SPED 391 TEST 2 CH 6

Cognitive training involves three components:

(1) changing thought processes, (2) providing strategies for learning, and (3) teaching self-initiative. It's particularly appropriate for students with learning disabilities because of its focus on problems of metacognition and motivation.

Students with learning disabilities have at least two types of memory problems:

(1) working memory (WM) and (2) retrieval of information from long-term memory (RLTM)

the term dyslexic?

. Dyslexic, too, fell short as a definitive term because it described only reading disabilities, and many of these children also had problems in other academic areas, such as math.

. Phonological awareness

. Phonological awareness is an understanding that the speech flow can be broken down into smaller units of sound such as words, syllables, onsets-rimes, and phonemes.

The definition used in the medical field is that of the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The APA definition of "specific learning disorders" includes four criteria:

1. Persistent (occurring for at least 6 months) academic problems in at least one of 6 areas: (a) inaccurate or slow and effortful reading, (b) poor reading comprehension, (c) poor spelling, (d) poor written expression, (e) poor number sense, (f) poor mathematical reasoning 2. Substantial discrepancy between actual and expected academic skill(s) based on chronological age that results in significant interference with academic, occupational, or daily living skills 3. Learning difficulties that began in school-age years but which might not become evident until task demands increase (e.g., timed test, tight deadlines, long reports) 4. Learning difficulties are not due to other disabilities, e.g., intellectual disabilities, visual or hearing impairment, English language learner, poor instruction

The National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD), composed of representatives of the major professional organizations involved with students with learning disabilities, developed an alternative definition. They deemed it necessary to present their own definition because of dissatisfaction with the following factors in the federal definition:

1. Reference to psychological processes: Many of the early pioneers in the learning disabilities field believed that the processing of visual and auditory information, or the making sense of this information (as distinct from visual and auditory acuity problems of those identified as blind or deaf), was the underlying cause of academic problems, such as reading disabilities. Furthermore, they believed that training students in visual- and auditory-processing skills in isolation from academic material would help them conquer their reading problems (Frostig & Horne, 1964; Kephart, 1971; Kirk & Kirk, 1971). Researchers ultimately determined that these perceptual and perceptual-motor exercises did not result in benefits for students' reading achievement (for reviews see Hallahan, 1975; Hallahan & Cruickshank, 1973). In reaction to the widespread adoption of unproven perceptual training programs, the NJCLD objected to the "basic psychological processes" phrase. 2. Omission of the intrinsic nature of learning disabilities: The federal definition makes no mention of causal factors, but the NJCLD considered learning disabilities to be due to central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction within the individual. 3. Omission of adults: The NJCLD responded to the growing awareness that learning disabilities are not just a disability of childhood. They are a lifelong condition. 4. Omission of self-regulation and social interaction problems: The NJCLD responded to the growing awareness that students with learning disabilities often experience difficulties in self-regulation and social interaction. 5. Inclusion of terms difficult to define: The NJCLD believed that the federal definition was confusing because of its inclusion of terms such as perceptual handicaps, dyslexia, and minimal brain dysfunction, which had been so difficult to define (Hammill, Leigh, McNutt, & Larsen, 1981). 6. Confusion about the exclusion clause: The federal definition excludes a learning problem that is primarily due to other disabling conditions, such as mental retardation (intellectual disabilities), but it's vague with respect to whether one could have both a learning disability and another disability. The NJCLD preferred to be explicit about the possibility that someone with another condition, such as intellectual disability, could also have a learning disability. 7. Inclusion of spelling: The NJCLD believed that there was no need to mention spelling because it was included in writing.

Between 1997 and 2007, the high school dropout rate was down

40%, and those graduating with a regular high school diploma was up 20% (Cortiella, 2009). And the numbers entering college are increasing.

heritability studies

A more convincing method of determining whether learning disabilities are inherited is heritability studies that compare the prevalence of learning disabilities in identical (monozygotic, from the same egg) versus fraternal (dizygotic, from two eggs) twins. Researchers have found that identical twins are more concordant than are fraternal twins for reading disabilities, speech and language disorders, and math disabilities. In other words, if an identical twin and a fraternal twin each have a learning disability, the second identical twin is more likely to have a learning disability than the second fraternal twin.

math problems?

A specific learning disability in mathematics is called dyscalculia. Authorities now recognize that math disabilities may be just as prevalent as or at least a close second to reading disabilities. The types of problems these students have include difficulties with computation of math facts as well as word problems; trouble with the latter is often due to the inefficient application of problem-solving strategies. Researchers have found that processing deficits in working memory and retrieval from long-term memory are implicated in mathematics disability

how many people in school have learning disabilities? Is it prevelant?

According to U.S. government figures, just under 5% of children between the ages of 6 and 17 years have been identified by the public schools as having learning disabilities. Learning disability is by far the largest category of special education. About half of all students identified by the public schools as needing special education have learning disabilities.

problems with transitioning and LD

Although the majority of students with learning disabilities don't drop out of school, their dropout rate of 25% is two to three times that of their peers without disabilities (Cortiella, 2009; Rojewski & Gregg, 2017). Also, many adults with learning disabilities have persistent problems in learning, socializing, holding jobs, and living independently (Scanlon, Patton, & Raskind, 2017). Even those individuals who are relatively successful in their transition to adulthood often must devote considerable energy to coping with daily living situations.

