Test 2: Chapter 5-8 (Cross cultural psychology)
Describe how self-concepts may vary across situations and within cultures.
1) Individualism is highest in the U.S followed by other English-speaking adn Western European nations while collectivism is prevalent in Asia, Latin America, Africa, Eastern and southern Europe and the South Pacific 2) Even within the US, there are differences in individualism and collectivism (Hawaii, Utah and parts of the south scored highest on collectivism) 3) There are also socioeconomic differences - higher socioeconomic status is associated with dominant cultural values
What are the self construals in an interdependent self?
1) Ingroup-outgroup distinctions are crucial 2) It is difficult to get into an ingroup 3) It is rare for ingroup members to lose status and fall into the outgroup 4) Ingroup-outgroup boundaries are stable
What are predictors of acculturation in a host culture that expresses prejudice against the heritage cultural group?
1) People who have distinctly different physical characteristics from the host culture are more prone to marginalization or separation 2) People low in SES and those from indigenous groups generally adopt separation or marginalization strategies due to frustrations with the host culture
What are the differences in the motivation to be consistent in independent and interdependent views of self?
1) People with interdependent view of self are motivated to be consistent with others 2) People with independent view of self are motivated to strive for consistency within themselves
What are the self-construals for the independent self?
1) Relationships formed and dissolved easily 2) More willing to form new and larger social networks 3) Less distressed when relationships fade 4) The ingroup-outgroup boundary is more fluid and permeable
List the 4 attachment types
1) Secure attachment 2) Insecure-avoidant attachment 3) Insecure-ambivalent attachment 4) Disorganized attachment
What two relevant concepts relate to self?
1) Self-enhancement 2) Self-esteem
How to maintain/save face:
1) Self-improvement- identify potential weaknesses and work to correct them 2) Prevention orientation: strive to protect oneself and avoid negative outcomes 3) Motivation also enhance face: like purchasing brand-name products to indicate higher status
What are the 2 dimensions of Baumrinds parenting styles?
1) Warmth/responsiveness 2) Control/demandingness
The cognitive dissonance theory proposes that: (2)
1) We are motivated to be consistent 2) Observing our own inconsistencies leads to distress
What are Berry's four acculturation strategies? Relate them with attitudes toward host culture.
Attitudes toward host culture - attitudes toward heritage culture 1) Integration (++) 2) Assimilation (+-) 3) Separation (-+) 4) Marginalization (--)
Why is acculturation complex to study?
Because people 1) migrate for different reasons (ref, study, wealth) 2) migrate to different contexts (homo vs heterogenous) 3) have heritage cultures that vary in degree of similarity to new host cultures 4) have different personalities, goals, motivations
How do Canadians show dissonance reduction compared to Japanese?
Canadians rationalized their decision after making a choice for themselves Japanese rationalized their decisions after making a choice for someone else
Collectivistic societies perceive groups as ----. How does this differ from how psychologists would classify it
Collectivistic societies perceive groups as agents Psychologists tend to equate agency with individuals rather than groups
The idea that the terrible twos are an important milestone is less common in cultures that:
Do not emphasize independence and individualism
What do individualistic cultures encourage and value?
Encourage thoughts and behaviors fostering independent self-concepts Value distinctiveness from others and being self-sufficient
What do collectivistic cultures encourage and value?
Encourage thoughts and behaviors fostering interdependent self-concepts Value close relationships and group memberships
What is the main distinction between frame-switching and code-switching?
Frame-switching focuses more on how people think or the cognitive reasons why they may behave differently in different contexts
When it comes to sleeping arrangements, what do most societies have?
Infants in the same room but different room
What term explains why many individuals have created some of their most famous works while abroad? define the term :)
Integrative complexity - the willingness and ability to acknowledge and consider different perspectives on the same issue
What kind of self-awareness does a person with an interdependent view of self have? How about one with an independent view of self?
Interdependent - objective Independent - subjective
How does the West view adolescence?
