SSUIL: Honour in the Dust: supplemental documents part 5 - primary sources and other writings

"Significance of the Frontier in American History," Frederick Jackson Turner, 1893

Summary: (aka Frontier Thesis) This paper was presented at the Chicago World's Fair of 1893 to the American Historical Association. It is sometimes referenced as the "Frontier myth," but in its day, it had an enormous impact and continues to have weight. Turner believed that the vastness of the North American wilderness and the effort by white settlers to populate it was the defining characteristic of U.S. history. Europe had become stagnant due to its urbanization, but because the U.S. continually expanded and had to tame new lands, it was progressing and evolving through the struggle. With the1890 census showing that a clear frontier or wilderness no longer existed or remained in a significant amount to be conquered, the U.S. had lost its most unique characteristic. He believes the Atlantic coast was a European frontier, but the following westward migration was a unique American frontier that changed the people involved in its settlement. He then traces the movement of the frontier line through U.S. history and marks the changing definition of the "West." The most recent stage for Turner was the scattering of mining towns and farming outposts across the Rocky Mountain states. He wrote that the study and comparison of the closing of various parts of the frontier should be studied. He discussed the growth of various elements of society across the frontiers from ranchers to the military. He further gives the frontier credit for creating an amalgamated society of mixed European backgrounds and with giving the country independence from European powers. It helped shape the main policies and laws that decided the U.S. actions and fate. He lists major events of U.S. history and links them to the movement West. The individualism that he believes the West inspires is also responsible for the growth of democracy around the world. The struggle of the individual to conquer the frontier keeps them from being corrupt and undemocratic. He further discusses the West in terms of attempts to control it. He mentions that missionary activities of various sects had the largest impact of these efforts, but few efforts really controlled its development. He claims that the impact on the nature of the country will continue, but a significant chapter in its history has closed due to the unique and powerful impact of the wilderness no longer being perpetuated. Key Quotes: "This perennial rebirth, this fluidity of American life, this expansion westward with its new opportunities, its continuous touch with the simplicity of primitive society, furnish the forces dominating American character. The true point of view in the history of this nation is not the Atlantic coast, it is the great West. Even the slavery struggle ... occupies its important place in American history because of its relation to westward expansion." "... to the frontier the American intellect owes its striking characteristics. That coarseness and strength combined with acuteness and inquisitiveness; that practical, inventive turn of mind, quick to find expedients; that masterful grasp of material things, lacking in the artistic but powerful to effect great ends; that restless, nervous energy; that dominant individualism, working for good and for evil, and withal that buoyancy and exuberance which comes with freedom-these are traits of the frontier ..."

The Ostend Manifesto, to James Buchanan, 1854

Summary: (aka Ostend Circular) Pierre Soule (minister to Spain) met with James Buchanan (minister to UK) and John Mason (minister to France) in Ostend, Belgium, at the request of Secretary of State under President Pierce, William Marcy. They were attempting to purchase Cuba from Spain and the dispatch to the U.S. advocating seizing the island if it could not be purchased. The document was composed in Aix la-Chapelle (Aachen), Prussia. The proposed price was not actually set, but they believed the purchase would benefit both countries. Security of the U.S. and its economy are given for seeking command of Cuba. The threat of Cuban revolt further threatened the U.S. interests. They also suggest the illicit slave trade could be further stamped-out by the purchase. They believe the payment would help Spain modernize at home. Cuba is stated to be a drain on Spain. If revolts happen, the U.S. might intervene regardless. The letter also claims the U.S. has only gained territory by purchase, even in Mexico, but if Spain does not sell, then self-preservation becomes the reason for gaining Cuba. The letter states that a similar revolt in Cuba like that in St. Domingo (Haiti) and being "Africanized" would lead to "horrors to the white race" which could extend to the U.S. Spain also has treated U.S. citizens unfairly in Cuba, and their actions need to be addressed. It ends by comparing the outcome of selling Cuba to that of Florida. Key Quotes: "We should, however, be recreant to our duty, be unworthy of our gallant forefathers, and commit base treason against our posterity, should we permit Cuba to be Africanized and become a second St. Domingo, with all its attendant horrors to the white race, and suffer the flames to extend to our own neighboring shores, seriously to endanger or actually to consume the fair fabric of our Union."