Factors Related to Successful Transition

An extraordinary degree of perseverance The ability to set goals for oneself A realistic acceptance of weaknesses coupled with an attitude of building on strengths Access to a strong network of social support from friends and family Exposure to intensive and long-term educational intervention High-quality on-the-job or postsecondary vocational training A supportive work environment Being able to take control of their lives

locus of control

Another source of problems for many people with learning disabilities is their motivation, or feelings about their abilities to deal with many of life's challenges and problems. People with learning disabilities may appear content to let events happen without attempting to control or influence them. Psychologists refer to this as an external, rather than an internal, locus of control. In other words, these individuals believe that their lives are controlled by external factors such as luck or fate rather than by internal factors such as determination or ability (Hallahan et al., 2005). People with this outlook sometimes display learned helplessness: a tendency to give up and expect the worst because they think that no matter how hard they try, they will fail.

where did the term learning disabilities come about?

At a parents' meeting in the early 1960s, Samuel Kirk (1963) proposed the term learning disabilities as a compromise because of the confusing variety of labels that were being used to describe a child with relatively normal intelligence who was having learning problems. Such a child was likely to be referred to as minimally brain injured, a slow learner, dyslexic, or perceptually disabled. The interest in learning disabilities evolved as a result of a growing awareness that a large number of children were not receiving needed educational services. Because they tested within the normal range of intelligence, these children didn't qualify for placement in classes for children with intellectual disabilities. And although many of them exhibited inappropriate behavior disturbances, some of them did not. Placement in classes for students with emotional disturbance therefore was thought to be inappropriate.

why is LD a candidate for full inclusion?

Because students with learning disabilities make up the largest category of special education students and because their academic and behavioral problems are not as severe as those of students with intellectual disabilities or behavior disorders, they are often candidates for full inclusion. However, all the major professional and parent organizations have developed position papers against placing all students with learning disabilities in full-inclusion settings. Research on the effectiveness of inclusion for students with learning disabilities also argues against using full inclusion for all students with learning disabilities (Zigmond & Kloo, 2017). Evidence indicates that the legal mandate of IDEA requiring the availability of a full continuum of placements is sound policy for students with learning disabilities.

SPED teacher in high school

Compared to elementary school, in high school the role of the special education teacher typically shifts even more to one of consultation with the general education teachers in the content areas (e.g., math, history, science). The general education teacher teaches the content, and the special education teacher recommends modifications to the format of the content and teaches the student strategies for learning. For example, the learning strategies model developed at the University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning focuses on teaching students to overcome their metacognitive deficits by using learning strategies (Deshler & Hock, 2007). The Kansas group has developed a variety of strategies that students can use to help them organize information and learn it more efficiently.

why do boys outnumber girls with LD?

Boys outnumber girls by about 3 to 1 in the LD category. Some researchers have suggested that the greater prevalence of learning disabilities among males is due to their greater biological vulnerability. The infant mortality rate for males is higher than that for females, and males are at greater risk than females for a variety of biological abnormalities. Other researchers have contended, however, that the higher prevalence of learning disabilities among males might be due to referral bias. They suggest that boys are more likely to be referred for special education when they do have academic problems because of other behaviors that bother teachers, such as hyperactivity. Research on this issue is mixed. At this point, it's probably safest to conclude that some bias does exist but that the biological vulnerability of males also plays a role. For example, the federal government's figures indicate that all disabilities are more prevalent in males, including conditions that are difficult to imagine resulting from referral or assessment bias, such as hearing impairment (53% are males), orthopedic impairment (54% are males), and visual impairment (56% are males)

Curriculum Based Measurement

CBM involves direct and frequent samples of performance on items from the curriculum in which students are being instructed. Each curriculum-based measure has multiple forms of equivalent difficulty that are administered at regular intervals to determine whether a student is making progress toward a specified goal (McMaster & Espin, 2007). Teachers implement the measures as short probes that require only minutes to administer. In reading, for example, CBM typically focuses on oral reading fluency, which is determined by calculating the number of correct words per minute (CWPM) read on a grade-level passage. To monitor progress toward a specified goal, the teacher first gathers data to determine the student's current CWPM. The teacher then uses this information to calculate a baseline data point. Using data of expected growth norms (see, for example, Hosp, Hosp, & Howell, 2007), the teacher establishes a goal for the student and creates an aim line on a graph to depict where the student should be performing at a given point in time. The teacher assesses the student's reading on a CBM probe two or more times each week and graphs the data to determine if the student is on target to reach the specified goal. For school-age students, most CBMs focus on basic operations; however, CBM may be used for computation as well as conceptual knowledge. For more information on curriculum-based measurement and progress monitoring, search for the National Center on Student Progress Monitoring.

metacognitive training

Closely linked to cognitive training, metacognitive training addresses problems with planning ahead, selecting good learning strategies, and adjusting strategies based on performance. For example, a metacognitive training package focused on students defining goals and planning and monitoring their progress has been used to improve spelling and reading performance

When textbooks are used, researchers have found that enhancing the content of science and social studies materials is very effective for students with learning disabilities

Content enhancement can take many forms. It's a way of making materials more salient or prominent. Two particularly effective ways of enhancing content are graphic organizers and mnemonics. Graphic organizers "are visual devices that employ lines, circles, and boxes to organize information: hierarchic, cause/effect, compare/contrast, and cyclic or linear sequences" (Ellis & Howard, 2007, p. 1). Mnemonics involve using pictures and/or words to help remember information. For a description of mnemonics and how it can be used in the classroom, see the accompanying Responsive Instruction feature, "Mnemonics.

