Test 3 | Sociology 205 | Study Guide

Monopoly and Materialist Perspectives: (Includes the definitions of *Monopoly and Materialist Perspectives* and *coercive force*.) (Page 342)

Finally, the *Monopoly and Materialist Perspectives* posit that military organizations must maintain a legitimate monopoly on the use of force, and the use of this force is uniquely tied to the material instruments of war. *Coercive force* is the force in which intimidation is used to obtain compliance.

Identity through Competition: (Page 316)

Finally, the *symbolic interaction perspective on sport* posits that sports are created and maintained by shared meanings and social interaction. In other words, athletes' identities are formed as they participate in various sports and sport cultures. A principal critique of the symbolic interaction perspective is that it provides limited ability to understand structural processes that create, maintain, and perpetuate inequalities among various identity groups. Thus, we are left with the conclusion that while stock theories on sport do provide some insight, they leave much unanswered. For the rest of the picture, we turn to the matrix approach to sport.

Terrorism Is Dysfunctional: (Page 341)

Most sociologists ignored the topic of terrorism prior to 9/11, Since those pivotal events, a great deal of scholarly attention has been expended in efforts to understand them and prevent similar attacks. Terrorists, from a functional perspective, are viewed as deviants who violate basic norms of both civilization and war by targeting noncombatants. Unfortunately, the label of "terrorist" is applied depending on an individual's perspective, as one why may be viewed by a terrorist by one group, may be seen as a revolutionary, or patriot by another.

The Electorate College: (Page 270, includes the definition of the Electorate College.)

Representatives of each state who cast the final ballots that actually elect a president, which, like in 2016, fails to capture the complex reality of voting behavior.

World War II (Includes the definition of *WWII*.) (Page 354; Discussed on Pages 354-359)

(1939 - 1945; US involvement from 1941-1945) A war fought in Europe, Africa, and Asia between the Allied Powers of Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States against the Axis Powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan. *World War II* was, among other things, a scramble for raw resources such as gold, oil, and diamonds, that spanned Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. A total of 16,112,566 Americans served in World War II, 53,402 died in battle, and 670,846 were wounded, and in 2017, 1,711,000 WWII vets were living.

Socioeconomics and Recruiting (Page 336)

(This information was previous deleted by Quizlet, carefully review, if needed.) Although a significant number of new soldiers come from large states such as California and Texas, ~45% come from the Southern Region of the country, as the largest proportion of armed forces recruits are from middle-class communities. The number of federal elected officers who are veterans was an all-time-low in 2013, The US military has since WWII, been perceived as an avenue through young people can see the world and gain highly marketable skills.

Racial Minority Representation: (Pages 337-339)

(This information was previous deleted by Quizlet, carefully review, if needed.) In 2014, while racial minorities made up 23.4% of 18-44 in the US population, they constituted 32.9% of enlisted personnel, as women of color are more likely to enlist in the Army or the Navy. There has never been a US war in which foreign-born people have not participated for the US. A whole range of theories have been proposed, and a great deal of research has been conducted over the years in attempts to answer questions about the military, including who serves and under what conditions. An examination of the stock theories will shed some insight on why and how the military reflects power hierarchies.

Gender and Enlistment (Page 336-337)

(This information was previous deleted by Quizlet, carefully review, if needed.) In January 2016, the US armed forces finally removed the last barriers preventing women from serving in all aspects of the military, as women can now drive tanks, fire mortars, lead infantry combat missions, and serve in elite military units, like the Green Berets, Navy SEALs, and the Air Force Pararescue. Females are likeliest to enlist in the Air Force, while the Marines harbor the least amount of females.

*Sport:* (Page 304) (Includes the definition of *sport*.)

*Encompasses a range of activities that involve physical exertion and skill.*

Military Sociology Stock Theories: (Includes the definition of *military sociology*.) (Page 339)

*Military sociology* is the sociological analysis of armed forces and was, has been a central concern within the sociological discipline since at least WWI. Three key sociological theories have controlled the field: functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and monopoly and materialist perspectives, which justify our use of the military, our involvement of wars, and concerns regarding terrorism.

The Pluralist Approach: (Pages 277-278, includes the definitions of *pluralism, democratic equilibrium, insider groups, outsider groups, and binary constructs*.)

*Pluralism* posits that power within society is decentralized, widely shared, diffuse, and fragmented. Groups throughout society reflect business, labor, professions, religion, and culture, competing, and oftentimes, holding conflicting interests. - Since no single group is dominant, *democratic equilibrium*, a dynamic working-balance between and among various groups, is established. - This means that democratic governance is conceived of as a system that regulates conflict between and among various interest groups (complete paragraph on page 277)... Two types of groups are associated with the pluralist approach: - *Insider Groups*: Hold the bulk of power. - *Outsider Groups*: Marginalized, have limited power. The pluralist approach presumes that, at least among the various insider groups, power is dispersed equally, is fair, and anyone can get it, even an outsider. - The truth is that power tends to stay withing very few, well-placed insiders, which is especially prominent when looking at *binary constructs* like males compared with females, and Whites compared with Blacks (complete paragraph on page 278)...