"Circular Addressed to Benevolent Ladies of the U.S.," Catherine Beecher, 1829

Summary: Beecher's anonymous published letter describes the true state of the Five Civilized Tribes that were being forced out of their homelands. She describes the government falsehoods towards the tribes and portrays the Native Americans as dignified, progressive, and civilized. She claims the U.S. has a history of protecting Indian lands. She calls out Southern states for seeking the land because of its value. She is seeking help from her fellow women to stand up for the Native Americans and against the Indian removal. Key Quotes: "Have not then the females of this country some duties devolving upon them in relation to this helpless race?"

De Lome Letter, 1898

Summary: Enrique Dupuy de Lome was the Spanish ambassador to the U.S. during the McKinley administration. He wrote a letter critical of the president to Spain's Foreign Minister Jose Canelejas. It was captured by Cuban revolutionaries and published in U.S. newspapers in February 1898. He wrote that if a colonial government was created, then the U.S. would stop blaming Spain for the situation in Cuba. He further believed that without an absolute military victory, the problems in Cuba would resurface. His take on McKinley's message about Cuba is that it is purely political, and that the president is weak for trying to appeal to all sides. He suggests that England's role in fanning the dispute needed to be addressed, and a superficial discussion of commercial relations started to help change the narrative about Spanish rule. Key Quotes: "... it once more shows what McKinley is, weak and a bidder for the admiration of the crowd besides being a would-be politician (politicastro) who tries to leave a door open behind himself while keeping on good terms with the jingoes of his party."

"The Hawaiian Situation: The Invasion of Hawaii," Eugene Tyler Chamberlain, 1893

Summary: Eugene Chamberlain also wrote in an issue of the North American Review. He served as U.S. commander of navigation and argued the use of the military in the Hawaiian coup was against the ethos of the nation. He quotes Daniel Webster in 1851 to begin his essay and notes that Webster strongly supported Hawaiian independence. He states that though annexation has been desired by many, none have sought it through illicit means. He focuses on the use of U.S. military personnel and equipment rather than the cause or justification of the coup. He writes that other than due to the request by the Citizens Committee of Safety (that took part in the coup), there was no reason for military involvement. There were no discernable threats to U.S. lives or property. Minister Stevens requested the troops on behalf of the Committee, but without cause. He further illustrates how without the troops and implicit approval of the U.S. through Stevens; the coup would not have taken place. Specifically, John Soper refused his part as head of the nonexistent military of the new government unless there was U.S. support. He also discusses how another attempt at seizing the islands was made by British subjects in1843 against King Kamehameha Ill, and it was reversed by Queen Victoria. Chamberlain believes there is no justification for the military involvement, therefore, no support for the U.S. to annex the islands at the request of the new government. Key Quotes: "The local causes of this so-called revolution, remote and proximate, are relatively immaterial to the United States. They, with the general issue of annexation, dwindle before the question: What were the purpose and the effect of the presence of the forces of the United States in Honolulu ..." "The purpose of the presence of the blue-jackets, in the minds of the committee that asked for it, is summed up in the admission of Judge Dole that when the troops were first furnished, they could not have gotten along without their aid ..." "The character of that Government does not enter into the question of the observance of our treaty obligations to it or into that consideration which is due to the weak from the strong in the mind of every American."

