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Marie Curie
(1867-1934)• Polish born French Chemist and her husband Pierre discovered radium together in 1898-awarded Nobel prize for their discovery of radioactivity (worked with French physicist Antoine Henri) Was a role model for a lot of women involved in the sciences one of the four people awarded two nobel prizes.
Fritz Haber
(1868-1934), • German chemist of Jewish Origin-received Nobel prize for synthesizing ammonia which was key for development of fertilizers and explosives • "father of chemical warfare" for his work developing and deploying chlorine and other poisonous gases during World War I
Royal Institution
(Royal institute of Great Britain) - was founded int 1799 by the leading british scientists of the age including Henry Cavendish (dephlogisticated air)-Notable scientist have worked there including Sir Humphry Davy and Micheal Faraday. 15 scientist attached to the Royal Institution have won nobel prizes. Ten chemical elements, the electric generation was devised at the instituion and much of the early work on atomic structure of crystal were carried out there.
The Skeptic Chymist
1661-Boyle- demolished what boyle regarded as wither fallacious reasoning or incompetent experiment or both. An attack on theories of the elements devised from those seduced more by theory than experimental data. Deals with public science where theories are on trial, experiments have to be repeatable and evidence needs to be confirmed by reliable witness.
Experiments and Observation of Different Kinds of Air
1774-86-priestly six volumes- repors series of his experiments on "air" or gases and most notable his discovery of O2 gas which he calls dephlogisticated air.
Robert Hooke
17th century-English natural philosopher. Member of the royal Society (led by John Wilkins) assistant for Thomas Willis and Robert Boyle for whom he built the vacuum pumps used in Boyle's gas law experiments-aslo the Royal society's curator of Experiments.
Justus Von Liebig
1803-1848. Identified first organic radical analogous to inorganic compound (benzoyl radical)- deeply influenced --> contributed to the unification of chemistry through organic chemistry.
New System of Chemical Philosophy
1808-Dalton discovery of the importance of the relative weight and structure of particles of a compound for explaining chemical reactions transformed atomic theory and laid basis for much of what modern chemistry. Another volume published in 1827.
Walther Nernst
1884-1941; • Associated with electrochemistry and the thermodynamics of solutions due to his work on the properties of ions in solutions • His work provided editors support for their view that electrochemistry included all of physical chemistry
Antoine Lavoisier
18th Cen late-one of the most famous and innovative self styled author of a revolution in chemistry. Became a distinguished member or the Royal Academy of sciences. His most famous book: Elements of Chemistry (1789)-Embarked on reformation of chemistry. Important contribution include application of balance and conservation of mass-denied phlogiston -created caloric
John Priestly
18th cen -democrat-Use of pneumatic apparatus discovered more gasses than anyone in his generation: Author of : Experiments and Observation on Different kinds of Air-supported phlogiston theory and built on it.
August Laurent
19th cen- wrote doctoral thesis presenting a new theory of organic combination and criticizing electrochemical dualism-argued that chemical formulas should express the totality of reactions undergone by a compound. Help found organic chemistry with his discovery of anthracene, phthalic acid and carbolic acid-devised systemic nomenclature of organic chemistry based on structural grouping of atoms within molecules to determine how molecules combine in organic reactions.
Charles Gehart
19th cen-known for his work reforming the notation for chemical formulas and is usually linked to his contemporary Laurent who shared a strong and influential interest in chemical combinations. Worked with Laurent both agreed that organic chemistry was the most promising area of chemical research that would provide model for whole spectrum of chemistry in the future. Theory of types based off substitution offering a bridge between organic and inorganic chemistry INTRODUCED HOMOLOGOUS ELEMENTS
Phlogiston
A substance that 17th century German scientists Becher and Stahl believed was contained in all matter and that matter would burn only as long as it still contained this substance; this theory was believed for 120 years until Lavoisier disproved it. An obsolete theory that postulated a fire like element call phlogiston contained within combustible bodies is released during combustion. The focuse of the theory was to try to explain a burning process by which is known today as oxidation. -If substance burned it contained phlagiston if dephlogisticated if could not burn. PRIESTLY work is based on this.
