Story drills

Character Sketch

"A character sketch isn't a drawing or an illustration. It's a detailed description of a character, often written as a list of traits, plus some prose describing the character's backstory. Character sketches serve several purposes that are useful to authors. Sketches help authors get to know their characters before bringing them into a story's action. We know what they look like, what they want, and what kind of decisions they would make. This can make the writing of a first draft flow smoothly because we don't have to stop every few pages and wonder what the character would do or what they're thinking."

Distancing effect

"A distancing effect is a literary device in which a character is intentionally crafted to be unsympathetic, usually so the audience will approach the character with scrutiny or cynicism. It can be used to lay the groundwork for a future surprise (a character that seems nefarious does a good deed), or it can be used to make the audience believe the character is an antagonist, although the character will turn out to be sympathetic or even helpful to the protagonist's cause."

Flashbacks and flashforwards

"A flashback jumps back in time and shows a full, fleshed-out scene that occurred before the story's present timeline. Similarly, a flash forward jumps forward in time and shows future events. Many writers use a variety of storytelling techniques to explain what happened in the past (and in some cases, what will happen in the future). A character can make a reference to a past event via dialogue, or exposition can be used to reveal backstory. However, flashbacks and flash forwards show the events of the past or future in scenes, complete with action and dialogue, as if the narrative had traveled in time. In time travel stories, the characters move backward and forward through" "time, taking the narrative with them. Even though they might move back in time a few decades, the timeline of the story remains chronological, through the characters' experience. But a flashback pauses the current timeline to step back in time temporarily, usually to reveal important information from the past that is essential to the story."

Motif

"A motif is a recurring idea, element, or symbol in a story. A story can have multiple motifs, and they can be just about anything, including an oft-repeated word, phrase, or gesture. Motifs serve a variety of purposes. Repeating elements of a story's setting can reinforce the tone, mood, or atmosphere. Repeating a character's behavior establishes their personality. Repetition of broad concepts can support—or even form—a story's theme. The film Titanic is packed with motifs. Wealth is represented throughout the film with recurring images of expensive artwork, jewelry, and other finery. Oppression is another motif, which is represented with Rose being dominated by Cal, the third-class passengers trapped "below deck as the ship sinks, and Jack barred from leaving the third-class accommodations to visit Rose in first class. This contrast in motifs (wealth and oppression) contributes to the film's thematic statement, which deals with the choice between freedom and security. Motif can often be summed up in a single word: liberty, blood, love, water, power, money, and fear are just a few examples of motifs that could appear in a story. Concrete images are often used to form an abstract motif. Let's say you want a motif of liberation in your story. You might include a bird flying free from a cage, a prisoner being released, and a hostage escaping captivity. While no single image is repeated, the concept or idea of liberation is echoed in each of these images. Motifs don't have to be deep, serious, or even meaningful. Any repetition can "form a motif, even the recurring appearance of a caterpillar in a children's story."

Paradox

"A paradox is any conflict in concept, reason, or logic. If you traveled back in time and killed your own grandfather before he met your grandmother, would you cease to exist? How can you exist if you've eliminated the source of your own existence? This famous question is called the grandfather paradox. The predestination paradox says that time travel can't cause changes to the timeline due to predestination. Also called a causal loop, it establishes a time loop in which certain events and outcomes remain unchanged. No matter what you do when you travel to the past, the outcome of the future remains the same. "And then there's the bootstrap paradox, which occurs when something or someone travels back in time and gets locked into an infinite time loop resulting in the object or person having no origin. For example, someone travels back in time and gives someone else a watch. The recipient of the watch ages thirty years, encounters the person who had traveled back in time previously, and gives them the watch. The watch is stuck in an infinite loop, the bootstrap paradox. Time travel stories often contain brain twisters, somewhat confusing hypotheses about time travel that give some people headaches. Others love to contemplate, discuss, and theorize on the many paradoxes that can occur in time-travel scenarios. But paradoxes aren't exclusive to time travel. Anytime there's a conflict in concept, reason, or logic, paradox is at play." "Paradoxes can get readers thinking in fresh or interesting ways about various concepts. There are plenty of examples in literature. Shakespeare's Hamlet says, "I must be cruel to be kind." There's a conflict in the logic of his statement; therefore it is a paradox.

Scene

"A scene is a single stretch of narrative in which characters engage in an unbroken sequence of action and dialogue. Scenes are the most basic building blocks in storytelling. Each scene contains a story arc: a beginning, middle, and end. There should be some element of change within each scene. This change could be a minor but essential detail about a character or a revelation about a major plot point. Here's a checklist of what usually happens in a scene: The setting is established; there's action and dialogue; a conflict occurs (major or minor); tension rises or falls; and there is a change of some kind (large or small). Each scene should also have essential relevance to the greater story.

Sequences

"A sequence is a series of scenes that are connected. A sequence can occur at a single setting within a story or across different settings. The scenes within a sequence can be presented consecutively, or the story can move away from a sequence and return to it later. A common sequence found in stories is a car chase. Consider a police procedural: The cops are hunting for members of an organized crime ring. The car chase sequence might consist of three separate scenes, each from a different character's point of view and each containing its own arc. For example, the first scene shows cops sitting at a traffic light and then turning on the lights and sirens when the criminals' car passes; the scene ends as the cops pull into the street to "chase the criminals. The next scene shows the criminals speeding through city streets, trying to get away from the police; this scene ends when they have finally shaken the cops. Then we see the police searching for the criminals and finally finding their car parked behind an old garage; the scene ends when the cops have finally trapped the suspects with barricades in the street. In this same story, there could be another plot thread in which the lead detective is interviewing suspects and gathering evidence. The scenes in the car chase sequence could be interspersed with the detective's scenes, breaking up the sequence. Either way, the sequence consists of multiple scenes, each with a beginning, middle, and end during which something changes"

comic relief

"A story benefits from moments of humor even if it's not a comedy. A good laugh can break up the intensity of a story, relieve built-up tension, and give it emotional depth. These jocular moments are considered comic relief because accumulated tension, suspense, or sorrow that readers experience can be melted away with some humor. This allows the reader to reset emotionally and prepare for the tension to start building up again."

Opportunity and limitations

"A story's setting can present the characters with opportunities or limitations. Imagine a character gouging a knee while deep in the woods and without medical supplies versus such an injury in a city, where there's a hospital nearby. Imagine two characters who dream of becoming Broadway stars, but one lives in New York and the other lives in Arizona. If a character needs to bury something, but she lives on the tenth floor of a high-rise in a big city, she's got a logistical challenge that wouldn't exist if she lived on a farm in the Midwest. You might choose a particular setting for your story because of the opportunities or limitations it provides. Many horror stories are set in the woods, which are" "easy to depict as scary and creepy, especially at night. Or you might choose a setting and later benefit from the opportunities or limitations it presents your characters; or perhaps the setting you've chosen will impede the narrative that you've planned, and you may need to move the story to a different location. This is why it's important to think about how your story's setting will affect your characters' daily lives and the challenges they will face."

symbolizm

"A symbol is anything that represents something else. In literature, symbolism is used for underscoring motifs and themes, emotional and intellectual stimulation, and to establish tone, mood, or atmosphere. Harry Potter's scar is a badge of honor, a symbol that represents his special ability to survive. In As You Like It, Shakespeare uses a stage to symbolize the world and players to symbolize human beings. In To Kill a Mockingbird, the mockingbird symbolizes innocence. There are many universal symbols that you can use: Mars symbolizes war and warriors; the color white symbolizes innocence or purity; underground locations symbolize the depths of the subconscious or the mythical underworld." "But you need not rely on universal symbols. You can use your own imagination to develop symbols that underscore a theme in a story and enhance other elements of the narrative. Symbols are often concrete items—objects, places, animals, or people—but they can represent abstract ideas or concepts. Symbols are effective tools for highlighting important aspects of a story, and they often emerge unintentionally as a natural part of the story development process, although some authors may intentionally work symbols into their narratives."

Process

"A typical writing process includes the following steps: brainstorm, outline, research, draft, revise, edit, proof, and publish. Sounds pretty straightforward, doesn't it? But it's not. The writing process is a little different for each author, and it's a messy process for most. Some authors don't bother brainstorming or outlining. They're struck by an idea, and they start writing. Some authors write chapter by chapter, editing and polishing as they go instead of completing a draft and then revising the entire manuscript. Some authors work without any notes or research. Others use meticulous note-taking and research. And many authors spend a good portion of their early careers discovering and "refining the process that works best for them. Authors might also use different processes for different projects. Ultimately each author must figure out what works best for their particular writing goals and working style"

Character action

"Action and dialogue are the wheels that carry a story forward. We see the characters taking action; we observe their conversations; sometimes we get inside their heads where their innermost thoughts are revealed. Action and dialogue show the story unfolding before our eyes. Some actions are significant at the plot level: The crime, the car chase, and the first kiss are all examples of actions within a story that are essential to moving the plot forward. But some actions are useful for helping readers understand the characters, which might move the plot forward in subtle but significant ways. Action shows us what the characters are doing, whether they are unhappily pushing food around on a plate or excit" "excitedly chasing a culprit through city streets. Consider the following: Kate was sad. Kate cried. Kate swallowed hard and brushed away her tears. The first example tells us how Kate feels. The second example shows us how Kate feels. But the third example uses action so we can see for ourselves how Kate feels. Which of these sentences evokes the most vivid image of the story playing out in your mind?"