The Extermination of the American Bison, William T. Hornady, 1889

Summary: Hornady was the superintendent of the National Zoological Park and wrote a report on the mass killing of the buffalo that accompanied U.S. expansion in the Great Plains. Hornady wrote about the great abundance of the American bison believing them to be the most innumerable quadrupeds in history. The range ran from the Rockies to the Mississippi River. It would take about four years to exterminate the southern herd. The movement of settlers into their range was the primary cause of their destruction. Other reasons were greed, no government protection, the desire for buffalo robes, the lack of buffaloes' ability to protect themselves or avoid danger, and the advancement in rifles. He mentions that the buffalo supplied some native tribes with much of their supplies, and now the U.S. government has to. If the buffalo had not been exterminated, the situation of the U.S. government and the tribes would be much different. If the government did not take action, Hornady believed the entire species would become extinct. Key Quotes: "No wonder that the men of the West of those days, both white and red, thought it would be impossible to exterminate such a mighty multitude. The Indians of some tribes believed that the buffaloes issued from the earth continually, and that the supply was necessarily inexhaustible. And yet, in four short years the southern herd was almost totally annihilated. It will be doubly deplorable if the remorseless slaughter we have witnessed during the last twenty years carries with it no lessons for the future. A continuation of the record we have lately made as wholesome game butchers will justify posterity in dating us back with the mound-builders and cave-dwellers, when man's only known function was to slay and eat."

"My Husband was Seized with the Mania," Harriet L. Noble, 1824

Summary: In Harriet Noble's narrative about her husband's desire to move west from New York towards Michigan, she describes the arduous travel, the beautiful nature and geography, and the hardships of being a pioneer. She traveled with her husband and two children and her sister-in-law's family with seven children. The trip across Lake Erie alone took a week. She was depressed and sickened by the wildness of the frontier cities like Detroit. They reached Ann Arbor and lived with several others in small shelters. They built a log cabin that was without a door for some time, and wolves would come close to the house at night. She mentions her fear of the natives that were different from those near her New York home (Oneidas). Supplies took weeks to get, and she and her children went without food while her husband made the journey. He did not want to return to NY but missed the social aspects and the comforts of an organized community. Due to continuing health issues and her husband injuring his hand, she had to do heavier than expected duties pertaining to harvesting hay. Eventually, they brought in a nephew from NY to help, and overall, she felt the experience was good for preparing her children for hardships. Key Quotes: "I could not then realize what it would be to live without a comfortable house through the winter, but sad experience afterwards taught me a lesson not to be forgotten." "Could we have known what it was to be pioneers in a new country, we should never come, but I am satisfied that with all the disadvantages of raising a family in a new country, there is a consolation in knowing that our children are prepared to brave the ills of life, I believe, far better than they would have been had we never left New York."

"Annexation," John L. O'Sullivan, 1845

Summary: John O'Sullivan wrote this essay for The United States M agazine and Democratic Review (which he founded) to describe his position on the expansion of U.S. control over Texas. He had served as the minister to Portugal under the Pierce administration and became a columnist. This is his first mention of manifest destiny, but he would continue to use it to describe future acquisitions of territory including Oregon. He described Texas as being completely part of the U.S. and that it became so through Mexico's own actions of allowing white immigration. He stated that California would follow suit and that Mexico had no ability to govern it. He predicted the blessing of God (Providence) would allow this and that the railroad and the telegraph would connect the coasts of the continent and bind them together. He also called for the unavoidable annexation of Canada and stated that the 300 million Americans by 1945 would be able to defeat any opposition even if it was all of Europe. Key Quotes: "She (Texas) comes within the dear and sacred designation of Our Country... other nations have undertaken to intrude themselves ... in a spirit of hostile interference against us, for the avowed object of thwarting our policy and hampering our power, limiting our greatness and checking the fulfillment of our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions." "The Anglo-Saxon foot is already on its (California) borders. Already the advance guard of the irresistible army of Anglo-Saxon emigration has begun to pour down upon it, armed with the plough and the rifle."