Caloric
An absolute theory that heat consist of a self-repellent fluid called caloric that flows from hotter bodies to colder bodies-Caloric was though of as a weightless gas that could pass in and out of pores in solids and liquids-one version was theorized by Antoine Lavoisier where he developed an explanation in terms of oxygen-could explain things in such as temperature change in a fluid, expansion of air under radiation of head and phase change
Pneumatic Trough
An apparatus used for collecting gases such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen; required a liquid such as water. Four items required: Trough, glass bottle to hold collected gas, a way to support glass bottle and liquid in the trough. Used by Priestly to determine existence of vital air and fixed air.
Gilbert Newton Lewis
Brilliant ambitious american with a phD from harvard worked with Ostwald and Nernst in the early 20th cen. Addressed the role of electrons in forming bonds between atoms-theory of valence electrons: two atoms may conform to the rule of eight or the octet rule not only by the transfer of electrons but also by sharing one or two more paris or electrons.
Organic Chemistry
Chemistry sub discipline involved scientific study of strutures, properties and reaction of organic compounds. Before 19th cen generally believed that compound obtained from living organism were endowed with a vital force distinguished from inorganic compound. Crucial breakthrough for organic chemistry was the concept of chemical structure by Kekule. August Laurent critisizes Verallius Theory-Gehart Paraffins. Liebig held with advancement of organic synthesis :mauve. Annalen der Chemie caron is tetravalent (Benzene).
The four elements of Antiquity
Civilization throughout history have their own take on the classical elements of antiquity but they all contain the four elements. Water, earth, fire and air. Some stated that their is a fifth element that changes between civilizations. Some take a different approach to this theory. For example the seven Chakras or the use of tarot and the suit of cups correlate to elements. Today the classical elements correspond to more closely t four of the states of matter: solid, liquid, gas and plasma
Economical Nature of physics
Ernst Mach- late 19th cen Discusses the nature of physics and physiology and how the natural world can be perceived in different lights.
Atomic Weight
First Scientist to determine relative atomic masses were Dalton, Berzerulius and Thomas Thomson. Was originally defined relative to that of the light element (Hydrogen) Better known as relative atomic mass. Determine relative atomic masses by comparing vapor density with gases containing or more of the chemical element in question.
Friedrich August Kukule
German chemist ambitious successful and dominated proposed a development of type theory in which the main issue was explicitly number of atoms of an element or radical that combine with another atom or radical. Most influencial paper (1858)- on the constitution and metamorphoses of chemical compound and on the chemical nature of carbon. Theory of CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
Ernst Mach
Instrumentalist rejected the idea of atom (intrumentalism is an extension of sense), Physics. Austria. Late 19th century. (Machian) Positivism: all science is about gathering data and assembling it efficiently. Don't be so over bold to say you know what is going on behind the data. Believe science is getting better at efficiently assembling data. Antiatomist. He also discovered the speed of sound., 1883 The Science of Mechanics- scientists consider their concepts descriptive of sensations the scientific observor experiences, can describe only sensations that physical world that underlay those sensations
John Dalton
Late 18th and early 19th century-most influencial of those who argue that chemical atoms were also physical atoms-inventor of a chemical atomic theory-discovered a series of numerical laws and rules expresses the rule governing chemical combination.
Humphry Davy
Late 18th early 19th century. Woodcarver's son who became leading British chemist of his day became president of the Royal Society of London, made chemistry fashionable. Used Volta instrument of version of battery (voltaic battery) -led to discover of sodium and potassium-also other elements. Showed that alkalines earths like the caustic alkalis were compounds containing oxygen and previously unknown metals. Able to isolate nitrous.
Elements of Chemistry
Lavoisier published in 1789-represents a synthesis of his contribution to chemistry and core of his work was the oxygen theory. Clarified the concept of an element as substance that could not be broken down by any known method of chemical analysis and presented Lavoisier theory of formation of compounds from elements.
French Academy of Sciences
Learned society found in 1666 by Louis XIV at the request of Jean-Baptist Colbert and was the forefront of scientific discovery in Europe int he 17th and 18th century.