Beta reader

"After all the drafts and revisions of a story, you will lose the ability to view your work with a critical eye. You will have become too close to your manuscript to examine it objectively, so you won't be able to see all of its weaknesses and flaws. You also won't be able to see some of its strengths. If you can't see the strengths, you run the risk of editing them out of the story, and if you can't see the weaknesses and flaws, you can't fix them. Beta readers can help. Beta readers are a group of people who read a draft of your manuscript and provide critical feedback that is intended to help you improve your work before you present it to readers, agents, or editors.""Authors use beta readers at various steps in the writing process. It's never a good idea to hand out sloppy work, so the material you share with beta readers should be somewhat polished, even if it's an extensive outline. You can use one beta reader or ten, but you'll find that each reader catches different types of problems. If you want a range of perspectives, it's best to round up a group of several of beta readers. You can ask your beta readers for general feedback, but you can also ask pointed questions regarding elements of the story that you suspect need more work. Most beta readers focus on story, but you can also ask them to check for technical mistakes (grammar, spelling, and punctuation). However, beta readers are not a replacement for a professional editor."

Plot Backstory

"All events that occurred prior to the current story are considered backstory. Backstory is usually revealed through exposition, dialogue, or flashbacks, and it has significant bearing on the current events within a story, explaining how things got to where they are now. Backstory adds depth and realism and enriches a story world with details from its past. Authors often create backstories for their plots and characters to gain a deeper understanding of them. Details from these backstories might be used during story development but never revealed in the final narrative, or an elaborate backstory might be included in a narrative as a minor but essential detail. Plot backstory is different from character backstory. A character's backstory""describes the highlights of a character's life up to the moment that the story starts. A plot backstory looks at broader events in the story world that occurred prior to the story's beginning. Plot backstory is particularly useful in complex stories, such as stories set in the distant future, family sagas (backstory would describe the family dynamics over previous generations), and historical fiction—to name a few."

Managing our ideas

"All the storytelling skills in the world are useless if you don't start with good ideas. Most writers suffer from too many ideas. They give up in the middle of a project to start a different project when they get a tempting new idea. But other writers struggle to find ideas that they want to explore. They think their ideas are boring or unoriginal, or maybe not strong enough to keep their interest for the full duration of a book-length project. Generating ideas, choosing the best ideas, and seeing ideas through to completion are important skills for a writer to develop. Most ideas that seem fresh are just old ideas with a new twist. It's almost impossible to find a story that doesn't include various elements from stories that came "before. There's nothing wrong with wanting to be original, but if it's preventing you from creating stories, perhaps you're being too hard on yourself and your ideas. Before diving into a long-term project, make sure you've explored all your options and chosen an idea that you can see through to completion. Before committing to a project, spend some time with its concept and premise. A short story isn't a major commitment, so jump in. But if you plan to write a novel, which could take a year or more, ask yourself whether it's really an idea to which you want to make a long-term commitment."

Allegory

"An allegory is a story with a hidden meaning that often imparts a moral lesson. "The Tortoise and the Hare" is an allegory about a tortoise who wins a race against a hare, even though tortoises are slow and hares are fast. The moral of the story? The hare's running speed is useless because he's lazy; the tortoise's slow and steady persistence wins the day. Allegories are often found in children's tales, but they exist in all forms and genres of storytelling."

Narrative arcs

"An arc has a beginning, a middle, and an end. The events within an arc result in some kind of change for the story world, characters, or direction of the plot. In serial or episodic storytelling, a story arc is an ongoing story line that spans multiple installments. An arc might last through several episodes of a television show or several issues of a comic book. In literature, an arc might stretch across multiple books in a series. A narrative arc (or dramatic arc) is similar to a story arc, except it doesn't have to occur across multiple installments of episodic storytelling. A narrative arc is any arc within a story, including the central plot and any subplots. Narrative arcs can occur within a single scene or span across a sequence of scenes. "Characters also experience arcs when they undergo a progression of transformation. That's a lot of different types of arcs. To make matters more confusing, the terms for story arcs, narrative arcs, and dramatic arcs are often used interchangeably."

Set in time

"An aspect of setting that is often overlooked is time—when a story takes place. This is an element of setting that historical authors pay close attention to, often conducting deep research to get every detail right—the clothes, the methods of transportation, and the society and culture as it existed at a particular moment in history. But even authors of contemporary fiction must remain cognizant of a story's timeline. When do the story events occur? What year? What season? What time of day? In addition to establishing when a story takes place, we need to make sure readers always know where they are in a story's timeline. If there's a scene jump," "did an hour pass? A day? A month? How do readers know? Amateur authors often mark time by repeatedly stating when each scene takes place. It's Monday or Wednesday, ten a.m. or six p.m. These repeated mentions of time can make readers feel like they should be keeping track of the timeline on a calendar. Establishing the time is best done subtly, unless the story requires concrete statements of time, as might be the case in a detective story or spy thriller. Keeping readers in a story's timeline without constantly reminding them of the day, month, year, or hour can be tricky. In most cases, all that matters is when the scene occurs in relation to a story's timeline. So once the base timeline is established (hopefully at the beginning of the story), we can use various cues to help the reader understand how time is passing. Common techniques include phrases" "such as "a month later," "the next day," and "later that evening." However, descriptions of the setting can also provide cues to inform readers about the time: the sun is rising, the moon is in the sky, the harvest has begun."

Weaving it all together

"An experienced author knows how weave action, dialogue, description, and exposition together to form a smooth and seamless narrative. It's easy to write in blocks: a paragraph of description to set the scene followed by a bit of action and dialogue to show what's happening in the story, and then some exposition to provide context for the characters and the events. Blending these elements makes every moment in the story more vital. For example, if we read a block of text describing a character's appearance, a few details might get lost in the fray, but when one key descriptive detail is revealed via dialogue, it has a better chance of sticking in the reader's mind. Consider the following description: "Maya's small frame was topped off with a head of wild, frizzy hair. Her catlike eyes were quick, and she was always smirking. She wore leggings under a loose tunic, with knee-high boots and a tattered velvet scarf draped around her shoulders. She wore no jewelry, and her nails were bitten to the quick. Now consider revealing one of these details at another point in the story, through dialogue: Jones reached across the table and took Maya's hands in his. "You've chewed your nails off," he said, lifting her fingertips to his mouth and gently kissing them. Either approach works, and the best choice will depend on the story. Do Maya's bitten nails represent something important, something that will be relevant to her relationship with Jones? Or "are they simply part of who she is? Bitten nails could indicate a lifelong habit, or they could have some meaning to the story's events or Maya's character. What if she started biting them after her best friend went missing? What if Jones is a detective trying to find Maya's best friend? The answers to these questions could drive the decision about where to reveal this detail and whether it belongs in a paragraph of pure description or if it should be given more prominence in a dialogue scene."

Anamorphism and personification

"Anthropomorphism is when a nonhuman character behaves like a human. The character could be a plant, an animal, or an object. It could be a robot, a car, or a house. Humanlike behaviors could include talking, walking, emoting, or any other behavior that is not typically seen in the plant, animal, or object that is being anthropomorphized. Anthropomorphism is commonly found in fantasy, science-fiction, and children's stories. The talking furniture and household items in Beauty and the Beast are famous examples of anthropomorphism in literature. Personification is closely related to anthropomorphism. However, instead of a nonhuman character behaving like a "human, personification assigns human qualities to nonhuman objects and animals: That plant is friendly. This computer is tired. My car is throwing a tantrum."

Editor

"At some point, most authors need to consider whether to hire a professional editor to help them fine-tune a manuscript. It's important to note that other writers, English majors, and language arts teachers are not editors. Editors aren't just good at editing written work—they specialize in it. And there are different types of editors. Developmental editors are similar to beta readers; they help with storytelling and structure; they often work off outlines and summaries before the first draft of a story is written. Copy editors check for syntax, flow, and various other language issues. Line editors proofread to make sure grammar, spelling, and punctuation are spot-on. Some editors provide "all these services while others specialize in certain types of editing. Traditionally, authors would sell their work to a publishing house, and editors employed by the house would work with the author to perfect the manuscript. But these days, with self-publishing as a viable option and with the publishing market growing more competitive, many authors hire their own editors. It's also important to know that most manuscripts undergo multiple edits—and not necessarily different types of edits. One manuscript might go through three copyedits. Very few editors can catch every problem in a manuscript, and the more problems there are, the more will remain after an edit. That's why it's important to polish your own work as much as possible before handing it over to an editor. Finally, as with all things, there is a huge range of rates among editors, and "you'll almost always get what you pay for."

Backstory

"Backstory is everything that happened to the characters or in the story world before the narrative begins. You could say that fiction is built on backstory. In fact, many authors spend countless hours developing backstory, most of which never makes it into the final narrative. However, the author's knowledge of the story's history bleeds into the prose, enriching it with realism." "A good rule of thumb is to avoid including too much backstory in a manuscript unless it's necessary to understanding the narrative." "Character backstory is useful when it's peppered with details that are linked to the character's situation within the story. For example, a character who lives and works in a big city and who's jumpy and uncomfortable with all the big-city noises might be explained as having spent the first thirty years of her life living in a quiet rural area."

Beat

"Beats is a screenwriting term, but it's useful for all storytellers and can be especially useful for novelists. This term sometimes has different meanings. Traditionally, beats are units of time that are used to measure the pacing of a screenplay in order to plan a film's run time. The word beats is also used to refer to story units, each of which contains a single significant action. Authors can use beats as a method of outlining a story before writing the first draft. Beat sheets can also be created during revisions to get an overview of a story and figure out its pacing, turning points, structure, and balance. Beats can be used to work through an entire novel, a single chapter, or a challenging scene." "Here's an example of a few beats for "Little Red Riding Hood": Little Red Riding Hood carries a basket of food through the woods to her grandmother's house. The Big Bad Wolf secretly follows Little Red Riding Hood. He approaches her and convinces her to tell him where she's going. He tells her to pick some flowers for her grandmother. She does. While she's picking flowers, the Big Bad Wolf goes to the grandmother's house. The story itself includes a lot more detail, like action and dialogue and description. But as you can see, beats provide a broad overview of every point of action in a story."