Decoding

Decoding is the ability to convert the printed words to spoken words and is highly dependent on phonemic awareness. First the student must be able to break a word into its individual sounds and then blend them together to say the whole word (i.e., phonological recoding). Students who are able to decode automatically will typically develop reading fluency. Students who have difficulty decoding invariably have problems with fluency. Reading fluency refers to the ability to read effortlessly and smoothly.

Why might the number of those with LD decreased since 1970?

Even though the prevalence of students identified as having learning disabilities has doubled since the 1970s, it's significant that after peaking at 5.66% in the late 1990s, the rate has been gradually, but steadily, decreasing to its current level of just under 5%. This turnabout may be due to a conscious effort to be more conservative in identifying learning disabilities because so much concern has been raised about its seemingly endless growth. How much this decrease might be due to the emergence of RTI as a replacement of IQ-achievement discrepancy as an identification tool is not yet known.

Executive functioning (EF)

Executive functioning (EF) is an umbrella term covering cognitive processes that are necessary to control and regulate one's behavior—self-regulation.EF has been likened to the role of the conductor of an orchestra, the director of a movie, or the job of an air-traffic controller. There are both behavioral tests and questionnaires that measure EF. An example of a behavioral measure is the Tower of London Test (TLT) . The TLT, a 12-minute computerized test, requires moving three pegs (red, yellow, or blue), constrained by several difficult rules. To do well, planning, monitoring, and correcting one's moves are required. Several different questionnaires have been developed to assess a person's executive functioning (). Examples of items students typically evaluate themselves on in questionnaires are statements like: I have trouble planning ahead; I interrupt when others are talking; I make up my mind too quickly; I have problems changing course if things aren't going well; My work-space is cluttered.

family studies

Familiality studies examine the degree to which a certain condition, such as a learning disability, occurs in a single family (i.e., the tendency for it to "run in a family"). Researchers have found that about 35% to 45% of first-degree relatives (the immediate birth family— parents and siblings) of individuals with reading disabilities also have reading disabilities , and the risk for having reading disabilities goes up for children when both parents have reading disabilities (. The same degree of familiality has also been found in families of people with speech and language disorders and spelling disabilities

do those with LD have brain damage?

For years, many professionals suspected that neurological factors were a major cause of learning disabilities. When the field of learning disabilities was emerging, professionals noted that many of the children displayed behavioral characteristics (e.g., distractibility, hyperactivity, language problems, perceptual disturbances) similar to those exhibited by people who were known to have brain damage, such as those who had suffered a stroke or a head wound. In the case of most children with learning disabilities, however, little neurological evidence exists of actual damage to brain tissues. Therefore, today, the term dysfunction has replaced injury or damage. A child with learning disabilities is now often referred to as having CNS dysfunction rather than brain injury. Dysfunction does not necessarily mean tissue damage; instead, it signifies a malfunctioning of the brain or CNS.

informal reading inventory (IRI) and MDA

In addition to CBM, teachers may also use other informal measures to monitor student progress and plan for instruction. In the area of reading, for example, teachers can use an informal reading inventory (IRI), a series of reading passages or word lists graded in order of difficulty. The teacher has the student read from the series, beginning with a list or passage that is likely to be easy for the student. The student continues to read increasingly more difficult lists or passages while the teacher monitors the student's performance. After compiling the results of the IRI, the teacher can use them to estimate the appropriate difficulty level of reading material for the student. Mathematics dynamic assessment (MDA) is another example of an informal assessment that can inform instruction. Using MDA, the teacher integrates research-based assessment techniques including (1) examining mathematical understanding at concrete, semiconcrete, and abstract levels; (2) assessing mathematical interests and experiences; (3) examining error patterns; and (4) using flexible interviews (Allsopp, Kyger, & Lovin, 2008). This informal, yet comprehensive assessment process allows teachers to design effective instruction to meet the unique needs of students with learning disabilities.

Intraindividual Variation

In addition to differences among one another, children with learning disabilities also tend to exhibit variability within their own profiles of abilities. For example, a child might be 2 or 3 years above grade level in reading but 2 or 3 years behind grade level in math. Such uneven profiles account for references to specific learning disabilities in the literature on learning disabilities.