The Power of Political Activism: (Page 293, includes the definitions of *political activism and agency*.)

*Political activism* normally involves various types of actions that go beyond voting. It may be as simple as posting opinions online or getting involved in a letter-writing campaign, or it may involve active participation in boycotts, protests, or demonstrations. *Agency* is the ability to effect change, to act independently, and to exercise free choices, this reflects the many ways, as part of a vital component of identity politics, in which individuals and groups challenge, resist, and cope with inequality and discrimination, like through boycotts, and social media ti make social change.

Critiquing Sociological Theories of Power, Politics, and Identity: (Pages 276-277, includes the definition of *political sociology*.)

*Political sociology* is the study of government, political behaviors, institutions, and processes that occur between the state, its society, and its citizens. - More simply, it is the study of power, politics, and identity. Here, we will analyze the political theories, and approaches to power, politics, and identity, that have long served to inform and guide political theorizing, research, and policy.

The State of Sport Today: (Page 304)

*Sport encompasses a range of activities that involve physical exertion and skill.* (These activities are organized around sets of rules and can be played either at the individual or team level.) Today's athletes are remarkable, and some of the best set some new, dazzling records, at the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janerio, such as Simone Biles, who earned four golds and a bronze, a nre world record for a US gymnast in a single event, as well as Katie Ledecky. Although all sports are not equal, as we will see in our examination of the business of sports, across the country and in many schools, and communities, modern "gladiators" are writing new chapters in a long tradition of competition, victory, possibly fame, high salaries, and lucrative endorsement deals.

Voter Disenfranchisement: (Page 273-274, contains the definition of *voter disenfranchisement*)

*The revocation, or taking away, the right to vote.* - Affects total voting, as less and less are unable to vote due to criminal convictions, growth in incarceration, consequences of the racial war on drugs, where Hispanics and African Americans are more likely to not vote because of the "Get Tough" polices and the War on Drugs - Governor Terry McAuliffe, of Virginia, called this a voting rights issue and restored voting rights to nearly 13,000 ex-felons in 2016.

Building Alternatives to the Matrix of Race and Politics: (Page 292)

- The United States originated as a consequence of political activism, and the tradition of political activis has been central to every inportant phase of the natiio'ns history, continuing to guide us in our quest to become a "more perfect union". - On Monday, February 13th, 2017, "A Day without Immigrants" was staged in major cities across the country, as a response to Trump's orders tightening immigration restrictions. - Small businesses across the country were forced to close as immigrants stayed home to show just how important they are to the US economy. - In support of their efforts, employers and some other employees gave up wages and profits, also hoping to show the American consumer what an economy without immigration would mean for goods and services. - These protests and others demonstrate that political activism makes a difference that can build alternatives to the matrix of race and politics.

Symbolic Interactionism (Includes the definition of *symbolic interactionism*.) (Page 342)

A *symbolic interactionist approach to the military* investigates how we attach meaning to things (flags and memorials), events (wars), and other representations (heroes and patriotism) in support of war, terrorism and the military. (More details on page 341, Paragraphs 1-3.)

National Origins Formula: (Continued until 1965, where it was replaced by the rules laid out in the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965; Latin American immigrants were excluded from these quotas until 1965.) (Page 286)

A system of quotas, established between 1921 and 1965, that restricted immigration based on existing population proportions. - Its goal was to maintain the existing ethnic composition of the United States and kept quotas low for eastern and southern Europe.

War of 1812 (Includes the definitions of the *War of 1812*, the *Battle of New Orleans*, and the *Trail of Tears*.) (Page 349)

A total of 286,730 soldiers fought in the *War of 1812* from 1812-1815. Land, specifically Native land, was the principal source of tensions that gave rise to this conflict between the US and Great Britain... One of the most diverse groups of soldiers participating in this war consisted of Choctaw Indians, free Blacks, Creoles, slaves, pirates, and Filipino sailors. Operating out of a swamp, this motley crew fought the decisive *Battle of New Orleans* in January 1815. The US victory in the War of 1812 marked the acceleration of westward expansion and the destruction of much of what had been Native American lands. The Indian Removal Act is most directly associated with what became known as the *Trail of Tears*, the name given by Natives to the devastation of thousands of deaths from disease and exposure as tribes were forced to leave their lands.

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965: (Page 286)

Abolished the national-origins quotas and providing for the admission each year of 170,000 immigrants from the Eastern Hemisphere and 120,000 from the Western Hemisphere.

Applying the Matrix of Race to US Political History: (Includes the definition of *power*.) (Pages 282-283)

According to our nation's stock story, the original intent of our system of government was to diminish the conflict between "the haves" and "the have-nots". - A part of the American Dream, accordingly, democracy fosters pluralism and welcomes diversity, as both as essential to the interests of freedom. Using our stock story to guide us, we understand that conflicts arise in situations where resources are scarce, whether real or perceived. - *Power*, the ability to acquire scarce resources, is regulated through the central function of political institutions. Certain resources, like work, the economy, housing, access to education, are always scarcer than others. - Our task in the next sections will be exploring how these conflicts have been resoleves and to what extent the important of the intersrction of race, class, and gender.