Unmasking

"But surprises don't have to come at the end of a story. Some of the best stories are peppered with delightful surprises that prompt readers to keep turning the pages. But be careful—poorly executed surprises and twists can come off as cheap ploys, unbelievable or obvious, or contrived. The best surprises feel natural. Readers will say, "I didn't see that coming, but now it totally makes sense!" Surprises usually occur in the story's plot, but surprises that change our view of a character are also enticing. When the characters are full of surprises, they take on new dimensions, and as the charc "ters' secrets are revealed and their true selves are unmasked, readers will be thrilled by the surprise—if it's executed well. For this exercise, be careful not to confuse a character's transformation with a surprise unmasking. When a character changes, they start out one way and become different as a result of their experiences. In an unmasking, we learn that the character wasn't who we thought they were all along."

Building a cast

"Casts are all about relationships, and relationships are complex. Some characters have a strong bond; others don't get along. Some work together; others sleep together. Some characters are trying to achieve a goal while others work to prevent them from succeeding. We think of stories as being focused on a protagonist, but it's often the strength of the cast that makes a story dynamic." "Characters that complement but contrast each other tend to work best in a cast. If the characters share goals, values," "Characters that complement but contrast each other tend to work best in a cast. If the characters share goals, values,"

Conversation

"Conversations can be revealing, exposing a person's interests, values, attitudes, and other personality traits. Sometimes through conversation you learn someone's history, their problems, or their passions. This can work with characters too. You're going to do a little playacting, which involves playing yourself and your character. You'll do it through a mock chat. Before you start, you might want to come up with a list of questions to ask your character. Also, this is a great exercise to use when you get stuck in a story "that doesn't want to move forward. Simply chat with your character to try to find out what's holding them back from taking the next step"

Description

"Description helps readers visualize a story and its characters by providing details about the story world and its inhabitants. Description might be a string of sentences about a character's height, weight, hair color, eye color, and clothing—or it could be a short paragraph depicting a room's furnishing, lighting, and ambiance. Description provides images so the reader can experience the story visually. Writers sometimes start every scene with lengthy descriptions of the setting, or they introduce each character with a detailed description of the character's appearance. While this can convey the story visually, it can also become dull and repetitive. It's important to strike a balance between providing enough detail "upon introducing a character or setting so the reader can visualize it and refraining from lengthy streams of description that can quickly grow trite. Conversely, we can't wait too long to provide important details—if a reader has spent five chapters visualizing a character with brown hair because the hair color was not mentioned and then the narrative states that the character has red hair, it will be jarring. Novice authors often stuff their stories with description; they want to make sure the reader can visualize every detail, exactly how the author sees it in their head. However, some details are best left to readers' imaginations. Provide a few key details, and let readers fill in the rest. This encourages reader participation in the story, and it enhances the reading experience. The trick is to know how much description to provide, when to provide it, and which details to include.

Dialogue

"Dialogue is one of the most compelling elements of any narrative. It can be used to advance the plot, establish relationships between the characters, reveal key information about the characters, describe the setting, and set the theme. It can't be said enough that readers connect with a story through its characters, so it makes sense that dialogue often makes up some of the most critical parts of a story. We humans are, after all, social creatures, and we all experience the highs and lows, the friction and harmony, that relationships bring into our lives. In a story, we see the dynamics of relationships played out through dialogue. And readers connect with those dynamics, especially when they're well executed. "Well-written dialogue flows seamlessly. Readers can hear the characters' voices in their minds. It sounds like a real conversation. However, the secret to good dialogue is that even though it sounds authentic, it's not. If you transcribe a real conversation, it won't work in a story's narrative. It will be peppered with a bunch of unnecessary words and statements ranging from lengthy introductions and farewells, small talk, and ums. Good dialogue gets to the heart of matters quickly and efficiently. Consider the following: "Hey, Joe." "Hi, Sue." "How are you?" "Not bad, how are you?" "Pretty good. Just waiting for summer so I can take my kids camping." "I hear you. As soon as the sun comes out, I'm heading to the beach." "Sounds awesome. Say, I wanted to talk to you about a murder case we worked on a few years ago." The characters speak over six lines of dialogue before they get to the good stuff. It feels like a long slog. But this is what a real conversation would look like, transcribed to the page. We writers use our storytelling magic to tighten it up into a more riveting conversation: "Joe, I need to talk to you about the Watershed case." Joe almost lurched out of his chair. He hadn't heard Sue approaching his desk from behind."

Drafting

"Drafting is the process of getting a story out of your head and onto the page. It's not brainstorming or outlining or planning or editing. It's writing the scenes and chapters of a manuscript in prose, regardless of whether you plotted them out ahead of time. Most authors produce multiple drafts before a story is ready for an editor. There's no right or wrong way to write a draft. Some authors start at the beginning of a story and work through every scene until they get to the end. Others start in the middle. Some jump around, writing whatever scene or chapter they feel compelled to compose. A few even start at the end and work their way backward. "Some authors write slowly and meticulously; they want to get it right the first time so there are fewer revisions later. They spend more time on each draft but produce fewer drafts. Others write as fast as possible to get all the ideas out of their heads and onto the page. The early drafts are rough, but they are cleaned up later with revisions and fresh drafts. How you approach drafting will depend on your working style and goals. If you're working under a deadline, you'll probably want to develop a speedy drafting process. If you're writing for pleasure, you might want to take your time and do whatever feels most comfortable.

Exposition

"Exposition is everything in a story that isn't action or dialogue. Exposition provides background information and details about the plot, characters, and setting. It includes backstory, information dumps, and other details about the story's events. The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is packed with exposition, which provides extensive background information pertaining to the story's plot and characters. It provides readers a deeper understanding of events in the story's past that led to its present circumstances. Although exposition is less thrilling than action and dialogue, it can be captivating when written well, and it is a useful tool for making sure readers have a better understanding of a story. In most "cases, exposition is best kept to a minimum, and background information is ideally revealed through action and dialogue; however, some stories require deeper exploration of the story world, and exposition can be preferable to showing characters sitting around, awkwardly explaining this kind of background information to one another for the readers' benefit."

Chapters

"First-time novelists often ask how many chapters should be in their books and how long the chapters should be. There are no rules about how to break a story into chapters. Some authors write longer scenes, each comprising a single chapter. Others include several scenes in each chapter. Sometimes chapters are based on point of view, with each chapter moving to a different character's perspective. Chapters can be long or short, and a single novel could contain chapters of roughly equal lengths or of varying lengths. Some novels don't have any chapters. So how does an author decide how to break a story into chapters? Chapters breaks are usually placed at a point where there is a shift in the story. A "moment of high tension that rouses the reader's interest and curiosity is often a good place to close a chapter because chapter breaks work well when they leave the reader wanting more. A moment that transitions between characters and locations or through time can also be a good placement for a chapter break. And in stories with a steady and even flow, chapters often end where there's a natural albeit subtle break or pause in the story's rhythm. Compare a novel to a song: A song might be broken into a verse, a chorus, a bridge, and an instrumental section, each with rising (or falling) tension. Find natural points in the story where the tension changes, and these could be good spots for chapter breaks."

Foreshadowing

"Foreshadowing is one of the most common literary devices found in storytelling. It occurs when a scene, event, or character hints at what will happen later in the story. Foreshadowing is difficult to execute because it should feel natural to the story. It shouldn't feel planted, and when it occurs, it should be subtle. Sometimes foreshadowing only becomes obvious during a second reading of a story. In John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men, Lennie finds a dead mouse and puts it in his pocket, so he can care for it. George mocks Lennie, reminding him that his aunt used to give him mice, but Lennie would always accidentally kill them, even though he was trying to care for them. This foreshadows the climactic event later "in the story, in which George kills Lennie, whom he cares for. Foreshadowing may occur organically as you develop a story, but sometimes you need to intentionally drop hints about what will happen later.

Framing

"Framing devices are actions, scenes, and events that establish bookends for inner stories. Similarly, a frame story is a story that contains one or more stories within it. The novella The Turn of the Screw is a frame story: the narrative starts with an unnamed narrator listening as a friend reads a manuscript written by a governess; the governess's manuscript is the central story. Framing isn't commonly used in storytelling; most stories pull us into a single, primary narrative. But in some cases, two intertwined stories might use framing, or there might be a story within a larger story, and some stories might even contain multiple smaller stories within them."

Gun and plot vouchers

"Have you ever read a story that presented an object, character, or scenario that you expected would play an important role, only to discover that it was insignificant, or perhaps forgotten, by the narrative? Chekhov's Gun is a storytelling principle, which states that elements that appear to be significant to the story must fulfill readers' expectations. If there's a gun in the first act, it must be fired in the second act, otherwise readers will spend the rest of the story waiting for the gun to go off. A plot voucher (or plot coupon) is a literary device. It's a promise that a story makes to its audience, often in the form of a mystery or question that will be "answered or a character or object that will become important later."