It is described as a chaotic period of "storm and stress" and is: characterized by risk taking, violence, and delinquency assumed to be due to hormonal changes in puberty
What is cultural distance and how might it predict one's adjustment to a new culture?
It is how much two cultures differ in their overall ways of life -If one has a closer match between native language and English, its easier to learn English -If ones heritage culture is similar to host's cultural similarity there is less acculturative stress
What is high bicultural identity integration and what does it lead to?
It is seeing one's cultural identities as being compatible with each other and living with both (all) of them integrated Leads to fluid frame-switching
How are the terrible twos viewed in the West?
It is viewed as a developmental milestone which is: -marked by an increase in resistant, oppositional behavior -important way for children to assert autonomy and individuality -seen as the foundation for future relationships
How do less individualistic cultures view non-complaince?
It is viewed as immaturity not a step toward growth
What domains of life does sensitive period apply to?
Language and culture aquisition
Parenting styles
Look at image?
Which view of the self is more concerned with others' assessment? Less concerned?
More - inter Less - independent
What was found to be true about personal space and bodily contact with infants in western and non-western cultures?
More bodily contact in non-western cultures and more face-to-face contact in Western cultures
What is separation?
Negative attitudes toward host but positive attitudes toward heritage culture. They make little or no effort to participate in host culture They do not want to acculturate
What does one believe about their abilities and self in primary control? where is this mindset more common?
One can exert influence on the world (incremental theory of world = flexible) Self is stable (entity of self = fixed) More common in Western independent contexts
What are the two views a person can have about gender equality? List some countries with those views.
One can have: High gender egalitarianism: women should be treated the same as men (Finland, Germany, Sweden) or Low gender egalitarianism: men should be granted more rights, privileges, and power (Pakistan, Nigeria, Arab nations)
What does one believe about their abilities and self in secondary control? where is this mindset more common?
One is not able to change the world (entity theory of the world = fixed) Self is changeable (incremental theory of self = flexible) More common in non-Western interdependent contexts
What is low bicultural identity integration and what does it lead to?
One must choose between identifying with one cultural identity versus the other(s) as they are seen as being in opposition Leads to more difficulty in frame-switching
The western view of adolescence is not seen universally. Schlegel and Barry examined ethnographies of 175 pre-industrialized societies and discovered that:
Only 44% associated boys with antisocial behaviors Only 18% has that expectation for adolescent boys This means that individualism and range of role might contribute to distress
Five-Factor Model of Personality - "The Big Five". Ocean
Openness to experience: creativity and curiosity about the world Conscientiousness: responsible, dependable, self-disciplined Extraversion: outgoing, social, dominant Agreeableness: warm, pleasant, considerate Neuroticism: emotional instability and unpredictability
What was different about the U.S when it came to sleeping arrangements with infants?
Out of 100 societies surveyed, the U.S. was the only one where parents create a separate room for the baby
Stages of L-shaped Acculuturation curve:
Honeymoon Culture shock No adjustment
What are some pitfalls of acculturation?
Immigrant paradox
Differentiate between blending and frame-switching.
In blending, people's self-concepts reflect a hybrid of their cultural worlds -Multicultural people appear intermediate on many assessments when compared to monocultural people from different cultures In Frame switching, people maintain multiple self-concepts and switch between them depending on the context -Includes code switching
What were the findings of the correlation between well-being and self-consistency between Americans and South Koreans?
In the US, self-consistency had strong positive correlations with well-being, social skills and likeability In South Korea, there were much smaller correlations on these measures
Describe how the age of immigration and years in the host can affect one's cultural identity
In the study it showed that the age of cultural acquisition depended on the age when the immigrants moved. The sensitive period seemed to end around age 15. This is because cultural differences increase with age during childhood : younger children show fewer cultural differences and adults show greater cultural differences
What are the 2 implicit theories of the self?
Incremental theory of self and entity theory of self
Sleeping arrangements: how does incest avoidance differ from an Indian viewpoint and an American viewpoint?
Indian: opposite-sex post-pubescent members cannot share a room American: often seen as a cultural universal
Independent views of the self tend to emerge in _____ cultures.