"A Plea for Annexation," John Stevens, 1893

Summary: John Stevens wrote in favor of adding Hawaii to the U.S. as a protectorate in an 1893 essay in the North American Review. He was the U.S. minister to Hawaii, and after the coup against Queen Liliuokalani by U.S. businessmen in the islands, he supported a quick annexation by the U.S. government. He states that if no annexation takes place, it will be disgraceful for the U.S. because the nation will turn its back on efforts to extend Christian civilization. Stevens asserts that Hawaii was dying as a culture and that it was not the fault of contact with Europeans. This devastation proved to Stevens that the U.S. must intervene. He explains that the only developments on the islands are due to the influence of U.S. missionaries. He discusses how without U.S. military intervention, the government that was formed would have been lost when David Kalakana* was made king in 1874. His rule is labeled as disastrous and under the influence of a white Mormon missionary (Walter M. Gibson) who pushed for native control of Hawaii. He praises the coup that placed several restrictions on Kalakana's power through a new constitution in 1887. His sister (Liliuokalani) became queen in 1890, and through support in the legislature, tried to regain sovereignty which Stevens connects to opium rings and lottery -schemes. He believed her actions justified the coup that removed her with the aid of Marines from the USS Boston in 1893. He then extolls the advancements that exist on the island and why they would benefit the U.S. since they were Americanized already. He also states that annexation would keep the area from being "overrun by Asiatics" and instead sold to Christian Caucasian people. He believes Hawaii is essential to controlling the Pacific and spreading U.S. products and that it has been desired since the times of John Quincy Adams. He closes by restating Mahan's beliefs and the role the islands would play in establishing U.S. power. *"Kalakana" is the spelling used by Stevens in reference to Kalakaua. Key Quotes: "Will the American nation stand by its century's record in favor of republican government and of free Christian civilization, or will it repudiate its past by using its power to murder its own offspring and to stamp out the reforming work of pure and noble men and women who have made the Hawaiian Islands what they are ..." "... in the name of what is most sacred in Christian civilization, in behalf of a noble American colony, holding the advanced post of Americas progress, I cherish the faith that the American people, the American statesmen, and the American government, thoughtful of America's great future, will settle the Hawaiian question wisely and well will see to it that the flag of the United States floats unmolested over the Hawaiian Islands."

Speech on the Mexican War, Andrew Kennedy, 1846

Summary: Kennedy was a Democrat member of the House of Representatives representing Indiana. He questioned the mainly Whig opposition to the Mexican War. He discusses the Federalist opposition to the War of 1812 and deemed it more honorable since they had not changed their minds about the conflict as he believed members of Congress were now doing. He states that Mexico had impugned the nation's honor, and it was getting undue sympathy because it was a more democratic government. He asserts that the Rio Grande was the true border of Texas, and Mexico threatened territory all the way to Louisiana. Kennedy defends the U.S. actions of the war and claims they are restrained and just. He also attacks the purported inspirations behind attacks on the war as being falsely moral and religious. He attacks a Tennessee member's discussion of slavery's expansion into territory won from the conflict leading the country towards disunion. He further attacks criticism against the president during a war as being unpatriotic and not supporting the military. Key Quotes: "Oh, shame. The very ashes of our fathers cry out against us! Are we, indeed, so degenerated that we are afraid to meet the responsibility of our own acts, and meanly attempt to throw the responsibility on other shoulders?" "Why, you have disgraced your Government, and yourselves with it! Is this the employment of patriots? But do gentlemen believe what they say, in relation to the iniquity of this war? I submit that it is impossible for any well-informed man honestly to take that view of the subject."

The Influence of Sea Power, Alfred Thayer Mahan, 1890

Summary: Mahan believed that controlling the seas was the key to international influence and domestic stability for an empire. The control of seas was largely a story of rivalries between nations and their interests and in his mind, a military history. He did believe the government support of that military and specifically, naval effort was key. The two main ways it could foster control of the seas were building up seafaring commerce during peace and building a strong navy to protect that commerce or defend it during war. Colonies were a means to expand the first and help protect the second means of sea power. He believed the U.S. Navy would have limited effectiveness if it did not acquire territories to support it. Key Quotes: "Having therefore no foreign establishments, either colonial or military, the ships of war of the United States, in war, will be like land birds, unable to fly far from their own shores. To provide resting places for them, where they can coal and repair, would be one of the first duties of a government proposing to itself the development of the power of the nation at sea." "... it may safely be said that it is essential to the welfare of the whole country that the conditions of trade and commerce should remain, as far as possible, unaffected by an external war. In order to do this, the enemy must be kept not only out of our ports, but far away from our coasts."