Interindividual Variation

In any group of students with learning disabilities, some will have problems in reading, some will have problems in math, some will have problems in spelling, some will be inattentive, and so on. One term for such interindividual variation is heterogeneity. Although heterogeneity is a trademark of children from all the categories of special education, the old adage "No two are exactly alike" is particularly appropriate for students with learning disabilities. This heterogeneity makes it a challenge for teachers to plan educational programs for the diverse group of children they find in their classrooms.

the NJCLD proposed the following definition:

Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span. Problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception and social interaction may exist with learning disabilities but do not by themselves constitute a learning disability. Although learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (for example, sensory impairment, mental retardation, serious emotional disturbance) or with extrinsic influences (such as cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction), they are not the result of those conditions or influences. (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 1989, p. 1)

scaffolded instruction

Like scaffolded instruction, reciprocal teaching involves an interactive dialogue between the teacher and students in which the teacher-student relationship is similar to that of an expert (teacher) and an apprentice (student). The teacher gradually relinquishes her role as the sole instructor and allows the students to assume the role of co-instructor for brief periods. The teacher models and encourages the students to use strategies.

From 1976-77, when the federal government first started keeping prevalence figures, to about 2000, the size of the learning disabilities category more than doubled. What did people think of this?

Many authorities maintain that the rapid expansion of the learning disabilities category reflects poor diagnostic practices. They believe that children are being overidentified, that teachers are too quick to label students with the slightest learning problem as having "learning disabilities" rather than entertain the possibility that their own teaching practices might be at fault.As we noted earlier, that's one of the reasons why the field has moved away from using the IQ-achievement discrepancy and toward RTI as a way of identifying students with learning disabilities. Others, however, argue that some of the increase might be due to social and cultural changes that have raised children's vulnerability to develop learning disabilities (Hallahan, 1992). For example, the number of children living in poverty has increased since the 1970s (Wright, Chau, & Aratani, 2010), and poverty is associated with higher rates of social and learning problems. Furthermore, even families who aren't in poverty are under more stress than ever before (Cohen & Janicki-Deverts, 2012), which takes its toll on both the time children have for concentrating on their schoolwork and their parents' ability to offer social support. Still others maintain that a causal relationship exists between the decrease in the numbers of students who are being identified as having intellectual disabilities (mental retardation) and the increase in the numbers of students who are being identified with learning disabilities. Evidence suggests that when faced with a student who could qualify as having an intellectual disability, school personnel often bend the rules to apply the label of "learning disability" rather than the more stigmatizing label of "intellectual disability"

accommodations for LD

Many students with learning disabilities receive accommodations on standardized tests that alter scheduling, presentation format, and response format. The most common accommodations for students with learning disabilities are extended time and small-group setting administration. Although testing accommodations are common for students with learning disabilities, particularly extended time, research is not clear on their effectiveness. For example, it's not clear whether accommodations provide an opportunity for students to demonstrate their knowledge without unfair advantage, or whether the accommodations actually boost their performance. Likewise, more research is needed to determine how to best match testing accommodations for specific students.

Metacognition

Metacognition refers to a student's ability to think about his own thinking and is critical to learning, memory, and academic achievement (Sperling, Richmond, Ramsay, & Klapp, 2012). Therefore, it's not surprising that individuals with learning disabilities often have problems with metacognition (Chevalier, Parrila, Ritchie, & Deacon, 2017). An important role of metacognition in learning is the ability to determine when you understand what is being taught or what you are reading and when you are struggling. Individuals with good metacognitive skills know when they are struggling and use "fix-up" strategies, whereas individuals with poor metacognitive skills may not even realize that they lack understanding. Think about your reading of this college textbook. There may be times that you need to reread a section because you didn't understand a concept, or you were distracted while you were reading. The ability to repair your comprehension by rereading demonstrates your skill in strategy selection and use.

Many parents as well as teachers found the label "minimal brain injury" problematic.

Minimal brain injury refers to individuals who show behavioral but not neurological signs of brain injury. They exhibit behaviors (e.g., distractibility, hyperactivity, and perceptual disturbances) similar to those of people with real brain injury, but their neurological examinations are indistinguishable from those of individuals who do not have disabilities. Historically, the diagnosis of minimal brain injury was sometimes dubious because it was based on questionable behavioral evidence rather than on more solid neurological data. Moreover, minimal brain injury was not an educationally meaningful term, because such a diagnosis offered little real help in planning and implementing treatment

Before discussing some of the most common characteristics of people with learning disabilities, we point out two important features of this population:

People with learning disabilities exhibit a great deal of both interindividual and intraindividual variation.

Phonemic awareness

Phonemic awareness is an understanding that specific words can be broken down into individual sounds. For example, the word sat has three phonemes or sounds: /s/ /ă/ /t/. Phonemic awareness is of critical importance; research substantiates a causal relationship between a lack of phonemic awareness skills and the inability to decode.

Phonics instruction

Phonics instruction involves learning the alphabetic system; that is, the pairing of letters and words with their sounds. Effective phonics instruction is explicit and systematic, and includes plentiful opportunities for practice

Reading comprehension

Reading comprehension refers to the ability to gain meaning from print—the ultimate goal of reading.

Reading fluency

Reading fluency comprises three skills--reading words: accurately, at an appropriate pace, and with prosody. Prosody entails making your oral reading sound like spoken language, using appropriate intonation and expressionReading fluency is highly associated with reading comprehension--those who read fluently typically, but not always, understand what they read. Problems with reading fluency are a major reason why students have difficulties with reading comprehension

how have researchers documented neurological dysfunction as a probable cause of learning disabilities?