Archetypal Characters

"Hero: The central figure of a story who embarks on a journey, which results in personal transformation (and usually transformation of the world as well)." "Herald: A character that signals change. The Herald often appears near the beginning of a story and marks the commencement of the Hero's Journey." "Mentor: The Mentor bestows wisdom, skills, or essential gifts to the Hero." "Threshold Guardian: The Threshold Guardian's job is to try to block the Hero from getting from one point in the story to another. Threshold Guardians are often aligned with the antagonist, but they can also be allies of the Hero." "Shapeshifter: The Shapeshifter causes confusion and uncertainty, often through lies and other duplicitous behavior, but the Shapeshifter doesn't have to be an antagonist and may be one of the Hero's allies." "Shadow: The Shadow is often a story's villain or antagonist, but Shadows can also manifest in other types of characters. The Shadow embodies the inverse of the Hero's best traits: if a "Hero's best trait is their loyalty, the Shadow will be treacherous." "Trickster: Tricksters provide mischief and comedic relief, and they often act as a stand-in for the audience, asking obvious questions, like "Why are we walking into a tunnel if we think there's a dragon at the other end?" Allies: Friends of the protagonist, Allies are helpers who provide various forms of assistance to the protagonist throughout the course of the story."

The MacGuffin

"If the plot of your story is about a character on a quest or pursuing some goal for unknown reasons, you're writing a MacGuffin. The MacGuffin is a plot device common in quests, mysteries, and thrillers. The object of the hero's goal or quest is referred to as the MacGuffin, but the story itself may also be described as a MacGuffin. MacGuffins are usually subplots, and in some cases, the MacGuffin is not crucial to the central plot. MacGuffins are common in films and television shows, but they also occur in literature."

Red Herring

"If you've ever enjoyed mystery novel, you've encountered the red herring, a misleading clue that throws characters (and readers) off the trail that leads to the correct suspect. It is most often used in mysteries when a false suspect is presented as a likely culprit but is later revealed to be innocent. Red herrings can be obvious—if the solution to a problem is too simple or if solving a crime is too easy, the story is probably dropping red herrings to intentionally mislead readers. However, a red herring that's not detectable is most satisfying because the revelation comes as a surprise. Every mystery includes red herrings. Many suspense and horror stories also "contain red herrings, but red herrings can be found in any genre."

Death trap and deus ex machina

"If you've ever read a story in which characters are rescued from a dire situation in a way that is truly unbelievable, you've probably experienced deus ex machina. Deus ex machina is a literary device that is best avoided, if possible. It occurs when a difficult or impossible situation is resolved through unlikely or unbelievable methods, often through supernatural intervention. In many cases, deus ex machina occurs when there's another literary device in play—the deathtrap. A deathtrap is a storytelling device in which the antagonist has captured the protagonist (or other primary characters), and there appears to be no way out. Deus ex machina is sometimes used to resolve a deathtrap. "We love to see characters get out of tight spots, but if the audience is pulled out the story because they cannot suspend their disbelief, then the story isn't doing its job. And deus ex machina, being unlikely and unbelievable by definition, runs a risk of pulling readers out of a story. But deus ex machina has been around for a long time, and sometimes it's used effectively. If you choose to incorporate it in your stories, give it the eyeroll test—have some friends review the scene, and see if they roll their eyes at it. You can also resolve problems caused by deus ex machina with a little revision. If you've used deus ex machina to get characters out of a situation, you can always revise other parts of the story to make it more believable. For example, if a character is dangling off the edge of a cliff and a dragon appears and rescues the character, it's deus ex machina. But if the "dragon is introduced earlier, the narrative is more believable when it appears at a dire and pivotal moment."

unreliable narrator

"In most stories, the narrator tells it like it is—we might not get the whole truth or see the entire picture of what's happening in the story, but the narrator is honest and doesn't misrepresent events. However, some narrators are not so virtuous. An unreliable narrator lacks credibility, misleads readers, and cannot be trusted to provide complete or accurate information about the plot and characters. The unreliable narrator could be deceiving readers intentionally or may believe the narrative's own misstatements. Readers might know from the beginning that the narrator cannot be trusted, or readers may not find out until late in the story that the narrative isn't trustworthy. "Famous literary works that use an unreliable narrator include Lolita, The Catcher in the Rye, and Fight Club."

Rising tension

"In music there's a concept called crescendo. Technically it refers to a gradual increase in loudness or intensity. But there's an emotional component too. As a piece of music approaches crescendo, the emotional quality intensifies—the music and lyrics grow sadder, angrier, or more celebratory. In most songs, there are multiple crescendos. There's buildup, then things slow down, then more buildup, then things slow down again. Stories follow a similar pattern in what we refer to as rising tension. Stories move toward a central climax, which is when the story reaches the moment of maximum tension—this is where the stakes are at their highest, the emotions are at peak intensity, and the central story problem is about to be resolved." "But if you look closely, you'll see that there are smaller crescendos throughout most stories. Even as the tension rises and falls, there is an underlying current of tension that builds up, up, and up until we get to the climax"

Internal and external conflict

"In order to develop a truly compelling character, it's critical for an author to know what the character wants and what's standing in the character's way." "If you want to create a complex character, identify an external goal and an internal struggle for the character, and make sure the goal and struggle are at odds with each other." "Another strategy for developing internal and external conflict is figuring out what a character wants and what a character needs. When a character's wants and needs clash, conflict arises naturally, and the character becomes infinitely more interesting."

Loglines and taglines

"Loglines hail from the film industry. A logline is a short and concise summary of a movie that's designed to pitch it to a director, a producer, or in the case of television, a network. Loglines often appear as short descriptions to help audiences understand what a film or television show is about. They are usually a single sentence—two sentences at the most. They set expectations for the story by presenting key details: the protagonist, the antagonist, and the central story problem are revealed. Here are some examples from the Internet Movie Database (IMDB): Titanic: A seventeen-year-old aristocrat falls in love with a kind but poor artist aboard the luxurious, ill-fated RMS Titanic." "The Dark Knight: When the menace known as the Joker wreaks havoc and chaos on the people of Gotham, the Dark Knight must come to terms with one of the greatest psychological tests of his ability to fight injustice. Hidden Figures: The story of a team of African-American women mathematicians who served a vital role in NASA during the early years of the US space program. The Big Bang Theory: A woman who moves into an apartment across the hall from two brilliant but socially awkward physicists shows them how little they know about life outside of the laboratory. Don't confuse a logline for a tagline, which is a pitch that is specifically targeted to audiences. Taglines appear on posters and other publicity materials. They are designed to arouse curiosity and "inspire interest in a film rather than reveal key details about it. Here are a few examples of taglines: Alien: In space, no one can hear you scream. Jurassic Park: An adventure 65 million years in the making. Office Space: Work sucks. Loglines are occasionally used in the publishing world too. They can come in handy when you need a short and pithy description for your book on social media or marketing materials. And taglines aren't just for movies—plenty of product manufacturers and service providers use them alongside branding. Authors can make good use of loglines and taglines too."

Love Triangle

"Love triangles are common in all types of stories, especially in the romance genre. But they can also appear in any stories with romantic subplots. A love triangle occurs when three characters have romantic feelings for one another in any combination. However, there are plenty of twists we can put on a love triangle. Instead of a romantic triangle, there could be a triangle of friendship or loyalty. A group of three best friends might struggle in a friendship triangle if two of the friends are battling for the attention or loyalty of the third. And it doesn't necessarily have to be a triangle. What if it were a love square, with four players? You can have lots of "fun coming up with various geometric relationships among your characters"

Monologue

"Monologues often reveal interesting things about the speaker; among these are the speaker's voice—the way they string words together. Think about your friends, family members, and coworkers. They frequently use certain words and phrases. There are idiosyncrasies in the way they talk—sometimes pronouncing a word in an unusual way. Some people speak with simple language; others have a vast vocabulary. In fiction, characters will be more realistic if each has a unique voice—their own" "The character is relating a significant event from their past: the loss of a loved one, a major life transition, or one of those everyday moments that change everything or stay with you forever. The character is faced with a serious challenge or decision and is discussing the options and the possible consequences of their choices. The character is in the middle of an emotional crisis and is overcome by grief, rage, envy, or some other intense feelings. The character is giving a speech or lecture on a topic that they are knowledgeable about."

Starting with theme

"More often than not, a theme manifests in a story without a writer putting much thought into it during early outlines and drafts. Aspiring writers are often discouraged from focusing on theme and are instead encouraged to focus on building characters and plot—the theme will emerge naturally, and it can be fine-tuned during revisions. When a story's theme is at the forefront of a writer's mind, the story can become preachy, and the elements readers connect with (characters and plot) fall to the wayside, becoming mere instruments to deliver a message. This can result in a story that lectures readers and feels forced. However, theme can be a useful tool in the writing and editing process. It cer "tainly doesn't hurt to consider the underlying themes that might emerge from any story idea while it's in the development phase. Starting from theme may not be an ideal way to develop a story, but it's a useful exercise for better understanding theme and its importance to any narrative."

Inciting Incident/Narrative Hook

"Most stories start with introductions: You meet the main characters and get a sense of the story's setting and background. At some point, early in the story, the inciting incident occurs. This is the event that kicks off the story's core conflict, challenge, or problem. It lets readers know what the primary plot is about. The inciting incident changes everything for the protagonist, obstructing their progress or pushing them onto a new path. It is the first major change, or turning point, in the story. An inciting incident can double as a narrative hook, but a narrative hook doesn't have to be the inciting incident. A narrative hook is any event, action, or detail at the beginning of a story that" "hooks readers' attention to keep them turning the pages. Both the inciting incident and a narrative hook occur near the beginning of a story, but the inciting incident establishes the core conflict whereas a narrative hook is designed to keep the audience interested in the story. They can occur at the same time in a story and can also be contained within a single plot point."