White Ethnic Soldiers: (Page 347)

All forms of immigration were halted when the Revolutionary War began, but a large percentage of White immigrants and their descendants served in the Revolutionary War, such as Irish, Mid-Atlantic, and German immigrants, as well as European nations and German states.

Closing the Athlete Graduation Gap: (Pages 326-328)

At the college-level, the graduation gap between athletes of color and others is most significant within football and basketball, between Black and White players, and at the most sports-competitive schools, those in Division I of the NCAA. What accounts for the differences in graduation rates? It may depend on the sport. For instance, most Black college athletes are found within football and basketball... Academic under-performance is particularly pronounced among male basketball, football, and hockey players in general, as well as Black men in particular. In many states, private colleges and universities have tremendous advantages in recruiting top players, such as greater media exposure, better facilities, longer histories of victories, and scholarships. Scholarships are also not equally distributed, providing benefits for all, as 7% of high-school athletes who played varsity got college athletic scholarships in 2015-2016; men are ~2x likely than women to get athletic scholarships, and in minority youth, the largest goes to Black athletes, whereas Asian athletes get least, and White athletes get most scholarships.

Baseball and the American Dream: (Pages 320-321)

Baseball, considered by many to be the quintessential American game, has been far from a "field of dreams" for POC... The first baseball club originated in 1845 in Manhattan, when a group of young firefighters formed the Knickerbocker Baseball Club... As many as 55 professional Black baseball teams existed from 1883 to 1898... The story of baseball (with minor alterations) mirrors what was happening in other team sports, like football and basketball. Therefore, as we move into the 20th century, segregated sports by race, gender, and class, can be identified.

Players and Coaches: (Pages 308-310)

Both class and race are reflected in the biographies of successful athletes and coaches. Across the US, we spend a lot of time thinking about and often constructing myths about out sports heroes. It is a widespread belief that many athletes rise to fame and fortune out of dismal poverty and circumstances (alongside racial myths), but poor Blacks and Whites from broken families are not over-represented in professional sports, as seen here: - Middle-class and more affluent Whites are 75% more likely than poor Whites to become NBA players. - Blacks from two-parent families are 18% more likely than those from broken homes to become NBA athletes. - White NBA players are 33% more likely to come from two-parent families than from single-parent ones. Often when we speak of diversity, we are actually making reference to binary constructions of diversity (between two major racial/ethnic groups)... Most professional sports are at least somewhat segregated by race, ethnicity, and gender. In the 2015-2016 season, coaches across all leagues who identified as POC represented just a third of the heard coaching positions. - Even after the Rooney Rule, race dominance prevails, with the addition not changing the per-established conditions; there are mostly Whites in the positions, even years later, in all types (Page 310). - True diversity is seen in MLS, whereas NBA/WNBA/NFL are mostly Blacks.

Boycotts: (Page 294, includes the definition of *boycotting/boycotts*.)

Boycotting is one of the most significant forms of political activism, which are voluntary acts of protest in which individuals or groups seek to punish or coerce corporations, nations, or people by refusing to purchase their products, invest in them, or otherwise interact with them: - In 1905, the Chinese boycotted US products in reaction to the extension of the Chinese Exclusion Act. - From 1965-1970, the United Farm Workers of America led nationwide boycotts of grapes and lettuce in retail grocery stores to pressure growers to improve wages and working conditions. - From 1954-1968, participants in the Black civil rights movement conducted a number of boycotts (including the Montgomery bus boycotts) to protest the unequal treatment of African Americans. - From 1973-1995, LGBT groups held a boycott of Coors Brewing Company to protest its antigay hiring practices.

Contexualizing the Military: (Pages 342-343)

Clearly, the link between the military and its use of coercive force is important. Some scholars have argued that the military institutions are a direct result of either the real or potential struggles of war and armed conflict. By extension, both war and military violence are uniquely social events that create, maintain, and transform states, as well as individuals and societies.

Concealed Story of Critical Race Theory and Military Sociology (Includes the definition of *military-industrial complex*.) (Page 344)

Critical race theorists began to challenge the overly conservative and apologetic approach typically taken within military sociology. The race, gender, and class inequities that exist are not only manifested, but also in many ways, preserved in military hierarchies. The military serves the interests of the corporate elite in their pursuit of profits and power. Ann informal alliance exists between the nation's military and the major industries that produce arms and other military materials, which seek to influence public policy, which is termed the *military-industrial complex*, is dominated by major US corps and serves to preserve race, class, and gender hierarchies.

Identities and Resistance: (Page 321)

Critical race theorists stress that confronting race and racism is central to any analysis of sport, which also aims to combat racial hegemony within sport, while recognizing that race is a social construction. Thus, the members of a given group may reconstruct or legitimate certain racial stereotypes in sport.