Researchers have documented neurological dysfunction as a probable cause of learning disabilities using neuroimaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), functional magnetic resonance spectroscopy (fMRS), and positron-emission tomography (PET) scans, as well as measuring the brain's electrical activity with event-related potentials (ERPs, also referred to as evoked potentials). An MRI sends magnetic radio waves through the head and creates cross-sectional images of the brain. fMRI and fMRS are adaptations of the MRI. Unlike an MRI, they are used to detect changes in brain activity while a person is engaged in a task, such as reading. A PET scan, like an fMRI or fMRS, is used while the person is performing a task. The subject is injected with a substance containing a low amount of radiation, which collects in active neurons. Using a scanner to detect the radioactive substance, researchers can tell which parts of the brain are actively engaged during various tasks. ERPs measure the brain's response to perceptual and cognitive processing. They result from the administration of an electroencephalograph (EEG).

nonverbal learning disabilities

Researchers have noted that problems with social interaction tend to be more evident in children who also have problems in math, visual-spatial tasks, tactual tasks, and self-regulation and organization (Rourke, 1995; Worling, Humphries, & Tannock, 1999). Some researchers have found that such children are similar to those with autism spectrum disorder (see Chapter 9) in their difficulties in "reading" the emotions of others (Semrud-Clikeman, Walkowiak, Wilkinson, & Minne, 2010). Individuals who exhibit this constellation of behaviors are referred to as having nonverbal learning disabilities. However, the term is somewhat of a misnomer because these people often exhibit subtle problems in using language, especially in social situations. Researchers have speculated that nonverbal learning disabilities are caused by malfunctioning of the right half of the brain because of known linkages of math, visual-spatial, and tactual skills to the right cerebral hemisphere. Evidence also indicates that individuals with nonverbal learning disabilities are at risk for depression, presumably because of the social rejection and isolation they may experience. In extreme cases, they have an increased risk of suicide

Self-regulated strategy development (SRSD)) is a research-based model that has been highly effective

SRSD approaches writing as a problem-solving task that involves planning, knowledge, and skills. Within SRSD are several strategies focused on different aspects of writing. A good example is the story-writing strategy, POW + WWW, What = 2, H = 2. POW = Pick my idea; Organize my notes; Write and say more. WWW = Who is the main character? When does the story take place? Where does the story take place? What = What does the main character do? and What happens then? H = How does the story end? and How does the main character feel?

medical factors

Several medical conditions can cause learning disabilities. Many of these can also result in intellectual disabilities, depending on the severity of the condition. For example, premature birth places children at risk for neurological dysfunction and learning disabilities , and pediatric AIDS can result in neurological damage resulting in learning disabilities.

Some successful techniques for teaching vocabulary

Some successful techniques for teaching vocabulary are mnemonic instruction, learning strategies using morphemic analysis, direct instruction, and multimedia instruction (Kuder, 2017). Because much of a person's vocabulary is learned indirectly, providing ample opportunities for reading a wide range of materials is important. With respect to directly teaching vocabulary, the most effective methods include "reviewing new or unknown words in a text prior to reading, extending instruction on specific words over time and across different contexts"

Disorders of Attention and Hyperactivity

Students with attention problems display characteristics such as distractibility, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Teachers and parents of these children often characterize them as being unable to stick with one task for very long, failing to listen to others, talking nonstop, blurting out the first things on their minds, and being generally disorganized in planning their activities in and out of school. These problems are often severe enough to be diagnosed as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Although estimates vary, researchers have generally found that almost half of students with ADHD also have a learning disability

Perceptual, Perceptual-Motor, and General Coordination Problems

Studies indicate that some children with learning disabilities exhibit visual and/or auditory perceptual disabilities . A child with visual perceptual problems might have trouble solving puzzles or seeing and remembering visual shapes; for example, she might have a tendency to reverse letters (e.g., mistake b for d). A child with auditory perceptual problems might have difficulty discriminating between two words that sound nearly alike (e.g., fit and fib) or following orally presented directions. Teachers and parents have also noted that some students with learning disabilities have difficulty with physical activities involving motor skills. They describe some of these children as having "two left feet" or "ten thumbs." The problems may involve both fine motor (small motor muscle) and gross motor (large motor muscle) skills. Fine motor skills often involve coordination of the visual and motor systems.

How can ERPs help identify those at risk?

Using ERPs, researchers have determined that newborns' responses to speech stimuli are correlated with their language scores in preschool and also predict whether they will have a reading disability at 8 years of age . Evidence also suggests that ERP measures might someday be reliable enough to be used, along with educational and psychological tests, to identify children at risk for later development of reading disabilities

What makes these motivational problems so difficult for teachers, parents, and individuals with learning disabilities to deal with is the interrelationship between learning and motivational problems (Morgan & Fuchs, 2007). A vicious cycle develops:

The student learns to expect failure in any new situation on the basis of past experience. This expectancy of failure, or learned helplessness, might then cause the student to give up too easily when faced with a difficult or complicated task. As a result, not only does the student fail to learn new skills but also he has another bad experience, which reinforces feelings of helplessness and even worthlessness—and so the cycle goes.

the term slow learner?