Props

"Often when we talk about setting, we forget an important element: props. These are the items that appear in the narrative and are part of the story world. In real life, props are crucial. Think about how your day starts: Your alarm clock goes off, you use the toilet, start the coffeemaker, hop in the shower, then scarf down breakfast so you don't miss the bus to work. But what if your story is set in the eighteenth century? They didn't have alarm clocks, toilets, or coffeemakers. If you're writing historical fiction, you need to know the details of everyday objects and how people used them, and you need to think about which ones are important to include in your story. You may never need to show how characters bathed in the eighteenth century; on the other "hand, you might want to include a steamy bath scene in your narrative. If you're writing fantasy or science fiction, you may need to invent your own props, and you might find yourself naming things that didn't exist until you thought them up. In contemporary fiction, we don't need to give much thought to props. The story takes place in the real world that we all know, so we would expect to see computers, mobile phones, cars, and a host of other items that we are accustomed to using. But as authors, we still need to think about which props are necessary to a story, which props will enrich a story, and which can go unmentioned."

Setting Transitions

"One of most important functions of a story's setting is to make sure readers know when and where a story takes place. Setting may need to be established for each scene within a story, especially if it takes place across multiple locations or includes a lot of time jumps. However, if the narrative is constantly repeating the time and location at the beginning of each scene, it can grow tedious and tiresome. It's helpful to practice writing a sentence or two of setting, which can then be woven, almost unnoticeably, into a story. Or try slipping the setting into the first couple of sentences of action and dialogue. Better yet, find cues you can use to tip off readers about where and when a scene takes place.""For example, the hot sun was glaring in her eyes reveals a lot of information about the setting: it's daytime, probably summer, and the character is most likely outdoors. If a setting has already been established earlier in the story, a scene may only need a few words to remind readers where it takes place; for example, mentioning characters that are present in a scene will reveal the location if readers already know where those characters are within the story world."

Hero's journey

"Ordinary World: We are introduced to the Hero in their home or starting place. Call to Adventure: The Hero's world undergoes a dramatic shift, either by an external force (often the villain) or by some change within the Hero's heart or mind or situation. Refusal of the Call: The Hero resists the Call to Adventure or refuses to accept a role in the forthcoming challenge. Meeting the Mentor: The Hero meets someone with knowledge or experience and receives training or supplies that will be required for the adventure. Crossing the First Threshold: The Hero finally accepts the Call and resolves to leave home to embark on the adventure, entering a new space or state of mind." "Tests, Allies, Enemies: The Hero acquires Allies (helpers). Foes are established, and allegiances are forged. The Hero is tested. Approaching the Underworld: The Hero and their helpers get ready for the first big challenge. The Ordeal: The Hero enters the underworld and faces death (this can be symbolic) but will emerge reborn or with a new understanding, ability, or purpose. Reward: There is a Reward for overcoming the Ordeal and surviving the underworld. The Road Back: The Hero prepares to return home; the last leg of the mission lies ahead. The tension is reaching its peak. The Resurrection: There is a final obstacle or challenge at the climax. The stakes are higher than ever. The Hero makes a sacrifice, suffers a "loss, or undergoes another death and rebirth Resolution and Return: The conflict is finally resolved. The Hero returns home (this can be a symbolic homecoming), having grown and bearing knowledge or items (treasure) that will change the world for the better. The structure is not meant to be rigid. There can be some overlap, and some stages might be repeated or occur out of order. Elements within this story structure can be symbolic or metaphorical rather than literal; for example, a treasure could be newfound knowledge rather than material wealth. The stages listed above are summarized; you can find the full twelve stages in Christopher Vogler's book The Writer's Journey."

Originality

"Originality isn't about coming up with something that's never been done before, although if you can pull that off, more power to you. Originality is about mixing and matching plots, characters, settings, and themes in a way that feels fresh. If you look closely at most stories, you'll find that many elements within them have appeared in stories that came before. Stories are made from a bunch of different ingredients. You can remove a few ingredients and add a few ingredients, and you'll have a new recipe in hand. But you're still using the same basic ingredients that have been around forever. The secret to good storytelling isn't to come up with a new ingredient—but if you get the balance of ingredients right by"

7 basic plots

"Overcoming the Monster: The protagonist tries to overcome an antagonist (which can be a character or a force). Rags to Riches: The protagonist acquires something they didn't have before (love, money, etc.). The Quest: The protagonist goes on a journey to acquire something important. Voyage and Return: The protagonist visits a strange land, overcomes various challenges there, and "returns home. Comedy: Humorous story with a happy ending in which the protagonist triumphs. Tragedy: The protagonist's flaws or mistakes lead to a negative outcome. Rebirth: Events cause the protagonist to undergo significant and meaningful personal transformation.

Pacing

"Pacing is the rhythm of a story, the underlying drumbeat that gives readers a sense of timing. A story can be fast paced or slow paced. Pacing can change throughout a story, picking up momentum and then slowing down, depending on what's happening. One chapter might span an entire week while another spans an hour. Most stories' pacing accelerates as the climax approaches. If a story drags in some parts but moves too fast in other parts, then there's a problem with the pacing. It should move along at a comfortable clip that feels natural. In real life, our sense of time changes. When we're happy and having fun, time moves fast. When we're living in a regular routine, time is slow but steady. And "when we're bored, time drags. When pacing in a story changes, it feels realistic, but a change in pacing shouldn't be noticeable or jarring. Consider a historical novel in which an entire chapter shows a three-day medieval battle, and the next chapter spends just an hour with a primary character who's been injured and is in the hospital. Both chapters might be the same length, but one covers three days while another spans just an hour. Yet the pacing is steady because it's relative: Battles happen fast, and time in a hospital goes by slowly. Pacing doesn't replicate real life, but it should reflect real life and the way time speeds up and slows down in the human experience."

Page-turners

"Page-turners aren't for everyone. Some readers feel like a cliffhanger at the end of every scene or chapter feels like the author is trying to manipulate them, and that's not entirely off the mark. But other readers love a good page-turner, the kind of book that keeps them up all night—the kind of book they can't put down because every time they get to the end of a chapter, they just have to find out what happens next. So how do you create that kind of story? The word cliffhanger comes from scenes, chapters, or books that end at a critical moment, such as a character hanging from the edge of a cliff, leaving the audience on the edges of their seats. Will the character fall to her death? Will some "one save her? Will she save herself? What happens next? But there are other ways to keep readers turning pages. For example, you can introduce new and intriguing story questions at the end of a scene or chapter. This is especially useful if the story has recently answered an open question or solved a problem or mystery. You don't have to leave your character on death's doorstep: an ongoing cascade of questions, problems, and mysteries will hold readers' attention. Let's say you're writing a romance novel about a protagonist and his love interest. They can't be together because they work for competing companies, and the protagonist's love interest is married. There are a number of ways you could create moments that will keep readers turning the pages: the love interest's spouse confesses to having an affair or asks to renew their vows; the protagonist" "meets a second love interest, creating a love triangle; someone discovers their romance and threatens to destroy their careers. Surprises also hold readers' attention, especially when things or characters aren't what they appear to be. For example, let's say the protagonist in this romance story discovers that his love interest isn't married after all; she's been lying to him this whole time. Moments that keep readers turning pages are often turning points in a story that cause the tension to rise, which has the added benefit of creating emotional interest and intensity. Cliffhangers and page-turning moments don't work for every story, and if not executed well, they can make a narrative feel contrived. So they should only be used if they flow naturally within a story."

Parody

"Parody is a form of satire that ridicules or teases through imitation. Just about anything can be parodied: books, movies, television shows, songs, even people. A parody can be critical or tributary: some parodies make fun of the original in a demeaning way while others honor the original. A parody isn't required to take the same form as the original work: a film can parody a book; a song can parody a play. Some parodies are loosely based on the original work. For example, Fifty Shades of Chicken parodies Fifty Shades of Grey, but it's a cookbook, not a novel. Other parodies may follow a plot, theme, or structure similar to the original: Spaceballs mocks Star Wars and pulls various story elements from it." "Parodies are usually humorous, and iconic works of art are common targets for parody."

Outlining and plotting

"Planning, plotting, outlining—approaching a project as an architect and drawing up a blueprint—is a popular and effective method of developing a story. Authors who plot their stories ahead of time find that drafting and revisions take less time because they've already worked through potential plot holes, character inconsistencies, and other story problems during the outlining phase. On the other hand, authors who refrain from planning their stories say they find the writing process more enjoyable because it's filled with surprises and discovery. Either approach to writing a story is valid, and in fact, most writers fall somewhere in the middle—they do a little planning, a little writing, a little more "planning, make some changes, and repeat. Outlining allows authors to create a concise, bulleted version of a story, which the author can review to identify problems that need to be fixed before the first draft is written. This can save a lot of time during revisions. Imagine placing an important story element in the first chapter only to realize when you get to the end of the draft that it's not going to work. You might have to rewrite the entire manuscript. But if you've worked through the story with an outline, you might only lose a few days of work and a few pages of writing. There are countless tools you can use to plot a story. One method is to use the three-act structure; another is to use the Hero's Journey. You can make a list of scenes or a list of every significant action that will occur throughout the story. Maybe you will use the snowflake method" "starting with a single sentence that summarizes your story, then writing a full paragraph summary, then a one-page summary, and continually expanding the story until it's complete. There are countless other story structures available, which you can use as plot guides, or you can simply outline your story based on your gut. Most outlines list the main plot points of a story. Other outlines dig into the details, breaking each plot point into beats. It's up to you to include as much (or as little) detail as you need to realize the vision of your story."