Analyzing the 2016 Presidential Election: (Pages 274-276, includes the definitions of *Millenials* and *silent generation*)

Democrats have traditionally relied on an alliance of identity groups, specifically Black voters and northern White voters. - Trump made significant gains among the White working-class voters (those without a college education, more votes among low-income Whites, and older White working-class), not only in waning Democratic strongholds like western Pennsylvania, though also in historically Democratic Scranton, Pennsylvania, and eastern Iowa. When we examine the 2016 presidential election, we find that distinct intersectional realities associated with race, gender, and education are apparent. - Research suggests that Democratic candidates currently hold significant advantages among voting Blacks, Asians, Hispanics, well-educated adults, and *Millenials* (around ages 18-38). - Republican candidates tend to be supported by Whites, especially White men, lowe-education, evangelical Protestants, and the so-called *silent generation* (ages 73-93). - In general, the presidential election of 2016 revealed that people with college degrees voted very differently than people without degrees (such as how 52% voted for Clinton; 52% without voted for Trump).

Seminole Wars: (Includes the definition of the *Seminole Wars*.) (Pages 349-350)

During the War of 1812, both African escaped slaves, known as maroons, and Black Seminoles waged war against the US, as the first of the *Seminole Wars*. The Seminole Wars were three conflicts in Florida between the US and the Seminoles. In later years, some Black Seminoles went on to become members of the famed Buffalo Soldiers. By 1837, John Horse was an ex-slave and a formidable military leader and member of the Seminole tribe. By the end of the Summer of 1838, he surrendered, for the safety of his wife and children, as he and his family had joined other Natives in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma).

African Americans - Upward Mobility & Continued Discrimination (WWII): (Includes the definition of *hate strikes*.) (Page 354-356)

During the war, some 400,000 women served in the US military, primarily in the Women's Army Corps and the Army and Navy Nurse Corps. While President Franklin Roosevelt's 1941 Executive Order 8802 prohibited racial discrimination in the defense industries and civil service jobs, this rule was rarely enforced. Non-Whites were only counted on when the White labor force was exhausted, as they were subject to the most menial and dangerous jobs, often nights and janitorial, and excluded from unions, as well as segregated and paid lesser. *Hate strikes*, a series of White supremacist wildcat strikes were triggered throughout the war, such as in 1943, when White women working at the Baltimore Western Electric Plant demanded toilet facilities separate from those used by Black women; ultimately, the racial restrictions in the military-industrial complex forced Black women to remain in the private sector, serving as maids. Fully qualified African American nurses often found that racial segregation and discrimination hampered their entry into military service during WWII alongside discrimination, such as the six, dishonorable discharges due to being insulting and resisting the prejudice. For many Black men, the military offered decent wages and the potential for upward mobility after the war, yet they were met with discrimination and segregation, anyway, as Nazi prisoners of war were treated with higher privileges than Blacks were. In 1940, just 4,000 African Americans served in the US Navy, most of them as cooks or dishwashers or in the engine rooms, as another 12,500 served in naval construction units such as the Seabees and another 1,000 in the Coast Guard. By the end of the war, 165 African Americans were serving in the Navy and 5,000 in the Coast Guard, though an overwhelming majority, 95% served at mess halls, as only 54 Blacks were Naval officers and 700 were Coast Guard officers.

Applying the Matrix Approach to US Military History, War, and Terrorism: (Pages 345-346)

Each war has shaped new traditions and created new social norms, heroes, and methods of military engagement, as well as reflecting race, class, and gender hierarchies, which will be examined through the Civil War, WWII, the Vietnam War, and our current wars on terrorism.

*Politics:* (Page 270, includes the definition of Politics)

Encompasses all of the processes, activities, and institutions having to do with governance.

The Mexican-American War: (Includes the definition of the *Mexican-American War*.) (Pages 350-351)

From 1846-1848, the US was at war with Mexico; a total of 78,718 soldiers were engaged in the *Mexican-American War*. Among those who served, a total of 1,733 died, while 4,125 suffered non-mortal wounds. This war was mostly out of the US government's desire to annex Texas, California, and other Mexican territories, as the US forces launched a three-pronged offense... The War was concluded in 1848 with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; all Mexicans living on the American Southwest lands were to be granted full US citizenship, though Black Mexicans and Pueblo Indians were excluded. The influence of slavery between the nations led each on a collision course, that could only end in a civil war.

Unrest at Home and Abroad (WWII): (Page 354)

From its beginning in 1939, WWII was cast as a race was as Hitler and Nazi Germany stormed through Poland and the Soviet Union, killing ~6 million Jew, and declaring Slavs to be subhuman. Meanwhile, in the United States, after the bombing of Pearl Harbor by the Japanese in December 1941, 120,000 citizens of Japanese ancestry were ordered into concentration camps, as other race riots and attacks presumed across the nation.