"Our Hearts are Sickened," Chief John Ross, 1836

Summary: Ross was the leader of the Cherokee Nation in Georgia during the period of Indian removal. He wrote to members of Congress that the Treaty of New Echota did not represent his people and its agreement to vacate their tribal areas was invalid. Two years later, the remaining Cherokees would be removed by the military and forced to march hundreds of miles to Indian Territory in what is now the state of Oklahoma. Ross described the actions of a legitimate delegation of Cherokees that were not able to reach an agreement with the U.S. After they left, Reverend John Schermerhorn and separate Cherokees agreed to the fraudulent treaty. Ross complained that his people had been stripped of all legal protections and their property taken. He appealed to the ideals of Washington and Jefferson and discussed how he and other Cherokee had become Christians and created plantations. He said they were open to new legitimate talks, and the document was signed by Ross, George Lowrey, Edward Gunter, Lewis Ross, 31 members of the National Committee and National Council, and 2,174 others. Key Quotes: "We are overwhelmed! Our hearts are sickened, our utterance is paralyzed, when we reflect on the condition in which we are placed, by the audacious practices of unprincipled men, who have managed their stratagems with so much dexterity as to impose on the Government of the United States, in the face of our earnest, solemn, and reiterated protestations."

"To Abolish the Monroe Doctrine," Proclamation from Augusto Cesar Sandino, 1933

Summary: Sandino and the Sandinista resistance that he began {which would exist in various forms into and throughout the Cold War) opposed U.S. imperialism in Nicaragua specifically and in Latin America generally. He made a proclamation decrying the tradition of the Monroe Doctrine and its application in 1933 after years of leading a guerilla resistance against U.S. forces in his country. He states that the Autonomist Army of Central America should expel U.S. intervention forces and influences, even if it results in death. Key Quotes: "We do not protest against the magnitude of the intervention, but simply against intervention. The United States has gotten into the affairs of Nicaragua for many years. We cannot rely on their promise that someday they will leave from here."

"For Oregon!" Settlers from Illinois Describe the New Territory, 1847

Summary: The Illinois Journal newspaper published a collection of letters from people who had left Illinois to settle in the Oregon Country (generally near the Willamette Valley). The Oregon Treaty was completed between the U.S. and UK the year prior, making the land officially part of the U.S. Quotes from four letters are included in the article (William Neily, Isaac Statts, Hezekiah Packingham, and Elijah Bristow). Neily called the area overrated in respect to its farming capacity. Statts took the opposite stance, planning to spend the rest of his life enjoying the healthy climate. Packingham stated that he was very dissatisfied with the limited opportunities of the land and planned to return to his original home the next year. He complained of Indians, a lack of women, and lack of resources in general. Bristow went first to Sacramento before arriving in the Willamette. He expounds on the superiority of the territory and its opportunities. He believes an unusually harsh winter and lies from unsuccessful settlers are responsible for any negative views of Oregon. He gives specific advice about what is needed for success but gives moving there his highest endorsement. Key Quotes: "... my calculations are all defeated about Oregon. I found it a mean, dried up, and drowned country." "I can give Oregon credit for only one or two things, and these are, good health and plenty of salmon, and Indians; as for the farming country there is none here." "Start by the 20th of March and be at St. Joseph's on the first of May almost at the peril of your lives! Be up and better yourselves! Loitering will never do! Pick your company; get among Christians, if possible. Strive to be in the first company. Methinks that if I could see you all here well, I could say with Simeon of old, 'Now Lord lettest thou thy servant depart in peace, for mine eyes have seen thy salvation."'