Plot points

"Plot points are the events that move a story forward—the twists, turns, and developments that push the characters toward the climax and resolution. Each plot point is a significant moment in the grander scheme of things. If a character loses her keys as a way to show us she's absent-minded, then it's not a plot point (it's characterization). But if she loses her keys when she needs to drive to the emergency room in a life-or-death situation, then it becomes a plot point. When we isolate the plot points in a story, we can see the plot without the distractions of characters, setting, or theme. Examining plot points in this manner allows us to look at the raw structure of the plot and can reveal its weaknesses: unnecessary repetition, plot holes, poor pacing, inconsistencies, lack of rising tension, and other problems that might require troubleshooting. Breaking out the plot points is one way to examine a story in a condensed format, and you can use a map of a story's plot points to fix story problems before, during, or after writing a draft, which is more efficient than revising an entire manuscript."

Point of view

"Point of view is the perspective from which a story is written. There are three points of view that you'll find in narrative fiction. First person is usually told from the protagonist's perspective, but the narrator can also be a secondary or even tertiary character in the story. First-person point of view is most easily identified by a narrator who refers to himself or herself as "I." It allows the reader into the narrator's innermost thoughts and feelings and offers an up-close account of the story's events. However, there's a trade-off: readers don't have access to other characters' thoughts and cannot see what other characters are doing unless the narrating character is present." "Second person is rare; the narrator refers to the reader as "you." Third person is the most common point of view because it offers the most flexibility. The narrator is removed from the story and relays events to the readers by referring to the characters as "he," "she," and "they." There are variations of third-person point of view: Subjective point of view allows the narrator to describe characters' thoughts and feelings using internal dialogue, whereas an objective point of view does not have access to characters' thoughts and feelings; it only offers an external view of them. A third-person omniscient narrative has full view of the story and characters at all times. The narrator knows everything in the story world but may choose which details to reveal to the reader. A third-person limited narrative only has full knowl" "edge of one character and can only relay events that character is privy to."

View of character

"Point-of-view (or viewpoint) characters are in focus throughout a story. George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire series is written in third-person limited point of view, but each chapter focuses on a different viewpoint character. When a story shifts between different characters' perspectives, it's critical to make sure readers know at all times which character is in focus. This keeps readers grounded in the story and prevents them from becoming confused. There are various cues that can be used, such as chapter titles or subtitles. For example, chapter subtitles can state the viewpoint character's name. Details about the setting, a bit of dialogue, or description can also be used to inform the reader which character is in focus. "When stories written in first person shift between different viewpoint characters, it's especially important to make sure cues are present so the reader knows which character is narrating. Giving each character a distinct voice helps readers differentiate between whose perspective they are getting in any given chapter. If your story includes different character viewpoints, review the first few paragraphs of each chapter or scene that changes point of view to check for cues and make sure the viewpoint character is clear to the readers."

Protagonist vs. Antagonist

"Protagonists usually have a goal, encounter serious challenges, make difficult choices, face consequences, and undergo meaningful transformation. Protagonists aren't always benevolent. The anti-hero is an example of a protagonist that doesn't embody the classic traits of a hero, such as strength, morality, or courage." A common misconception is that an antagonist is a villain. Villains are almost always antagonists, but not all antagonists are villains. The antagonist is essentially an obstacle that prevents the protagonist from achieving their goals. For example, if the protagonist and his best friend are vying for the quarterback position on the football team, the best friend will be the antagonist but not a villain." "The antagonist and protagonist can also be embodied in a single character, which occurs when the only thing standing in the protagonist's way...is the protagonist. The antagonist isn't always a character. In a story about a natural disaster, the antagonist could be a hurricane, a tornado, or an asteroid hurtling toward Earth. Most of these stories also include human antagonists that provide a source of conflict and drama, but a storm alone can function as a story's sole antagonist."

Reveal

"Readers love when a mystery is resolved or an intriguing question is answered. In literary terms, such revelations are called reveals. Curiosity is an intellectual function, but a reveal affects readers emotionally: They want to know who left the anonymous love letter or why the suspect committed the crime. The reveal is like a meal after a long day with no food. But is it a tasty meal or a bland, flavorless one? Well-structured reveals occur at the right time in the story. They satisfy readers' curiosity, but only after it's been built up for some time. An effective reveal rewards readers by giving them something they've been waiting for. Yet an effective reveal is also believable; it feels natural."

Satire

"Satire is criticism through humor, often using irony and overstatement. The Onion is a famous publication that satirizes the news. Articles on The Onion lampoon world events by turning them into humorous, overstated, and often ridiculous reports. Its fictional news stories mock the media, culture, and current events. Jonathan Swift's famous essay "A Modest Proposal" criticized the British treatment of the Irish by suggesting they cook and eat Irish infants, essentially saying, "We treat them so poorly now, we might as well eat their babies." Satire most often plays a role in social and political issues. Irony, overstatement, and humor are useful tools for revealing the darkest impulses of a society or for "offering different viewpoints. Satire is often used to underscore and expose absurd conditions and ideas.

sensory details

"Sensory detail appeals to any or all of the five senses: sight, sound, smell, taste, or touch. If you've ever read a story in which the characters were eating, and you could smell or taste the food, or perhaps you had a sudden hankering for whatever the characters were eating, then you know how powerful sensory details can be. Sensory detail enriches a story by making it visceral. Appealing to readers' senses is an effective technique for making a story come alive in a way that allows the reader to experience it physiologically. However, the sensory details should be relevant to the plot and characters, not placed in the narrative purely for effect.

setting as character

"Settings that have a personality of their own are popular with readers. Many science-fiction and fantasy stories are set in places that function as characters within the story: Harry Potter's Hogwarts, the USS Enterprise from Star Trek, and Pandora from Avatar are a few good examples. But cities, towns, and rural landscapes can also have personalities. For example, New York has been called the fifth main character in the television series Sex and the City. Houses, vehicles, cities, planets, nations, and rooms can express distinct personalities. Settings that behave like characters aren't appropriate for every story, but such settings can enrich a story. To give a setting personality, think about what makes characters seem" "human, even if they're not. Humans walk, talk, think, and feel. We express ourselves. We form relationships with others. We exhibit moods, attitudes, ideas, and beliefs. Ascribing traits that are normally reserved only for people or characters to a setting will make the setting more lifelike and give it greater prominence in the story."

Discovery writing

"Some authors refuse to outline their stories, and many of them say that planning the details of a story takes the fun out of writing it. They prefer to discover the story as it unfolds, while they're drafting. This method is called discovery writing. It's also often called pantsing, which comes from the expression "writing by the seat of your pants." Discovery writing can be fun and messy. We start with an idea—a scene, a character, a situation, even a single image—and then we start writing and see where our imaginations take us. We might make some wrong turns and end up deep in revisions when we get to our later drafts, but storytelling becomes a journey, not a destination. The plot, the "characters, the themes—everything develops as we craft scenes on the fly. Authors often say that with discovery writing, the characters take the wheel and guide the story. A writer with a vague plan for the end of the story finds the characters steering it in some other, completely unexpected direction. It's a process that can be thrilling and full of surprises and discoveries.""characters, the themes—everything develops as we craft scenes on the fly. Authors often say that with discovery writing, the characters take the wheel and guide the story. A writer with a vague plan for the end of the story finds the characters steering it in some other, completely unexpected direction. It's a process that can be thrilling and full of surprises and discoveries."

Dramatic visualization

"Some narratives include an abundance of visual detail or descriptive action (such as gestures and facial expressions) to make the narrative easier for readers to visualize. This is called dramatic visualization. Dramatic visualization can help or hinder a story. If it's overdone, readers might get bored of all the descriptive detail and long for more action and dialogue; they want the story to move forward. But when it's well crafted, dramatic visualization can make a story come alive in the reader's mind. Imagine a character named Ruth who is pacing during a dialogue scene. The narrative might mention Ruth's pacing just once or twice. First we learn Ruth paces as she speaks to Tommy. Later in "the scene, we learn that she continues to pace. Therefore we understand that she's pacing throughout. Another approach would be to describe the pacing throughout the scene. Every time Ruth speaks, her pacing is described. She walks across the room. She turns around. She walks back to the other side of the room. Then she does it again. If the narrative only mentions the pacing once in a lengthy dialogue scene, the reader might quickly forget that the character is pacing, so the visual of the pacing fades. On the other hand, if the pacing is mentioned too frequently, it can become dull and repetitive. The best dramatic visualization strikes the right balance, including the most important details and the ideal amount of description.

Character Diaries

"Sometimes a character remains vague, elusive, or distant, even after you've completed a character sketch and drafted the character's backstory. One way to bring clarity to a character is to get inside the character's head. Writing a diary from a character's perspective is an exercise in finding out what's in your character's heart and mind. The intimate nature of a diary can reveal the character's thoughts, feelings, attitude, goals, fears, and more. Character diaries are useful if you're writing a third-person narrative and want to get some insight into what any particular character is thinking or feeling. They're just as useful when you're developing a first-person narrative and want to"

Revisions

"Sometimes we get to the end of an outline or draft only to realize that some of the earlier scenes need to be changed. As we develop a story, new and better ideas often emerge. Maybe a character who wasn't part of our original plan appears. Maybe we think of a new plot twist. Maybe we need to plant more foreshadowing. But we can't do any of that until we've finished the first draft because we don't know the story needs to be changed until we've written it and can see its flaws or areas where improvements could be made. That's what revisions are for. Revisions allow us to go back and enhance our work. And revisions aren't just for major changes to the story. Revisions also include editing, proofreading," "and other steps we take to polish our words so the text is clean and concise. Many fledgling authors avoid revisions, and even some experienced writers would prefer to skip them. If you can work with editors, you may be able to redistribute some of the work involved. The process of revising helps fledgling authors pinpoint their writing weaknesses. If you set aside a draft for a few weeks (or months) and revisit it later, you'll find a bunch of problems that you couldn't see when you originally wrote it, and you'll also see mistakes that you repeatedly make. But this isn't a bad thing. It's an opportunity to identify flaws and work on them. As critical as revisions are to the storytelling process, writers—particularly those who tend toward perfectionism or who are attracted to shiny new ideas—must be cautious with regard to getting caught in an endless loop of revising their "work. At some point, you have to let it go. The key is knowing when."