Analyzing Space and Place - Early American Sports Narratives: (Page 317)

From the earliest point in US history, sports blended the cultural and athletic traditions of Native Americans and European immigrants. Each new immigrant group arriving in North America brought along its own sporting traditions, which were absorbed and transformed to produce a unique American sport culture. When Europeans settled the Americas, indigenous peoples, comprising as many as 500 separate nations, were actively engaged in a range of sport and game activities, including many that provided children with life experiences that would help them develop the competencies and experience necessary for survival.

Sovereign Peoples: (Page 285, 2nd Paragraph) (Building a Nation's Identity)

From the onset of the establishment of our nation, Native Americans were considered to be sovereign nationals. - That is, the tribes were considered to be independent and held authority over their own citizens and lands. Since each tribe was an independent nation, the United States signed and ratified almost 290 treaties with various tribes. - In all cases, the treaties were formal negotiations regarding the sale of land and property rights owned by the indigenous people, but desired by the US. Native Americans would not become US citizens until 1924 despite the 14th Amendment stating otherwise, and them not considered citizens.

Immigration: (Pages 285-287) (Building a Nation's Identity)

From the outset, US immigration policies were created expressly to preserve the racial character of the nation. - Persons from Northern Europe and Western Europe, followed by Southern Europe, were favored over all other potential immigrants. - In the 1840s, nearly half of US immigrates were from Ireland, alone. The mid-1800s gold rush attracted a significant number of Asian immigrants to the West Coast with 25,000 by the early 1850s. - Almost 5 million German immigrants during the 19th century, arrived in the Midwest. Anglo-Saxon Protestants, nervous about the influx of so many newcomers, began voicing anti-immigrant sentiments, alongside the "Know-Nothings". - The first group targeted was Chinese, and many other Asian Pacific immigrants. Furthermore, the Nationals Origins Formula was produced, as a way to set immigration quotas at 3% of the total number of foreign-born persons from a particular country.

Civil War: (Page 351)

If the Revolutionary War defined the United States as a republic, then the Civil War defined it as a nation. The Civil War was a struggle over who would be covered under "we the people" and who would not. The war affected Native Whites, African Americans, foreign residents, and Natives.

Race/Ethnicity Is the Missing Piece: (Page 341)

Functionalist approaches to the military, war, and terrorism ignore how these institutions serve the interests of the powerful within society and fail to provide specific analysis of race and ethnicity. The emphasis on the idea that the military and war unify society obscures the fact that they can also be forces for disunity and oppression. As we have observed earlier, terrorism, while viewed as dysfunctional, may be functional and a form of resistance for those who feel that their freedoms are being denied. Specifically, who gets to label and individual or group as terrorist in many cases reflects the very power dynamics that the acts are intended to alter. The definition is critical and it is political, oftentimes mirroring our concerns with race, class, and gender.

The Functions of Sport: (Includes the definition of the *functionalist theory of sport*. (Pages 315-316)

Functionalists believe that society is composed of a system of interrelated institutions that are structured according to the functions they perform (or the vital societal/community needs they fulfill). The *functionalist theory of sport* argues that sports fulfill a multitude of needs, such as: - Shared values. - Life skills. - Socio-emotional function. - Social mobility. The principal critique of the functionalist theory of sport is that it tends to overemphasize the positive consequences of sport and assumes that all identity groups (race, class, and gender) benefit equally from sport; this fails to grasp that sport is a social construct that preserves social hierarchies benefiting the privileged, and disadvantaging others.

Native Americans and the Revolutionary War: (Page 348)

General George Washington, fearful of the Natives' potential strategic advantage, attempted to neutralize their ability to act at the start of the Revolutionary War; with few exceptions, the Natives sided with the British. During the Revolutionary War, the Seminoles and a large contingent of African-ex-slaves also allied with the British, as the Seminoles also held slaves... the Black Seminoles came into being, their culture, is a blend of African, Natives, Spanish, and slaves, during the 1800s.

Civil War and Its Aftermath: (Page 287)

Geography and history interact in particular ways. Over these unique spaces and places, two distinct patterns of racial political processes can be identified: - *De jure political practices*, or processes that were enacted as formal laws, and... - *De facto political practices*, processes that, although not enshrined in law, were carried out by various entities. Collectively these political practices served to restrict or marginalize the political power, as well as the economic and social power of specific racial and ethnic groups.

Sports Media: (Pages 305-307)

If we watch almost any sports media channel, we may conclude that sports in the US are an equal opportunity employer. This is not correct. - Women's sports coverage has been lacking. - in 2016, the Princeton women's NCAA basketball team won 30 games and lost none, setting an Ivy League season record that was previously held by a male team, and this monumental accomplishment did not get early the amount of attention paid to male teams, fans, TV rights, or marketing endorsement. - The same rules apply for scholarships, positions, and endorsements. - This is further seen in the comparisons of salary between highest-ranking female athletes, such as Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova in contrast with LeBron James and Cam Newton, and even more as the top-grossing world athletes in 2016 were male international soccer players. - This may be due to the fact that sports reporters, writers, and editors are overwhelmingly White and male.