Royal Society
London -Learned society for science and possibly oldest society in existence and elects its own members. Must be invited by peers. Today the society acts as a scientific advisor to the British Government. Motto "Nullius in verba" latin="take nobody's word for it". The society has a variety of function and activities. It supports modern science by financing hundred of research fellowships. It publishes several reports a year and servers as the academy of science of the UK. 1660
Sulfur, Salt, Mercury
Medieval Alchemy: The three metallic principles: Sulfur to flammability or combustion, mercury to volatility and stability and salt to solidity. An example is wood burning. Mercury include the cohesive property so that when it left in smoke the wood fell apart. Smoke described the volatility (the mercurial principle), the head giving flames described flammability (sulfur) and the remnant ash described solidity (salt)
Heat as Motion
Motion= a moving object has kinetic energy. The amount of energy necessary to move an object a certain distance and in a certain way is dependent upon the mass of the object and the amount of force applied onto the object. Heat the hotter the substance the faster the atoms vibrate. Pierre Simon Laplace held Lavoisier developed calorimeter to prove heat as a motion
Robert Boyle
Natural philosopher in the 17th century-"Father of modern Chemistry"-used his influence to legalize alchemical production of gold-chymystry much as an alchemist as a chemist. Did not agree with Paracelsus tria prima. Contribution -championed chemistry as an important part of the new natural philosophy of the 17th century made chemistry new, fashionable and dominant kind of scientific explanation-developement of experimental method of chemistry THE SKEPTIC CHEMIST.
Oxygen
Robert Boyle claimed that oxygen was necessary for combustion. Played an important role in what was then called the phlogiston theory. John Priestly conducted an experiment that yielded a gas he named "dephlogisticated air".Lavoisier conducted first adequate quantitative experiment on oxidation and gave the first correct explanation of how combustion works and with it, discredits phlogiston theory while proving dephlogisticated air was a chemical element. AIr is a mixture of two gases, "vital air" works with oxygen dependent creature while fixed air works with plants. Vital air later renamed oxygen.
Instrumentalism
Scientific theory is useful instrument in understand the world. A concept or theory should be evaluated by how effectively it explains and predicts phenomena; as opposed to how accurately is describes objective reality.
Atomic Theory
Scientific theory of the nature of matter which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms.Antoine Lavoisier make law of conservation of Mass. John Dalton and Law of multiple proportions also proposed that each chemical element is composed of atoms of a single unique type and while they cannot be destroyed or altered they can combine to form complex structures. Determine atomic mass according to the mass ratios in which they are combined. He did not take into account the diatomic nature of molecules such as oxygen
Inorganic Chemistry
Study of synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds-Key concepts include thermodynamics, predicting properties of compounds, entropy, equilibrium,Kinetics. Three Ionis: Van't Hoff, Svante, Arrhenius.
Realism
The world described by science in the real world, as it is independent of what we might take it to be. One can make valid claims about unobservables as observables, as opposed to instrumentalism. Ex: Atoms are real objects
Paracelsus
Theophrastus Bombastus Von Hohenneim- Called himself paracelsus as a way of claiming superiority to the great Roman physician Celsus.Created a revolution in alchemy and medicine in the 17th century. Took dyad theory and added a third principle of sald. Tria prima-explained all alchemical transformation of all bodies. Founder of medical chemistry.
Mendeleev
Train russian teacher (born siberia) 19th cen- published textbook on organic chemistry in 1861- Medeleev's periodic table was the ancestor of all subsequent period table of elements-arranged them so they would most fully bring out analogies in properties and relate in atomic weights.
Johs Jakob Berzelius
late 18th early 19th Brought together ideas of Lavoisier with those of Dalton and added his own ideas about electrochemistry. His skill in laboratory his enormously influential textbook and the energy with which he promoted his ideas made him him the most authoritative chemist in the first half of the 19th cen. Developed first chemical notation very similar to ours today. Applied his electrochemical and atomic ideas systematically so that composition, reactions, properties, classification and affinities could all be explained by the same theory. Architect of the most successful chemical thoery in his lifetime and truly unified theory of chemistry to a degree achieved not. Idea that atoms had distinct electrical natures-electropostive and electronegative .
Jacobus Van Hoff
late 19th early 20th;• Van Hoff essays on chemical thermodynamics (how they applied to chemical systems) won him his nobel prize-as well as pioneering work by Arrhenius on electrolytic dissociation • Devoted his career to pursuing his conviction that much of chemistry could be reduced to physics
Homologous Series
o A series of compounds with the same general formula, usually varying by a single parameter such as the length of a carbon chain. o Proposed by Charles Gerhardt in 1843 o Compounds within an homologous series typically have a fixed set of functional groups that gives them similar chemical and physical properties. These properties typically change gradually along the series, and the changes can often be explained by mere differences in molecular size and mass.