Individualistic
What are the predictors of higher gender egalitarianism?
(1) Religion: more egalitarianism in Christian, more traditional in Muslim cultures (2) Geographic location: northern more egal; southern more tradi (3) Urbanization: more urbanized more egalitarian
What are the 3 levels in third culture kids?
1st: heritage culture of parents 2nd: host country culture 3rd: expatriate community culture in various host cultures - may lead to a global identity OR feelings of marginalization
Describe Asche's conformity experiment and how they relate to cultural motivations
75% conformed and gave the wrong answer. A strongly individualistic culture has high social costs However, this is also seem in collectivistic societies where belongingness with others is a high value
What is integration (acculturation strategy)?
A positive attitude toward host and heritage culture. They participate in host culture while maintaining traditions of heritage culture -Most successful, least prejudice and greatest social support
What is the entity theory of self? What does it focus on? What kind of awareness is apparent here? People with what sense of self have this?
Abilities and traits are largely fixed and resistant to change Focus on innate abilities Subjective self awareness Independent Fixed mindset
In Poland, reminders of friends' past behaviors compels one to:
Act in accordance with friends past bahaviors
In the U.S, reminders of own past behaviors compels one to:
Act in accordance with past behaviors
Group agency: How did American newspapers and Japanese newspapers differ when it came to media reports of financial scandals
American newspapers referred more to individuals and Japanese newspapers referred more to companies, holding groups responsible for outcomes
Explain choice overload
Americans prefer having many choices However, having too many choices can deplete mental resources (persist less and make more mistakes). Also high stakes make the choice more stressful
Evidence across a variety of cultures shows that formal education:
-Encourages people to think abstractly and go beyond knowledge derived from direct experience -Affects people's ability to create taxonomic categories -Predicts higher IQ
Give examples of the immigrant paradox.
-Length of stay in U.S. predicts a higher obesity rate -The results regarding school are more complex a) Vietnamese immigrants who were less integrated achieved more in school and were more upwardly mobile b) the more Latino immigrants acculturated to mainstream culture, the worse they performed
Difference between North American and non-western cultures when it comes to making a choice
-North American contexts strongly emphasized choice relative to other cultures -People is many non-Western cultures leave important decisions to others who care about them, know their needs, and have the group's best interest in mind
Give examples of ways stereotype threat can negatively impact task performances
-Women on math tasks when reminded of their gender -European American students on athletic tasks when reminded of their race -Older adults on memory tasks when reminded of their age -African American college students on verbal tasks even after controlling for the level of preparation
Neglectful/uninvolved parenting
-cold -unresponsive -indifferent
Authoritarian parenting
-high demands -strict rules -restricted parent-child dialogue -low warmth -parent-centered
Authoritative parenting
-high expectations of child's maturity and independence (within limits) -values understanding of feelings -high parental warmth/responsiveness -child-oriented
Permissive parenting
-lots of dialogue -high parental warmth -few limits or control
What are Baumrind's 4 classifications of parenting styles?
1) Authoritative 2) Authoritarian 3) Permissive 4) Neglectful/uninvolved
What are the 3 factors that predict an individual's adjustment to a new culture?
1) Cultural distance 2) Cultural fit 3) Acculturation strategies
The factor analysis in China led to four sets of personality traits:
1) Dependability 2) Social potency 3) Individualism 4) Interpersonal relatedness
Explain why strict parenting used in many cultures is inconsistent with the authoritarian category.
1) Different approached are used at different stages of a child's development 2) Parents communicate warmth and responsiveness differently across cultures 3) The authoritarian category may exclude the parental role of training
What are the strategies to make/maintain positive self-perceptions?
1) Downward social comparison 2) Compensatory self-enhancement 3) Discounting 4) External attributions 5) Basking in reflected glory
What are some explanations as to why noun bias vary across cultures?
1) English syntax makes nouns more salient while other languages make verbs more salient 2) People communicate about objects differently across cultures for example: North American parents tend to talk about objects as separate from their environment while East Asian parents tend to highlight how objects are related to other things
What 2 things impact perceptions of control? What is the difference between them?