Creating Change: (Page 296-298)

If you are reading this, then there is a good chance that you are a millennial, or that you regularly come into contact with Millennials. Young people have historically voted less across the US, and 2016 was no different. With this in mind, here is a statement of a recent portrait of Millennials by the Pew Research Center: - Millennials are the most ethnically and racially diverse cohort in the nation's history. - Millennials are possibly the most politically progressive age group in modern history. - Millennials are the first generation for whom the Internet has been a constant, growing up on social media, truly the digital generation. - They are also likelier to be more politically independent & a third are not affiliated with any religious group. The question here, is not if the Millenials will make change, but when, and how.

The Rise of Coalitional Politics and Social Movements: (Includes *coalitional politics* and the *Black civil rights movement*.) (Pages 290-292)

In many ways, identity politics paved the way for the massive political protests, resistance, and transformations associated with the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. - This period is also distinguished by the rise to prominence of *coalitional politics*, in which, political alliances are formed among various identity groups with the shared purpose of establishing specific political agendas. - Perhaps, no single movement captured this new form of politics better than the *Black civil rights movement*, beginning around 1955 and continuing through 1968. - The movement was politically organized to effect change, resist oppression, and redefine the racial order through the courts, on the streets, through boycotts, and the ballot box. - The Black civil rights movement utilized a series of well-orchestrated nonviolent protests and civil disobedience actions to force dialogues between activists and political institutions. - Several major pieces of federal legislation resulted from these activities, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968. - Other significant movements took place as well, such as the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee, as well as from the leader, Cesar Chaves, of the Latino National Farm Workers Association, with strikes and protests leading to the first union contracts granting workers increased benefits and wages. - In 2016, Standing Rock Indian Reservation in North Dakota became a household name when Natives defied large corporations and the US government to protest the building of the Dakota Access Pipeline near the reservation, as well as another resistance in 2015, of the Keystone XL pipeline.

The Club Movement: (Includes the definition of the *club movement*.) (Pages 319-320)

Industrialism encouraged increased immigration from Europe and spurred the *club movement* in the US. The team sports that we know today developed out of this early movement, in which elite White ethnics formed exclusive clubs in urban industrial areas to promote group identity and enhance status. Typically, as these new ethnic groups (or immigrants) entered the urban industrial centers, they (certain groups) were met with either acceptance or rejection... The sports club movement was a means by which lower-status White ethnics could gain elite status.

Creating Change: (Pages 328-329)

Instead of waiting for change to happen, college athletes around the country have begun to organize themselves into unions. Many young athletes enter sports with the hope of one day playing professionally; unfortunately, the likelihood of a high school or even a college athlete becoming a professional is extremely low... The odds of an athlete graduation from college are much higher with more than 70% in NCAA Division I, II, and II, within six years. Sport, as a collection of social institutions, reflects the values, customs, and histories of society. Further improvements in collegiate sport can come only if we reaffirm commitments to all students and remove lingering racial, gender, and class inequities Given the interdependence and inter-relatedness of institutions, systemic, society-wide change will be required to solve these problems; ultimately we may conclude that high-priced sports are not compatible with higher education.

Political Identities By Place: (Page 270-273)

Intersectionality informs us that political identities are more than just social groups - they intersect across multiple dimensions. (For a visual on this, see the graph on Page 272, Race and Place Help Shape Our Personal Identities.)

Woman and the Impact of Title IX: (Includes the definition of *Title IX*.) (Pages 322-323, 325)

It is only in the last, two generations that young women in the US have gained the ability to grow up actively engaged in sports. In 1972, President Nixon signed into the landmark US Education Amendments, including *Title IX*, which declared that "no person in the US shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be discriminated under and program or activity receiving federal financial assistance... However, major gender inequalities still persist in sport, access to sport, spending on sport in schools and universities, as well as establishment of teams, which are not all concrete or equal, and is also apparent in the Olympics, and other sport, social institutions like journalism, coaching, players, and more.

Black Soldiers: (Page 346-347)

It was not until late in the Civil War that African American soldiers were allowed to participate in combat, and when they were, they suffered a far higher mortality rate than white troops. Despite the many hardships that it entailed, military service was a source of pride for blacks because it symbolized their freedom. The British were the first to tap the support of Black slaves. Black folks worked as British spies in New York. George Washington was adamantly against the use of slaves in the military, but the ravages of the winter of 1777-1778 and the devastation of the Continental army by both disease and desertion forced him to reconsider.

Labor Shortages and the Bracero Program (WWII): (Includes the definition of the *Bracero Program*.) (Page 356)

Latino men and women also benefited from the labor needs of the military-industrial complex during WWII. In 1942, labor shortages on railroads, in mining operations, at shipyards, and in agriculture forced the US government to establish the *Bracero Program*, allowing 50,000 agricultural workers and 765 railroad workers from Mexico to enter the US as contract guest workers (bracero is Spanish for a manual laborer). The program established basic workers' rights of sanitation, adequate shelter, and food, and a minimum wage of 30 cents an hour. In theory, the workers were protected with guaranteed sanitary housing, decent meals at reasonable prices, occupational insurance at the farm owners' expense, and free transportation back to Mexico at the ends of their contracts; in actuality, these rules were often and flagrantly broken as farm wages dropped and abuses ran rampant.

