frustrated as they tried to convince others that they were among the middle class in the first place; their race obscured their class in the eyes of the whites and made it difficult for whites to see them as "belonging" in certain neighborhoods or business establishments at all
Kathryn Edin and H. Luke Shaefer
who wrote the book $2 a Day: Living on Almost Nothing in America that talked about how while welfare rolls have declined over 75% since 1996, the number of Americans living in absolute poverty has skyrocketed to approximately 1.5 million families
Andrew Sayer
who wrote the book Why we Can't Afford the Rich that is about 1. in contemporary capitalism, the super-rich usually get and stay that way as a result of "wealth extraction" rather than "wealth creation" (their money is less likely to be a result of their own inventions, ideas, or entrepreneurship; rather, they profit from what they (and their ancestors) already own: capitol gains and interest from investments, rents, and royalties from inherited properties) 2. with economic power often comes excessive and anti-democratic political influence (the tiny group of disproportionately wealthy individuals is also disproportionately powerful in other areas of civic life) 3. the super-rich are super-consumers (excessive consumption means excessive use of scarce resources such as energy, water, and raw materials such as lumber, metals, and rubber. Celebrities with multiple houses) 4. wealth depends on continued use of fossil fuels-to create and maintain it and to live the lifestyle of the "rick and famous". (Jay Leno owns 150 cars and Patrick Dempsey does 24 hour races all over the world with no destination)
precarious labor
work that is uncertain, unpredictable, and unprotected (contract labor, temporary work, or part-time work)