The term slow learner described the child's performance in some areas but not in others; and intelligence testing indicated that the ability to learn existed.

federal government's definition of LD

This definition, first signed into law in 1975, was (with a few minor wording changes) adopted again in 1997 by the federal government and reauthorized in 2004. GENERAL—The term "specific learning disability" means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. DISORDERS INCLUDED—Such term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. DISORDERS NOT INCLUDED—Such term does not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (IDEA, Amendments of 1997, Sec. 602(26), p. 13)

the term perceptual disabilities?

To describe a child as having perceptual disabilities just confused the issue further, for perceptual problems might be only part of a puzzling inability to learn. So the parents' group finally agreed on the educationally oriented term learning disabilities.

toxins

Toxins are agents that can result in a host of problems, such as headaches, poor memory, and even intellectual disability. One of the most common toxins known to result in these problems is lead, which is particularly toxic to children and the fetus in pregnant women. Unsafe levels of lead can be present in the air, water, food, and objects or surfaces painted with lead-based paint. At one time, many paints were lead-based, and young children were susceptible to lead poisoning from ingesting lead from toys and walls in their home. Lead-based house paint has been banned since the late 1970s. However, it still remains a problem in some older houses where lead-based paint has chipped off the walls. Today, lead is all too frequently found in drinking water. Although U.S. public health officials had been warning for some time about unsafe levels of lead in water supplies, there has been a heightened awareness of the problem since 2014 when toxic levels of lead were discovered in Flint, Michigan. Researchers have accumulated strong evidence linking high lead levels in water to lower performance on IQ and achievement tests . Air pollution, too, has considerable research support as a cause of learning impairments . Similar to lead, children, whose brains are still developing, are especially vulnerable to toxins in the air.

what differences have researchers found with LD brians?

Using these neuroimaging techniques, researchers have accumulated evidence for structural and functional differences between the brains of people with and without learning disabilities, especially reading disabilities. Structural differences refer to such things as the size of the various areas of the brain. For example, researchers have found that the volume of certain areas of the brain is related to reading skills. Functional refers to activity in the brain. Findings from these neuroimaging studies have been relatively consistent in identifying structural and/or functional differences in the left temporal lobe and areas around it in persons with dyslexia.

early intervention with LD

Very little preschool programming is available for children with learning disabilities because of the difficulties in identification at such a young age. When we talk about testing preschool children for learning disabilities, we're really talking about prediction rather than identification because, strictly speaking, they haven't had much exposure to academics such as reading or math.

How does the lack of metacognitive skills affect students with learning disabilities?

We talk about this in three steps: the ability to (1) recognize task requirements, (2) select and implement appropriate strategies, and (3) monitor and adjust performance. Regarding the first component—the ability to recognize task requirements—students with learning disabilities frequently have problems judging how difficult tasks can be. For example, they might approach the reading of highly technical information with the same level of intensity as when reading for pleasure. An example of problems with the second component—the ability to select and implement appropriate strategies—occurs when students with learning disabilities are asked questions such as "How can you remember to take your homework to school in the morning?" They don't come up with as many strategies (e.g., writing a note to yourself, placing the homework by the front door) as students without disabilities do. An example of the third component of metacognition—the ability to monitor or adjust performance—is comprehension monitoring. Comprehension monitoring refers to the abilities used while one reads and attempts to comprehend textual material. Many students with reading disabilities have problems, for example, in being able to sense when they are not understanding what they are reading. Good readers can sense this and make necessary adjustments, such as slowing down and/or rereading difficult passages. Students with reading problems are also likely to have problems in picking out the main ideas of paragraphs.

self-monitoring

When self-monitoring, students keep track of their own behavior, often through use of two components: self-evaluation and self-recording. Students evaluate their own behavior and then record whether the behavior occurred. Students can be taught to self-monitor a variety of academic behaviors.

Working memory

Working memory involves the ability to hold information in memory for a short period of time in order to use it to solve a problem—for example, in a long division math problem, storing the numbers temporarily while working with them to solve the problem.

long-term memory.

a student with a learning disability may know her math facts, but be unable to remember them with automaticity that allows for the use of this information in problem solving. A similar example is the inability of a student with dyslexia (reading disability) to access the sounds of the letters rapidly. Furthermore, research has suggested that performance anxiety moderates the effects of long-term memory retrieval among college students with mathematics learning disabilities (Prevatt, Welles, Li, & Proctor, 2010). That is, the deficits in long-term memory retrieval are further affected by students' anxiety related to the task in the area of their disability.

Teachers have successfully used several types of peer tutoring arrangements with students with learning disabilities. Two examples are