"To the Person Sitting in Darkness," Mark Twain, 1901

Summary: This scathing essay against American imperialism in the Philippines was published in February in the North American Review. He addresses the "uncivilized" people or nations still sitting in darkness. He calls them this ironically since imperialists were known for justifying actions by describing them as advancing the "light" of the civilized or Christian world. He believes "the game" of civilizing and Christianizing people has happened for years and is profitable but has become even more bloodthirsty and greedy, and the "lesser" nations are noticing. He eviscerates the Christianizing justification of imperialist actions and contends that the culture of Western civilization is useful and progressive, but as an influence not forced on a people. He attacks McKinley and the game he plays by comparing it to the British, Russians, and others. He attacks the demands of European powers for restitutions from China and other interventions there after the Boxer Rebellion. He goes on to claim it goes against the U.S. reputation and history as fighting for democracy. He believes the country's actions in Cuba were honorable, but the actions in the Philippines are "European" and compares them to the repressive and violent actions of the British Empire in South Africa as part of the Boer Wars. He specifically mentions the British Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain several times. He states that Dewey should have left the islands after defeating the Spanish fleet and that Aguinaldo and his forces were lied to and used by the U.S. government. He is very sarcastic in the piece and discusses how the country could "better" take advantage of the Philippines and other "uncivilized" peoples, but his overall point is that more countries around the world are seeing the "light" of civilization for the violent intrusion it is. Key Quotes: "The Blessings-of-Civilization Trust, wisely and cautiously administered, is a Daisy. There is more money in it, more territory, more sovereignty, and other kinds of emolument, than there is in any other game that is played. But Christendom has been playing it badly of late years and must certainly suffer by it." "For it exposes the Actual Thing to Them that Sit in Darkness, and they say: 'What! Christian against Christian? And only for money? Is this a case of magnanimity, forbearance, love, gentleness, mercy, protection of the weak -- this strange and over-showy onslaught of an elephant upon a nest of field mice, on the pretext that the mice had squeaked an insolence at him -- conduct which 'no self respecting government could allow to pass unavenged?"' "And as for a flag for the Philippine Province, it is easily managed. We can have a special one -- our States do it: we can have just our usual flag, with the white stripes painted black and the stars replaced by the skull and cross-bones."

"Avoid the Use of the Word Intervention," Wilson and Lansing on the U.S. Invasion of Mexico, 1916

Summary: This series of notes between President Woodrow Wilson and Secretary of State Robert Lansing discusses the specific language that is needed to be used to discuss the U.S.'s invasion into Mexico led by General John J. Pershing. The U.S. was seeking to influence the ongoing Mexican Revolution, but its involvement was not welcomed by many in the country. Lansing first writes to Wilson that the invasion is necessary, but it should not be labeled as an intervention. He claims the term would be received by Mexicans in a worse manner than even a defeat in a war. He also believes the term wouldn't work well in the case of an eventual war between the countries (which he believes is likely). Interventions are on behalf of the people of a country and would go against an actual war based on defending against an outward attack. He also believes the rest of Latin America would look badly on the term and so believes the actions of the military should be described as defense against an invasion of U.S. territory or attack on U.S. forces. He sends Wilson a sample of how he would describe the actions using the phrase "international war." Wilson responds by agreeing with Lansing and endorsing the plan to send the message to Mexico and other Latin American representatives. Key Quotes: "Intervention, which suggests a definite purpose to 'clean up' the country, would bind us to certain accomplishments which circumstances might make extremely difficult or inadvisable, and, on the other hand, it would impose conditions which might be found to be serious restraints upon us as the situation develops." "Hostilities, in short, would be simply a state of international war without purpose on the part of the United States other than to end the conditions which menace our national peace and the safety of our citizens."