The Role of Agency and Resistance: (Pages 325-326)

Much of our understanding of agency, such as our sense of control, the ability to initiate, execute, and control one's actions, particularly in effecting change and resistance in sports is derived from personal narratives of athletes and coaches... David Denson, first baseman for the Milwaukee Brewers' minor league affiliate in Helena, Montana, announced in August 2015 that he is gay, the first active player with a MLB organization to come out publicly. A record 56 LGBT athletes competed in the Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro in 2016, athletes, whom used their status as sport start to engage in advocacy and resistance, as these voices collectively serve to change sport and our country.

The Union, the Confederacy, and Ethnicity: (Includes the definition of *old immigrants* and *new immigrants*.) (Page 351-352)

On the eve of the Civil War, the United States was truly becoming a nation of immigrants. For the first time, the *old immigrants*, people who came in the earliest waves of immigration, from England, Scotland, and Wales. The old was being supplanted by *new immigrants*, people from Ireland, Switzerland, Poland, Germany, and other Southern European countries. - This group, not only overwhelmingly supported the Union cause but also volunteered for the army in numbers that far exceeded their proportion in the US population. - In contrast, the Confederate Army was 91% native-born, primarily the descendants of *old immigrants*.

Slavery: (Pages 283-284) (Building a Nation's Identity)

One of the most prized resources available in a democracy is freedom. - In 1776, when the First Continental Congress met to create a government for our new nation, slaves made up approximately 20% of the population. The southern colonies, consisting of Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, were staunch supporters of slavery. - Slaves in the northern colonies, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, likely had more diversified skills than those in the heavily agricultural South. As the colonies entered into the Revolutionary War, the differing regional political economies and attitudes towards slavery comprised the nation's first set of political compromises. - The establishment of the US Congress as a bicameral legislature with the Senate and House of Representatives, was a direct result of debates about whether and how to count slaves as part of the country's population, ultimately decided by the Three-Fifths Compromise.

Asian Americans in the Enlisted Ranks (WWII): (Page 356-357)

One particular group that faced systematic discrimination during the war consisted of about 500 Nisei (second-generation Japanese, like the children of immigrants) women who served in the US forces in enlisted ranks as office personnel, translators, and medical professionals. They had to consider the reality that their families were held in internment camps, alongside the Japanese cultural expectation that women should be docile and subservient to men.

The Role of Race, Class, and Gender: (Page 273-274 )

Other intersectional aspects of political identities are associated with how race and income interact. - For example, Whites are likelier to vote than Blacks or Latinos, though, it is important to note that being eligible, or likely to vote, and actually voting, are two different things. - Black women have been the most likely to vote in the past, two presidential elections, and there is a small, though, increasingly growing number of women in color participating in politics. - Later, we will explore some of the historical reasons women, in general, and Black women especially may be likelier to vote then men.

Introduction to Chapter 10 - Military, War, and Terrorism: (Pages 332-334)

Politician, mother, wife, double amputee, disabled combat veteran, and hero - all of these describe US Senator Tammy Duckworth of Illinois. On November 12, 2004, her helicopter was attacked by a rocket-propelled grenade; she lost both of her legs and much of her right arm, her valor, earning her the Purple Heart, the Air, and Army Commendation Medal... A single act of war or violence can define or change one's life forever, as well as a community, or nation. Consider 9/11's effect, as well as the US' use of atomic bombs during WWII,

The Great Compromise of 1787: (Page 284)

Popular term for the measure which reconciled the New Jersey and Virginia plans at the constitutional convention, giving states proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate. The compromise broke the stalemate at the convention and paved the way for subsequent compromises over slavery and the Electoral College. This was made as a result of the disagreement over how a slave should be counted, and ended with the Three-Fifths Compromise.

Critical Race Theory (A Concealed Story): (Page 281, includes the definition of *critical race theory and identity politics*.)

Represents an attempt by scholars and activists to transform the relationships among race, racism, and power, and listed below are the themes of the critical race theory: 1st: First, one of the central themes of critical race scholars is their rejection of, significant challenges to, reinterpretations of, and/or new insights into the stock socio-political theories. 2nd: Second, mainstream ideas, reflected disproportionately by White scholars, stress the importance of linking structural conditions, such as laws, or the economy, to the self-interest of leaders, activists, or even regions to understand ethnic identity and the conflict that often occurs. 3rd: Third, political realities reaffirm that racial hierarchies are normal, which means the dominant political processes racialize different minority groups at different times (in response to the shifting needs of the labor market). Critical race theorist, Kimberle Williams Crenshaw, who coined the term *intersectionality*, has argued that political processes are best understood through an intersectional lens. - Intersectionality can be a source of agency and advocacy, whereas the agency is a form of *identity politics*, a political process or structure that relies on people of specific religions, racial and ethnic groups, or social backgrounds to form exclusive political aliances.