classwide peer tutoring (CWPT) and peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS). In Chapter 5, we discussed the use of CWPT for students with intellectual disabilities. Researchers have also extensively documented CWPT as effective for students with learning disabilities or those at risk for learning disabilities (Kourea, Cartledge, & Musti-Rao, 2007; Maheady, Harper, & Mallette, 2003). CWPT consists of "students who are taught by peers who are trained and supervised by classroom teachers" (Maheady et al., 2003, p. 1). "Trained" and "supervised" are emphasized because it's imperative that the teachers carefully structure the tutoring experience. In other words, the instruction isn't just turned over to the students. Peer Tutoring Teachers have successfully used several types of peer tutoring arrangements with students with learning disabilities. Two examples are classwide peer tutoring (CWPT) and peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS). In Chapter 5, we discussed the use of CWPT for students with intellectual disabilities. Researchers have also extensively documented CWPT as effective for students with learning disabilities or those at risk for learning disabilities (Kourea, Cartledge, & Musti-Rao, 2007; Maheady, Harper, & Mallette, 2003). CWPT consists of "students who are taught by peers who are trained and supervised by classroom teachers" (Maheady et al., 2003, p. 1). "Trained" and "supervised" are emphasized because it's imperative that the teachers carefully structure the tutoring experience. In other words, the instruction isn't just turned over to the students. Responsive Instruction Meeting the Needs of Students with Learning Disabilities Mnemonics What Are Mnemonics? The term mnemonic comes from the name of the Greek goddess of memory, Mnemosyne, whose name was derived from mnemon, meaning "mindful." Today, a mnemonic refers to any memory-enhancing strategy. Almost everyone has used a mnemonic at one time or another. To remember the order of the planets, many students learn the phrase "My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nachos." Music students trying to remember scales learn "Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge." Rhymes are another form of mnemonic—"I before E, except after C, or when pronounced as A as in neighbor and weigh." Mnemonics come in a variety of forms, but what defines a mnemonic is its ability to aid in the retention of certain information. What the Research Says Researchers have studied mnemonics and students with learning disabilities in both laboratory settings (i.e., one-to-one with trained experimenters rather than classroom teachers) and classroom settings. Findings from these studies (Lubin & Polloway, 2016; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998; Scruggs et al., 2017) reveal the following gains made by students who are taught using mnemonics: Mnemonic keyword method resulted in increased recall of information. Small groups of students with learning disabilities could be taught using a variety of mnemonic strategies over a period of days without diminishing the effectiveness of the specific mnemonics. Mnemonic pictures aided in the comprehension and recall of information presented in science and history texts. Students with learning disabilities could be taught to create their own mnemonics and apply them successfully. Students with learning and behavior disorders benefited from teacher-created mnemonics and were able to retain the information longer than students who were not provided mnemonics. Mnemonics appeared to result in increased motivation, efficacy, and willingness to learn. Implementing Mnemonics in the Classroom Two effective mnemonic techniques are the keyword and peg-word methods (Lasley, Matczynski, & Rowley, 2002). (See Figure A.) When using a keyword approach, students are taught how to transform an unfamiliar word into a familiar word. For example, the word accolade could be associated with the keyword Kool-Aid. To associate Kool-Aid with the definition of accolade, students can think of someone making a toast to a guest of honor with a cup of Kool-Aid. Thus, the definition "giving praise" will be closely associated with accolade (Levin, 1993). Figure A Mnemonic representation of Franklin Pierce, 14th president of the United States Source: Adapted from Mastropieri, M. A., Scruggs, T. E., & Whedon, C. (1997). Using mnemonic strategies to teach information about U.S. Presidents: A classroom-based investigation. Learning Disability Quarterly, 20, 13-21. Copyright 1994 by Thomas E. Scruggs and Margo A. Mastropieri. To use the peg-word strategy, students learn to correlate numbers with familiar rhyming words. The teacher creates a picture that incorporates the peg word along with the content associations. Teachers use this strategy when students need to remember the order of information or when a number is associated with the fact. For example, a student who is trying to remember that Monroe was the fifth president could combine the keyword for Monroe and the peg word hive for five. The image of bees carrying money to a hive would be the mnemonic (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998). By Kristin L. Sayeski PALS is based on research-proven, best practices in, for example, phonological awareness, decoding, and comprehension strategies (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2005; Fuchs, Fuchs, & Burish, 2000). PALS involves the pairing of a higher performing student with a lower performing student, with the pairs then participating in highly structured tutoring sessions. The students take turns being the "coach" (tutor) and the "reader" (tutee). More information is available on the PALS website at Vanderbilt University.

Direct Instruction (DI)

focuses on the details of the instructional process. Commercial DI programs are available for several academic areas (e.g., reading, math, science, social studies).Advocates of DI stress a systematic analysis of the concept to be taught, rather than analysis of the characteristics of the student. A critical component of DI is task analysis.Direct Instruction programs are among the best-researched commercial programs available for students with learning disabilities.

Even in cases in which one can be fairly certain that the person with learning disabilities has neurological dysfunction, the question still remains: How did the person come to have the neurological dysfunction? Possible reasons fall into three general categories:

genetic factors, toxins, and medical factors.

People with learning disabilities often have problems in one or more of the following areas of writing:

handwriting, spelling, and composition. A specific learning disability in writing is called dysgraphia. Although even the best students can have less-than-perfect handwriting, the kinds of problems that some students with learning disabilities exhibit are much more severe. These children are sometimes very slow writers, and their written products are sometimes illegible. Spelling can be a significant problem because of the difficulty in understanding the correspondence between sounds and letters. In addition to the more mechanical areas of handwriting and spelling, students with learning disabilities frequently have difficulties in the more creative aspects of composition . For example, compared to peers who do not have disabilities, students with learning disabilities use less complex sentence structures; include fewer types of words; write paragraphs that are less well organized; include fewer ideas in their written products; and write stories that have fewer important components, such as introducing main characters, setting scenes, and describing a conflict to be resolved

Researchers have determined that certain principles characterize effective math instruction for students with learning disabilities. Probably the most important one is that

he instruction needs to be explicit (Fuchs et al., 2011; Gersten et al., 2009). Constructivist, discovery-oriented approaches to math may succeed with students who don't experience learning problems, but students with learning disabilities need more structure and teacher direction. Some other principles are that the teacher should sequence the instruction to minimize errors, but when errors occur, they should be immediately rectified. The instruction should include cumulative review of concepts and operations, and the students' progress should be closely monitored.