"The March of the Flag," Albert Beveridge, 1898

Summary: This speech was delivered to the Indiana Republican meeting in Indianapolis, Indiana, on September 16, 1898, as part of Beveridge's campaign for the Senate. He begins by listing the many ways he sees the U.S. as favored by God and endowed with a mission to spread its dominion as far as possible. He defends U.S. imperialism by comparing it to other nations but an improved version. He then covers a brief history of U.S. expansion or "march of the flag." Next, he compares current land acquisition to previous ones and claims it is more important due to the need for economic expansion. He believes within 50 years; the U.S. will dominate trade in Asia. Lastly, he admonishes anyone who seeks to stop this process as betraying the ideals of the country and issues a call to action. Key Quotes: "It is a glorious history our God has bestowed upon His chosen people; a history heroic with faith in our mission and our future; a history of statesmen who flung the boundaries of the Republic out into unexplored lands and savage wilderness; a history of soldiers who carried the flag across blazing deserts and through the ranks of hostile mountains, even to the gates of sunset; a history of a multiplying people who overran a continent in half a century; a history of prophets who saw the consequences of evils inherited from the past and of martyrs who died to save us from them ..." "Hawaii is ours; Porto Rico is to be ours; at the prayer of her people Cuba finally will be ours; in the islands of the East, even to the gates of Asia, coaling stations are to be ours at the very least; the flag of a liberal government is to float over the Philippines, and may it be the banner that Taylor unfurled in Texas and Fremont carried to the coast." "The American people cannot use a dishonest medium of exchange; it is ours to set the world its example of right and honor. We cannot fly from our world duties; it is ours to execute the purpose of a fate that has driven us to be greater than our small intentions. We cannot retreat from any soil where Providence has unfurled our banner; it is ours to save that soil for liberty and civilization."

"The Lust of Empire," George Hoar, 1900

Summary: This speech was given about the U.S. war in the Philippines by Senator Hoar on April 17, 1900. He answers the assertions from a Connecticut senator that the Constitution gives the U.S. the right to control the Philippines. Hoar claims he is in favor of a loose interpretation of the Constitution, l) but nowhere does it give such powers. He compares such attitudes as outgrowing the need for the Constitution or other guidelines like the Golden Rule. He dismisses the idea that taking down the flag or giving back land that was taken is not dishonorable, and he lists several examples where the U.S. has done it or had it done in the U.S. He attacks the senator's argument that taking territory is a right without limits. He believes that adding territory that is destined for statehood is constitutional but ruling foreign people against their will is not. He denies the comparison of the Filipino people to Indians or slaves and the U.S. treatment of those groups in the past because they are clearly a separate nation with an established government. He ends with a warning about the U.S. trying to "better" the Philippines against their will. Key Quotes: "... by reducing to subjection a distant people, dwelling in the tropics, aliens in blood, most of them Moslem in faith, incapable to speak or comprehend our language, or to read or to write any language, to whom the traditions and the doctrines of civil liberty are unknown, it will be time to point out what terrible results and penalties this departure from our constitutional principles will bring upon us." "I deny the right to hold land or acquire any property for any purpose not contemplated by the Constitution. The government of foreign people against their will is not a constitutional purpose but a purpose expressly forbidden by the Constitution. Therefore, I deny the right to acquire this territory and to hold it by the government for that purpose." "I say that the nation which undertakes that plea and says it is subduing these men for their good when they do not want to be subdued for their good will encounter the awful and terrible rebuke ..."

"More Like A Pig Than a Bear," Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, 1846

Summary: Vallejo was a California living in Alta California at the time of the Mexican-American War. He would eventually write a history of California that discussed the treatment of those of Spanish heritage like himself who supported U.S. acquisition but lost much of their influence and property. He was taken prisoner during the Bear Flag Revolt near Sonoma led by John C. Fremont. He describes the planning and execution of the revolt as illegal and amount to theft. Vallejo recounted how his home was surrounded by members of Fremont's company in June and was told he would be arrested. Captain Merritt and William Ide led the group, but after brandy had been passed around, many wanted to begin looting the residence. Dr. Semple was able to stop the men from looting. A garrison was created at Sonoma under Ide with the group later being known as the Bear Flag Party. Ide issued a proclamation for the reasons of declaring independence, and the Bear Flag was raised at the Sonoma Plaza. It read "California Republic" with a painted bear which Vallejo describes as more closely resembling a pig. The local ranchers would have welcomed the U.S. taking possession but saw this group as lawless and planned a defense. The first lives were taken by the rancher Bernardo Garcia, known as "Three-fingered Jack," who stabbed two captives while other ranchers met to decide what to do with them. Vallejo and other prisoners were taken to Captain Sutter at New Helvetia where they were treated poorly and stayed for some time. Vallejo discusses the History of California written by Franklin Tuthill and how it created heroic encounters for the Bear Flag company that did not happen and does not discuss their abuses. He states his desire for a true account of history to be told and focuses on the Bear Flag being the cause of unnecessary violence on the Sonoma frontier. Key Quotes: "I will remark that, if the men who hoisted the 'Bear Flag' had raised the flag that Washington sanctified by his abnegation and patriotism, there would have been no war on the Sonoma frontier, for all our minds were prepared to give a brotherly embrace to the sons of the Great Republic, whose enterprising spirit had filled us with admiration. Ill-advisedly, however, as some say, or dominated by a desire to rule without let or hindrance, as others say, they placed themselves under the shelter of a flag that pictured a bear, an animal that we took as the emblem of rapine and force. This mistake was the cause of all the trouble, for when the Californians saw parties of men running over their plains and forests under the 'Bear Flag,' they thought that they were dealing with robbers and took the steps they thought most effective for the protection of their lives and property."