1) Entity theory of the world - the world is fixed 2) Incremental theory of the world - the world is flexible
3 stages of U-shaped acculturation curve
1) Honeymoon (novelty) - peak 2) Culture shock (crisis, homesickness, or returning home in reverse culture shock) - U 3) Adjustment - peak
Describe how moving to a new culture involves psychological adjustments and distress.
People have to do things like: -acquire a new language -learn new interpersonal and social behaviors -get used to new values -perhaps become part of a minority group -adjust one's self-concept
What are the benefits of cultural distinctiveness?
People with a clear, well-defined cultural identity are more likely to have a strong sense of loyalty -> group memberships can be important source of self-esteem -Stronger sense of group identification can produce positive feelings which can help cope with discrimination
Difference between primary and secondary control
Primary control: changing realities to fit one's perceptions/goals/desires Secondary control: aligning one's perceptions/goals/desires with realities by controlling their psychological impact
Give examples of primary and secondary control in religions
Primary: try to change external things through prayer (Christianity) Secondary: adjust to situation and try to predict the future (Hinduism)
What are the pros and cons of acculaturation?
Pros: a) Important practical implications b) Large body of research Cons: a) Vague conclusions (more theoretical than empirical) b) Findings often contradictory (hard to generalize)
When examining people of different cultures and genders and whether they differed on collectivism, agency, assertiveness and relatedness, what was the only reliable gender difference? Which gender scored higher on that?
Relatedness, women scored higher than men
What are the cultural differences in self-enhancement between individualistic and collectivistic cultures
Self enhancement is more pronounces in the West Modesty norms prevent East Asian people from reporting self-enhancement East Asian people self-enhance on different traits East Asian people group-enhance instead
In what ways can different gender norms be the result of different traditional cultivation methods?
Shifting cultivation: if tool is similar to garden hoe, women do most of agri-work Plow cultivation: large animal pulls plow - controlled by men, women do not tend to participate in labor outside
What approach of parenting is common in many cultures? Does this approach (style) fit in with one of Baumrind's categories?
Strict parenting approach. Some elements are inconsistent with the authoritarian category.
What are the two vantage points of awareness?
Subjective self-awareness and objective self-awareness
How can sleeping practices become moralized?
Such practices can become so entrenched that they become moralized, with people evaluating others' choices as either "right" or "wrong"
When asked to describe themselves while in different contexts (with a professor and with a fellow student) how did the Japanese and American participants respond?
The Japanese participants varied their self-descriptors context The American participants responded similarly across contexts
What is the incremental theory of self? What does it focus on? What kind of awareness is apparent here? People with what sense of self have this?
The belief that abilities and traits are malleable Focus on efforts used Objective self-awareness Interdependent Growth mindset
What is the interdependent view of the self?
The self is a relational entity that is fundamentally connected to important relationships : -Defined by social relationships and roles -Flexible across situations and roles -Not bounded/separate from others/context -Clear ingroup-outgroup distinction
What's different about L-shaped acculturation?
There is no adjustment period; the person does not seem to recover from culture shock and continue to feel negatively in the host culture
What the most likely reason men have more traditional gender role beliefs than women?
They benefit more from such views than women
True or False: In cultures where men hold gender-egalitarian values, women do too
True
How do we attempt to reduce our dissonance and resolve our distress?
We could either: (1) Change behaviors to match our attitudes OR (2) Change our attitudes to no longer appear inconsistent
Which view of self is more characteristic in Western cultures and which one is more characteristic of non-Western cultures?
Western - independent Non-western - interdependent
Authoritative parenting yields the best outcomes...is that true?