Ions
o An atomic molecule in which the total number of electrons in not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom a net positive or negative electrical charge. o The term was introduced by Michael Faraday in 1834 for the then unknown species that goes from one electrode to the other through an aqueous medium. o Metals dissolved into and entered solution at one electrode, and new metal came forth from solution at the other electrode, that some kind of substance moved through the solution in a current, conveying matter from one place to the other. • With this, he introduced anion and cation.
Isomorphism
o An identity or close similarity in the crystalline form of a substance usually containing different elements but having similar composition. • Sodium Sulfate and Silver Sulfate
Thermodynamics
o Branch of natural science concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work. Behavior of variables such as internal energy, entropy, and pressure is subject to general constraints that are common to all materials. o Macroscopic rather than microscopic. o Developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency and power output of early steam engines o The concept of heat capacity and latent heat were developed by Joseph Black o Foundation for thermodynamics include Ludwig Boltzmann and J. Willard Gibbs.
Aromatic Compounds
o Chemical compounds that contain conjugated planar ring systems. o Alternating single and double bonds in a cyclohexane ring. o Benzene and toluene.
Radium
o Chemical element. o Readily oxidizes on exposure to air. o All isotopes are highly radioactive. o Discovered by Marie Curie and Pierre Curie 1898 o Announced their discovery to the French Academy of Sciences. o Luminescent paint.
Mustard Gas
o Chemical warfare agent. • Forms large blisters on exposed skins and in lungs. • Yellow-brown and smell like mustard, garlic, or horseradish. o 1860, Frederick Guthrie synthesized mustard gas. o Used effectively in WWI by the German against the British in 1917. • Released as an aerosol • Effective as an incapacitating agent. • Countermeasures were ineffective.
Voltaic Pile
o First electrical battery that could continuously provide an electrical current to a circuit. o Invented by Alessandro Volta. 1800. o zinc copper stacked on each other with an electrolyte in the middle o Built off of Luigi Galvani's discovery of how a circuit of two metals and a frog's leg can cause the frog's let to respond. o The beginning of electrochemistry
The Radium Institute
o One of the leading medical, biological, and biophysical research centres in the world. Specializes in the treatment of cancer. o Does not offer undergraduate degrees but awards PhDs and employs many post doctoral students. o Also known as the Curie Institute (Paris).
Element
o Pure chemical substance consisting of a single type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its atomic nucleus. o Element is an undivisable substance • Classical definition: Water, earth, fire, air. • Chemical definition: Pure substance that could not be decomposed into any simpler substance. • Atomic definition: Element based on atomic number
Haber-Bosch process
o Reaction of nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas to make ammonia o Many practical applications such as making nitrate for fertilizer. o Fritz Haber presented the process and Carl Bosch scaled up the reaction to industrial level production. • Both were awarded Nobel Prizes • Important to German War effort in WWI because Germany lacked natural resources such as Sodium Nitrate.
Periodic Table of the Elements
o Tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, organized on the basis of their atomic numbers, electron configurations, and recurring chemical properties. o Antoine Lavoisier published a list of 33 chemical elements and grouped them according to gas, metal, nonmetal, earth o Dmitri Mendeleev made periodic table after trial and error from previous chemists in 1869. • Left blank spots in places where chemicals were not discovered yet. • Determined this by following observed trends from chemists.
Isomerism
o The existence of molecules that have the same number of the same kinds of atoms(same formula) but differ in chemical and physical properties • Dimethyl Ether and Ethanol
Allotropy
o The property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms, known as allotropes. • Carbon as graphite and diamond
Karlsruhe Congress
o Was an international meeting of chemists held in Karlsruhe, Germany from September 3 - 5 in 1860. o First international conference of chemistry worldwide. o Called so that European chemists could discuss matters of chemical nomenclature, notation, and atomic weights
parafinn
relating to paraffin hydrocarbons
May Sybil Leslie
• Worked with curie and Rutherford while her search into radioactivity contributed no major findings she is known for industrial chemistry—attained rank of lecturer at the University of Leeds -an accomplishment for women • Major in chemistry graduated in June 1905 with first-class honors • Awarded for her contribution to the war—her research elucidating the chemical reaction involved in the formation in nitric acid and optimum conditions for its process → vital for the munitions industry which required a lot nitric acid for explosive production.
Svante Arrhenius
•19th -20th cen Also credited with contributing to creating discipline of physical chemistry-also won a Nobel prize • Understanding the dissociation of salts in solution -doctoral thesis on the electrical conductivity of solutions of salts