"Ballad to a Massacre: The Indian Ghost Dance and War," W.H. Prather, 1890

Summary: W.H. Prather, the regimental poet of the Ninth Cavalry, wrote about the military point of view of the Wounded Knee Massacre. The attack on the reservation village on Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota, took place on December 29, 1890, and basically brought an end to the Ghost Dance resistance movement. It involved the deaths of around 200 women and children. Prather created a song that was sung by multiple regiments of the era. The lyrics allude to the Ghost Dance belief that blessed clothing made Lakota warriors impervious to bullets. Generals Nelson A. Miles and John R. Brooke and Colonel Guy Henry are mentioned. The song mentions previous battles between the Seventh Cavalry and Big Foot (Spotted Elk), both of whom were involved at Wounded Knee. Other units such as the Eighth and Sixth Cavalry and the E Battery of the 1'1 Artillery participated as well. Hotchkiss artillery guns are mentioned as being deadly effective. The song finishes by noting the event ended the Ghost Dance resistance and further opened the land to settlers. Key Quotes: "The Red Skins left their Agency, the Soldiers left their Post, All on the strength of an Indian tale about Messiah's ghost, Got up by savage chieftains to lead their tribes astray; But Uncle Sam wouldn't have it so, for he ain't built that way. They swore that this Messiah came to them in visions sleep, And promised to restore their game and Buffalos a heap, So they must start a big ghost dance, then all would join their band, And may be so we lead the way into the great Bad Land."

"The Hawaiian Situation: Our Present Duty," William M. Springer, 1893

Summary: William M. Springer, a member of the House of Representatives (D-IL), wrote an essay rebutting Stevens' assertion in the same issue of the North American Review. He takes an isolationist tone that denies the U.S., has any right to intervene in Hawaii. He also believes that the U.S. is without obligation to interfere in Hawaii even if the crown is acting immorally, which he also believes is a false assertion. He states that the use of the U.S. military to usurp authority from the established government was unlawful and that based on his research, the current government seeking annexation is in no way representative of the Hawaiian people or their will. He dismisses the idea that because the new pro American government is Christian that the U.S. should or must support it. He does not defend the monarchy's ability or the Hawaiian people, but rather attacks U.S. involvement. He does believe it is necessary for the U.S. to return control to the monarchy because its military wrongly assisted in its removal. He further argues that annexation would not bring any additional benefits to the country. He questions the ability of their people to participate in the U.S. government or be citizens and predicts a push against them receiving representation as a state. He instead supports keeping their useful ports open and neutral and hoping that U.S. relations and trade will improve their station in the long run. Key Quotes: "Whether the government of Hawaii was a just one, a moral one, or an efficient one, is a matter which does not concern the American people. We have no more right to overthrow a monarchy in Hawaii because it does not conform to our ideas of a just government, than we have to overthrow a monarchy in Canada or Great Britain, or Russia or Turkey, or Spain or elsewhere." "Their civilization, their habits, their ideas of government will not assimilate with our institutions and we do not need the aid of the representatives of such a government in the councils of the nation to assist us in the solution of the governmental problems with which our people have to contend. Annexation therefore is of very doubtful expediency."