Yes but only for western studies. Baumrind's catergorizations may be laden with Western notions of development and may not capture parenting styles in other countries
What is cognitive dissonance?
a distressed feeling from observing ourselves behave inconsistently
Sensitive period
a period of time in development when it is easy to acquire a skill
What is code-switching?
a specific instance of frame-switching describing the way people act and present themselves to others in their respective cultures
Compensatory self-enhancement
acknowledging negative feedback then focusing on what one is good at
Stereotype threat
anxieties about negative stereotypes of a person's group lead people to confirm those stereotypes
External attributions
attributing failures to factors outside oneself
Define immigrant paradox
children of immigrants may experience more negative outcomes than their parents
What are third culture kids?
children who travel with parents and live in places outside their heritage culture during their formative years
Downward social comparison
comparing oneself to someone worse off
What is the independent view of the self
derives its identity from inner attributes and has the following characteristics: -Distinct from their relationships -Stable across situations and life span -Unique, self-contained and coherent -Fluid between ingroups and outgroups
Americans, Western countries and Kenyan students tend to describe themselves in terms of ---- and ---- instead of ----- and -----
describes themselves in term of enduring traits and personal characteristics instead of roles and memberships
Discounting
downplaying the importance of the attribute where one has failed
Basking in reflected glory
emphasizing one's connection with successful others
What is objective self-awareness?
experiencing the self as the object - a "me" perspective - "how others see me"
People in working-class contexts are more likely to
face hardships and less likely to have control over circumstances
What is learned helplessness?
feeling powerless and unable to control or avoid unpleasant events It can lead to stress and depression
What can lead to state of learned helplessness?
having an absolute lack of choices (or general inability to control life outcomes) Having a fixed mindset
Secure attachment
infant occasionally seeks mother when she is around and seeks her presence more after being left alone; infant is confident and explores new environment when mother is around
Insecure-ambivalent attachment
infant shows frequent distress when mother is present or absent; infant sometimes wants to be close but often pushes mother awat
Insecure-avoidant attachment
infant shows little distress at mother's absence and avoids her on her return
Disorganized attachment
infants with behaviors that could not be clearly categorized into the other 3 styles
Interdependent views of the self-tend to emerge in ----- cultures
interdependent
What are acculturation strategies and how might it predict one's adjustment to a new culture?
it emphasizes that attitudes matter: Attitude toward host culture - does the individual seek to fit in? Attitudes toward heritage culture - do they seek ways to preserve traditions
Cultures differ in the m---- and b---- in self-consistency
motivation and benefits
What is self-enhancement?
motivation to view oneself positively
What is marginalization?
negative attitudes toward host and heritage cultures; rare and least successful strategies; may characterize third culture kids
There are challenges with the Big Five model especially in
non-industrialized countries
Immigrants
people who intend to stay permanently
Sojourners
people who intend to stay temporarily
Migrants
people who move from a heritage to host culture
What is assimilation?
positive attitudes toward host but negative attitudes towards heritage culture. Participates in host culture while leaving behind traditions of heritage culture
What is self-esteem?
positivity of overall evaluation of oneself
Acculturation
process by which people migrate to and learn a culture that's different from their heritage
Identity denial
questioning someone's cultural identity because he or she does not match the prototype of the culture "No, seriously, where are you really from?"
Non-western places and Kenyan workers tend to describe themselves in terms of ---- and ----
roles and membership
What is face?
social value given by others if one fulfills obligations/expectations. It is more easily lost that gained
What is subjective self-awareness?
taking on the perspective of the subject - and I perspective
What is self-serving bias?
tendency to exaggerate one's positive characteristics
What is cultural fit and how might it predict one's adjustment to a new culture?
the degree to which one's personality is more similar to the dominant cultural values in the host culture -Extraverted individuals fare well in cultures that are more extraverted -Independent (vs. interdependent) have less distress acculturating in the U.S.
Bicultural identity integration
the extent to which people see their two cultural identities as compatible or in opposition to each other
Attachment theory
the idea that early attachments with parents and other caregivers can shape relationships for a person's whole life
What marks the beginning of socialization for an infant?
the infants interactions with their parents
What is co-sleeping?
the practice of having children sleep in their parents' bed
Noun bias
the tendency in young children to have a vocabulary with more nouns relative to the number of verbs and other relational words
What makes one question certain assumptions of the attachment theory?
the wide range of infant-caregiver experiences around the world