Tense

"Stories can be written in past, present, or future tense. Future tense is rare and looks something like this: When Jane wakes up, she won't remember what happened. She'll be confused at first, but then she'll get her bearings, take a shower, and go to work as if nothing out of the ordinary had happened. Most stories are written in past tense: Jane woke up groggy and slightly confused. She had no recollection of what had happened, but she took a shower and went to work as if everything were normal. Past tense adds to the realism of a story because it feels like the narrative is relaying events that already occurred, which is how a true story would be told. Present tense has gained popularity in recent years: Jane wakes up and can't remem" "ber what's happened. She takes a shower and then goes to work. Present tense brings immediacy to a story and can feel more immersive to readers. Present tense works nicely with first person point of view because it gives readers the sense that they are inside the narrator's head as events are unfolding: I wake up dazed. My head is throbbing, and I have no idea how I got to my apartment or in my bed. I can't even remember where I went last night. I notice the clock and realize I'm late, so I jump in the shower and get ready for work"

Time lapse

"Stories don't take readers through every minute of the characters' lives. Scenes jump around in time, and the context lets us know how much time has passed. A morning scene shows characters groggy-eyed and sipping coffee; in the next scene, the moon is out, so we know the story has jumped ahead to nighttime. Signifiers and transitions tell us when each scene is taking place. Sometimes, rather than jumping from one point in time to another, a story needs to skip through time, letting readers know what happened without going into detail or showing the events that occurred in scenes. For example, let's say a character graduates from college and starts a new job. The story needs to jump ahead ten years." "No events have occurred during those ten years that need to be included in the story as scenes, but readers need to know the character has been climbing the corporate ladder during that time. A narrative can use a time lapse—exposition that quickly covers what has happened during a span of time: Over the next ten years, Jane made countless sacrifices to achieve her goals. She gave up dating, put her social life on hold, and didn't bother to move out of the studio apartment she'd been renting since her days as an undergraduate. It paid off when she eventually earned herself a spot for consideration as the company's next chief financial officer—the executive position she'd been gunning for since landing an internship with the firm right out of college. Time lapses can cover any amount of time; they're slightly different from time" "jumps because they tell us what happened rather than simply moving to a new point in time."

Brainstorming

"Storytellers use brainstorming to develop story ideas: plot, characters, settings, scenes, and more. Sometimes luck strikes and story ideas flow naturally. We zip through an outline, fly through a draft. Other times, we might have the seed of an idea—an image, a character, or a scene—but we need to expand on it before we can turn it into a viable story concept. There are many tools that writers can use for brainstorming. Most of us need nothing more than a word processing program or a notebook. Some writers use index cards, which they can later sort and organize into a story. Others use whiteboards. Brainstorming can involve making lists (of scenes, characters, etc.), creating"

Style and voice

"Style is the aesthetic quality of a piece of writing. Rhythm, word choice, imagery, and tone are a few elements that come together to form a writing style. Voice includes all the elements of style plus whatever makes any author's writing distinct. Think about the way you talk, the way your friends and family talk. You might share similar styles of speaking, but each person also has a unique voice—frequently using particular words, phrases, and expressions—a distinct way of stringing words together and a particular cadence and attitude. Style and voice are so closely related that sometimes they seem interchangeable. But an author can have a consistent voice even though their style of writing changes, depending on the project."

Subplots

"Subplots enrich a story, allowing the narrative to delve deeper into the central plot, the story world, or the characters and their relationships. Good, strong subplots explore nuances of a story and the world it inhabits. The most effective subplots are intertwined and closely related to the core plot and theme, enriching the story by providing deeper information about it. Lord of the Rings is primarily about the One Ring and the mission to destroy it in the fires of Mount Doom to save all of civilization. The story is full of subplots—most notably the friendship between Frodo and Sam, which develops and strengthens throughout the story. This subplot is intricately tied to the central plot because Sam is accompanying Frodo on his journey to bring the ring to Mount Doom, and he contributes to the mission in essential ways. The emotional nature of the subplot combined with its pertinence to the central plot makes it robust and appealing. Weak subplots are usually random tangents, often the result of the author following an idea that isn't essential to the story, or they are offshoots of the central plot that offer no value, benefit, or interest to the story or the reader."

Trope

"The classic definition of trope is "a figure of speech or the use of figurative language." Recently, trope has taken on a new meaning in which it refers to a convention or common motif, often seen in a particular genre of storytelling. For example, danger in the woods is a trope in fairy tales, a love triangle is a trope in romance novels, and interstellar travel is a trope in science fiction. A trope isn't a requirement in any genre, and in some cases, tropes have been overused to the point of becoming cliché. A ticking-clock scenario in which a bomb is set to go off could be considered a trope and a cliché in action stories because they are common in the genre (trope) and overused (cliché). That doesn't mean a ticking clock or a bomb "should never be used, but authors should be aware of tropes that have saturated a genre and only use them when they are necessary to the story or if their story has a fresh take on the trope.

Action scenes

"The love scene. The car chase. The fight sequence. These are all types of action scenes that usually mark important milestones that move a story's plot forward. Action scenes are difficult to write because they require clear, detailed descriptions of each action the characters take. The narrative can't say the characters fought, Jake won, and Mitch ended up in the hospital. It must show the fight—establishing what the fight is about; how it starts; each punch, kick, and tackle; and the outcome. Later, it will probably delve into the aftermath—the consequences of the fight. Poorly crafted action scenes often lack clarity. Readers get lost among too many" "or too few details and are confused by unclear details. Action scenes can also suffer from poor pacing, especially when they are out of step with the surrounding narrative. If it takes an hour to read about the character riding her motorcycle to the ransom drop-off point and the fight that ensues takes only five minutes to read, there could be a serious problem with pacing where important moments in the story are given less time and weight than less significant moments. Description and relevant details are also critical in action scenes. The readers need to be able to visualize every punch and kick. If it's unclear who's punching or who's getting kicked, readers will have a hard time following along. Paying close attention to clarity, pacing, and description within action scenes is essential and will mean the difference "between a riveting action scene and an action scene that tanks."

Concepts and premise

"The premise of a story can be summed up in a few words: imagine a world in which robots have taken more than half of all jobs. A premise sets the stage and gives us a vague idea of what a story is about, but it doesn't tell us the specifics. Concepts get into specifics. There are two kinds of concepts: high and low. A low concept is stripped down and generic: a man loses his job to a robot. A high concept adds interest and details that inspire interest in a story: When half of the population finds itself jobless as a result of automation, one man raises a rebellion to seize resources essential to survival. Note the key differences between premises and concepts: Premises paint a vague picture of a story world and situation. Concepts identify key points, such a "protagonist, an antagonist, a setting, and a central story question or problem (plot). Premises and concepts have two important uses: developing and selling a story. Storytellers often start with a premise or concept as the first seed of a story idea. Later, concepts and premises can be worked into juicy statements about a story that can be used for pitching to agents, editors, and readers."

Messy Middle

"The second act, or middle of a story, is often the hardest to write. It's a lot easier to set up a story or resolve it than to take it through the murky middle, which is filled with ups and downs, rising tension, and a multitude of conflicts large and small. This is where many authors get disconnected and drift away from their projects (some never return), and because the middle is so hard to write, it can also be the weakest part of a story for readers. Ideas might be plentiful when you're creating a setup or figuring out a resolution for your story. But carrying your characters through the complex twists and turns of the middle requires more time and mental effort. Or maybe you just need to work through more revisions or a "more detailed outline for your story's middle. The key is to stick with it."

Three act

"The three-act structure is one of the simplest and most effective ways to outline or analyze a story and its structure. The three acts are as follows: Setup Conflict Resolution In the first act, the plot and characters are established, and we learn what the central conflict is. It's roughly 25 percent of the story, but this is a guideline, not a rule. The second act is the longest of the three acts, usually comprising about 50 percent of the narrative. In the second act, the story builds up to a climax in which the conflict hits a boiling point. "Finally, the third act resolves the conflict. The third act is usually about 25 percent of the story."

Thematic patterning

"Thematic patterning is the distribution of theme and motif throughout a story. We've learned that motif is a recurring idea, element, or symbol in a story and that theme is the deeper meaning of a story. But how are motifs and themes executed in practice? Thematic patterning is how we use repetition to drive home aspects of a story or the ideas it contains. It's not as simple as deciding that doves symbolize peace and then showing a dove flying overhead every time the story needs to emphasize peace as a motif. Assuming there's a good reason why doves are always flying around, this could work, but a motif can be made richer by subtle or nuanced repetition: A dove can appear in one scene, and an olive branch can appear in another "Both are universally recognized symbols of peace, and together they form a motif of peace. Consider a story about two families living in America's Wild West who are engaged in a violent feud over a land dispute. If they manage to reach peace rather than massacring each other, the theme might be valuing human life over property. The thematic patterning would be formed with a combination of motifs, symbols, plot points, and characters. The repetition of motifs and the presence of symbols underscores ideas contained in the theme; plot points show the theme in action; and characters embody the theme through their behaviors and conversations."