Task analysis

involves breaking down academic problems into their component parts so that teachers can teach the parts separately and then teach the students to put the parts together in order to demonstrate the larger skill.

inactive learner

lacking in strategies for attacking academic problems. Specifically, research describes the student with learning disabilities as someone who doesn't believe in her own abilities (learned helplessness), has an inadequate grasp of what strategies are available for problem solving (poor metacognitive skills), and has problems producing appropriate learning strategies spontaneously. The practical implication of this constellation of characteristics is that students with learning disabilities can have difficulties working independently. They're not likely to be "self-starters."

Students with reading disabilities or dyslexia are likely to experience problems in several of the major areas of reading:

phonological awareness (more specifically, phonemic awareness), decoding, reading fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension

repeated readings

reading fluency typically involve having the student read aloud. An especially effective technique is repeated readings, whereby students repeatedly (several times a week) read the same short passages aloud until they are reading at an appropriate pace with few or no errors.

Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973

requires that colleges make reasonable accommodations for students with disabilities so that they will not be discriminated against because of their disabilities. Some typical accommodations are extended time on exams, allowing students to take exams in a distraction-free room, providing tape recordings of lectures and books, and assigning volunteer note takers for lectures.Even though students with disabilities are entitled to accommodations, they need to be much more proactive in order to receive these services than they were in the K-12 education system. Therefore, a potentially useful skill for college students with learning disabilities is self-advocacy: the ability to understand one's disability, be aware of one's legal rights, and communicate one's rights and needs to professors and administrators (Madaus & Banerjee, 2011). Although ideally, self-advocacy skills should be taught to students with learning disabilities in secondary school, many students come to college in need of guidance in how to advocate for themselves in a confident but nonconfrontational manner.

Regardless of whether the focus is on transition to work or to college, a key element to successful transition programming is empowering students to make informed choices and to take responsibility for their futures (Cobb & Alwell, 2009). One way of achieving this is to ensure that

students take part in their transition planning. In addition to a transition plan (see Chapter 2), federal law now requires that schools develop a summary of performance (SOP) for individual students with a disability as they exit secondary school, whether by graduating or exceeding the age of eligibility. SOPs are designed to provide a summary of relevant information, such as assessment reports; accommodations that have been provided; and recommendations for future accommodations, assistive technology, and support services for use in employment, training, or postsecondary schooling. SOPs also have a section for the student to provide input. Because SOPs only began implementation in 2007-08, little research on their effectiveness exists.

In scaffolded instruction...

teachers provide assistance to students when they are first learning tasks, and then gradually reduce assistance so that eventually students do the tasks independently.

Many students with learning disabilities have problems with what is spoken language?

the mechanical and social uses of language. Mechanically, they have trouble with syntax (grammar), semantics (word meanings), and, as we have already noted, phonology (the ability to break words into their component sounds and blend individual sounds together to make words). The social uses of language are commonly referred to as pragmatics. Students with learning disabilities are often unskilled in the production and reception of discourse. In short, they're not very good conversationalists. They cannot engage in the mutual give-and-take that conversations between individuals require. For instance, the conversations of individuals with learning disabilities are frequently marked by long silences because they don't employ the relatively subtle strategies that their peers who do not have disabilities use to keep conversations going. They're not skilled at responding to others' statements or questions and tend to answer their own questions before their companions have a chance to respond. They tend to express task-irrelevant comments and make those with whom they talk uncomfortable. In one study cited often, for example, children with and without learning disabilities took turns playing the role of host in a simulated television talk show . In contrast to children without disabilities, children with learning disabilities playing the host role allowed their guests without disabilities to dominate the conversation. Also, their guests exhibited more signs of discomfort during the interview than did the guests of hosts without disabilities.

One plausible reason for the social problems of some students with learning disabilities is that

these students have deficits in social cognition. That is, they misread social cues and may misinterpret the feelings and emotions of others. Most children, for example, can tell when their behavior is bothering others. Students with learning disabilities sometimes act as if they are oblivious to the effect their behavior is having on their peers. They also have difficulty taking the perspective of others, of putting themselves in someone else's shoes.

one of the major reasons that children with learning disabilities perform poorly on memory tasks

they don't use strategies. For example, when presented with a list of words to memorize, most children will rehearse the names to themselves. They'll also make use of categories by rehearsing words in groups that go together. Students with learning disabilities are unlikely to use these strategies spontaneously. However, they can be taught memory strategies, such as rehearsal, which research indicates can enhance their academic performance.

The purpose of self-instruction is

to make students aware of the various stages of problem-solving tasks while they are performing them and to bring behavior under verbal control.