Theme

"Theme is often described as the message of a story, but this description doesn't do it justice. Theme is also the central meaning of a story, its moral core, its subtext. It's what a story is about beyond the plot and characters. To Kill a Mockingbird is the story of a girl named Scout and her father, Atticus Finch, a white lawyer who defends an innocent black man in 1950s Alabama—that's the plot. But the story is about racial injustice—that's the theme. The mockingbird is a symbol in To Kill a Mockingbird: "Mockingbirds don't do one thing except make music for us to enjoy. They don't eat up people's gardens, don't nest in corn cribs "do one thing but sing their hearts out for us. That's why it's a sin to kill a mockingbird." This dialogue uses a mockingbird to explain why it's wrong to convict, harm, or punish someone who's innocent; the allegory of the mockingbird speaks to the novel's theme. The story includes multiple innocent characters who are treated unfairly by their community—a motif that underscores and buttresses the theme of social and systemic injustice. Theme goes beyond motif, exploring deeper meanings and asking questions about topics that are raised by motifs; when a story's theme and motifs are linked in meaningful ways, a story becomes richer and deeper. When evaluating a story's theme, there is often no absolute or objectively correct analysis; a story's theme could be subjective, depending on how a reader "interprets the narrative. Any of the following statements about the theme of To Kill a Mockingbird would be correct: It's about racial injustice in the American South during the 1950s. It's about bringing change to a community. It's about taking a moral stance that flies in the face of tradition, conventional thinking, and popular culture. Taking a few moments to contemplate a story's motifs and themes is a good exercise to do with any book, movie, or television show. You don't always need to write down your findings, but doing so will help you clarify your thoughts and better understand the story and its inner workings."

Research

"They say, "Write what you know." But do you really want your stories to be populated with characters that are exactly like you? Do you want every plot to be a reflection of your own life experiences? What if you want to write a story about astronauts, but you're a librarian? What if you want to write historical fiction, but you studied marketing in college? When you write about characters and experiences that are not your own, you run the risk of making huge mistakes in accuracy. If you write about a scientist, but your knowledge of science is limited, readers who are more knowledgeable than you will be pulled out of the story because you've gotten the details wrong. In addition to damaging the readers "experience, your work might attract negative criticism. That's why research is an important part of writing fiction. Authors conduct research to better understand the components of their stories. Research can involve reading an encyclopedia entry about dinosaurs or conducting in-depth interviews with experts and professionals who have the knowledge, experience, and expertise that a story needs in order to be accurate. So yes, it's best to write what you know. And if you don't possess the knowledge you need, then go out and get it.

Tone and Mood

"Tone and mood give a story a sense of atmosphere—how a story feels—its emotional sensibility. Atmosphere is often established through a story's setting: An old abandoned Victorian mansion beneath a full moon on a windy night can elicit a dark and creepy atmosphere. However, tone and mood can also come from the characters. A clumsy, awkward character can evoke a humorous tone for a story. And events can shape a story's tone and mood; consider the difference in tone between a story about a star athlete making it to the big leagues versus a story about the effects of war on a combat veteran. Tone and mood may also be driven by a story's genre. For example, the identify" "ing feature of horror is that it's scary. Romance is romantic. Any genre can be infused with comedy, although there is little humor in a tragedy. An adventure story can be lighthearted or terrifying; a science-fiction story can be thrilling or cerebral; a mystery can be grim or gritty, or both. One author might use a consistent tone throughout all of their works. Another might use different tones for different projects. And some authors use multiple tones in a single story: A suspenseful scene can follow a funny scene, or a tense scene can follow a sad scene. The tone can even change within a scene: A light or casual moment can turn grave in an instant. A changing tone affects the rhythm of a story, giving it emotional and atmospheric cadence. Sometimes tone and mood develop naturally from the story's characters, plot, and setting. Other times, tone and mood "might be unclear, and it's up to us, as authors, to establish a story's emotional atmosphere."

Distinct voices

"We can learn a lot about characters from how they speak. People from Boston doesn't talk the same way as people from Kentucky, and middle-school kids don't use the same vocabulary as college graduates. Everything from the families we're born into and the communities in which we're raised to our education, career, and personal interests forms the way we speak. In addition, most people have favorite words and catchphrases that they frequently use. We latch on to certain terms, and they get embedded into our vocabularies. Sometimes we pick up these words because we like them; other times we adopt them because we hear them frequently from our social circles."

Character choices

"We get to wherever we are in life through circumstance and the choices we make. Sometimes we make good decisions. Sometimes we make bad decisions. Sometimes our decisions are neither good nor bad but a matter of personal preference. Decisions run the gamut from minor issues, like how we deal with spilling coffee on a new shirt, to major issues, like deciding whether to have a child or get a divorce."

Ticking clock scenario

"We've all read a story where characters are working against the clock: A bomb is going to go off, a victim is going to die, the train is going to leave the station. They have a few hours to save the day, then a few minutes, until finally, they disarm the bomb, save the victim, or stop the train — with just seconds to spare. This is called a ticking-clock scenario, and when it's executed well, it heightens the suspense and tension in a story. Novels, films, and television shows are full of ticking-clock scenarios. If you enjoy genres like action, mystery, or suspense, then you've probably encountered a lot of ticking clocks. But hard deadlines appear in every genre. Some ticking clocks feel contrived, as if they've been placed in a story for the" "sole purpose of heightening the tension. These might pass with the average audience, but experienced critics will spot them. The best ticking-clock scenarios feel natural to the plot."

What if

"What if?" is a useful prompt at any stage in story development. We can use this question as a story starter for an initial idea, and then we can continue to use it for plot development, characterization, and more. What if the bones of a fire-breathing, flying dinosaur were discovered buried inside a mountain? What if a political strategist was being blackmailed by someone within their own party? What if scientists discovered a habitable planet outside of our solar system? What if a lonely, older widower fell in love with his married neighbor? What if a sidekick in a story turned out to be working for the antagonist? What if you chose a random moment in your story—a point where a "haracter makes a choice—and let the character choose a different path? "What if?" is a powerful tool that you can use throughout the story writing process, especially when you're stuck. You can write lists of what-if questions and answer them with quick sentences to get ideas for where you could steer a story."

Model location

"Where is the market in relation to the protagonist's house? Is there a river nearby? Where do people in town work? What kind of resources are available to them? Your story could be set inside a single house or it could sweep across a vast galaxy—as an author, you need to know where everything's happening. Using a model for your location is just one of several methods you can employ to develop a story's setting. Let's consider an epic fantasy that's set in a world with a medieval European flair. Since nobody's invented a functional time machine yet, you can't actually visit" "Find a location to use as your model, and then conduct research on the setting you've chosen. Take some time to think about how you'll customize the location you've researched for your story. Maybe you found a model apartment that has a sleek, minimalist decor but you're going to give a traditional style makeover. Finally, write a thousand-word description of the setting."

Plot twist and reversals

"Who doesn't love a good plot twist? A surprising or unexpected change in a story's direction grabs a reader's attention. It's a wake-up call: things are about to get interesting. Plot twists can come across as contrived or forced if they're unbelievable or too convenient. There's a fine difference between taking a story in an unexpected but compelling direction and pushing it off course. Consider a murder mystery: The victim's bloody dress is found in the back of her closet, gashed with a hunting knife. Her personal belongings—purse, keys, wallet, and cell phone—are in her apartment. A teapot filled with water is screaming on the stove. But the woman is gone. The detectives find clues, and a few" "suspects emerge. The investigation lasts weeks. Then a discovery is made: The bloody dress didn't belong to the alleged victim after all, and the blood on it isn't hers either. This plot twist takes the story in an exciting new direction. A reversal occurs when the characters or the direction of events in a story undergo a dramatic and polar change, often unexpectedly. Reversals are similar to plot twists, and a reversal may in fact be a plot twist. They bring an element of surprise. For example, if a character has spent the entire story on a quest for hidden treasure and suddenly decides to give up the quest to save the commoners from a dragon, the character has undergone a reversal."

Setting it up

"keeps readers interested isn't easy. Lengthy paragraphs about rural landscapes or interior decor quickly grow dull, especially if these settings are familiar to the readers. Too much information can overwhelm readers, and skimping on details can leave them confused. The right amount of detail provides just enough information that the readers can visualize the setting "while leaving room for their imaginations to fill in the rest. And that's a good thing—engaging readers' imaginations is what sets reading apart from other forms of storytelling, but it's important to give readers a foundation, something to build on. For example, if your story is set on a spaceship, readers probably don't need to know the color of the dials on the navigation system. However, they do need an overall sense of the ship—is it sleek and sterile, or is it dingy and banged up? Description isn't the only way to establish setting. Details about any setting can be woven into a story's action and dialogue, with the characters discussing their surroundings and interacting with their environment. Establishing the setting early in a story ensures that readers can visualize the story with greater ease, and using active language makes a setting more memorable "Use action: Instead of describing busy streets packed with shoppers, show readers that shoppers coursed through the city streets like rats in a maze. Show characters interacting with the environment: Kate craned her neck and saw a tiny patch of sky amid the towering skyscrapers. This simple action reveals that the scene is set in a big city. In establishing time, you can simply state the date (the year was 2012), or you can place something in the setting that identifies the era: A brand-new 2012 Porsche sped by, and Kate whirled on her heels just in time to see it disappear around the corner of Lexington."

Character Arcs

A journey that the character experiences and ultimately changes him. The change can be internal or external. "Characters can acquire or lose knowledge, skills, or emotional strength—or they can gain or lose relationships, material possessions, or status. Some of the best character arcs are a combination of both internal and external transformations." "Most heroes emerge from a story wiser, stronger, or better off in some significant way." "stories are about conflict, and what good is conflict if it doesn't produce meaningful change in our lives?" "protagonist; these include establishing goals or realizing that they want or need something; facing conflicts and challenges; making difficult decisions; and experiencing the consequences of their decisions (good and bad)."

Meaningful Characters

Every character has a purpose. Not every character is gonna be high purpose individual. Unnamed- prop people Named- important whether we know or don't What does this person do to the main character or plot.