Introduction to Chapter 9, Sports and the American Dream: (Includes the definitions of *communal experience* and *cultural values*.) (Pages 303-304)

Rezball, or reservation basketball, dominates the basketball courts on Native reservations. It differs from regular basketball, as there are fewer time-outs, no organized plays, and serves to enhance identities at multiple levels, by means of including both *communal experience, or shared knowledge across group members occupying the same spaces*, and *cultural values, shared sets of beliefs and interpretations*. Let's look at contemporary trends in sports and how they relate to the American Dream.

Sports and the Colonists: (Pages 317-318)

Several variations in sport and athleticism can be identified across US regions and across historical times. Religious attitudes within the American colonies governed the recreational activities considered proper for men and women, with their own set of sports-centered gendered/class roles. On the contrary, Puritians believed that sport was a sin, as it wasted the sacred blessings of time, and sanctioned what sports were approved or to be discarded. The 19th-century southern planters modeled themselves on European nobility and attempted to duplicate their leisure activities... (More gruesome details noted on Page 318 in the third paragraph.) Sport not only helped reinforce the White gentry's values, but it also served to distinguish them from subordinate groups. Sporting venues quickly became the places where politics, economics, and culture were controlled; in many ways, sport became a way to access power in the South.

Communal Experience: (Includes the definition of *communal experience*.) (Page 303)

Shared knowledge across group members occupying the same spaces.

Cultural Values: (Includes the definition of *cultural values*.) (Page 303)

Shared sets of beliefs and interpretations.

Cathay Williams: (Resistance Story) (Page 353, next to Race and Gender in the Civil War)

She was a(n): - USA Soldier - (Diguised) Female Soldier - Former slave - 1st African American enlisted soldier - Buffalo soldier

Race, Gender, and Early American Sports: (Pages 318-319)

Slaves, both male and female, were often the featured attractions providing entertainment and profit to the southern plantation elite, although it could provide Black slaves to enjoy leisure activity, and some, a way of freedom. Black women, regardless of their status, found that sport could be a means of rebellion. Latinos have also had an impact on sports within the US.

A Female Founder's Fight: (A Resistance Story) (Page 324)

Society Nine celebrates the fight in every woman. We are a modern women's boxing lifestyle brand providing quality training gear and activewear to empower every woman's fight. We provide her with what she needs to perform at her best - quality product and a supportive community that will be in her corner no matter where she is in her journey, in life, and in sport. Looking back in American history, there's no greater historical event in women's sports than when Title IX was passed. (click to read some historical context) For those who need a quick history lesson, Title IX states: No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance. The passing of Title IX was a catalyst for female fighters everywhere - across all sports. That's what OUR society honors. It pays homage to the fighters before us, and the fighters now amongst us. It speaks to what the future holds for the modern female fighter - she is capable of doing absolutely anything. We're celebrating the new society of women who will continue to carry that torch forward.

Wars and Native Americans: (Page 348)

Some of the most violent and cruel wars in US history took place on our own soil, against Native American populations, with American military forces fighting 29 major wars against Native Americans, from precolonial times to within the 20th-century, costing thousands of lives and acres of land, as the only other war to match this dread was the Civil War.

Regional Differences: (Page 270-271)

The Spanish, English, and French frontier developments resulted in distinct regional differences that remained, as the United States evolved as a nation. Over time, population shifts also occurred, influenced by economic trends and industrial and agricultural developments. The various US geographical regions therefore reflect unique histories, cultures, wealth distributions, and political processes.

Creating a New Playing Field: (Page 325)

Sport is an important institution within the US, which not only provides needed exercise and opportunities, though helps stimulate change within micro and macro levels, as athletes can use their status to enhance the visibility and awareness of often marginalized members of society.

De Facto Political Practices: (Civil War and Its Aftermath: Includes *restrictive covenants* and *redlining*.) (Page 289)

States in both the South and North passed residential segregation laws. - But in 1917, the US Supreme Court held that such ordinances were unconstitutional. As a result, real estate agents and private developers began to write their own provisions into real estate contracts. - These *restrictive covenants* barred the resale of houses to purchasers of a race different from that of the original homeowner. - As a result of these, even after ruled unconstitutional in 1948, the damage has been done, through the process of *redlining*, areas worthy of mortgage, ranked, and color-coded, building the segregation foundation of housing, which still has long-lasting effects today in schools nearby, the level of education received, and perpetuating the cycle of poverty.

Correcting the Record (WWII): (Includes the definition of the *Medal of Honor*.) (Page 357-358, 359)

The *Medal of Honor*, often called the Congressional Medal of Honor because it is awarded in the name of Congress, is the highest military honor that an individual can receive for combat heroism. Only one Medal of Honor has been given to a woman. The numbers of the Medal of Honor recipients are even more telling behind-the-scenes. On January 13th, 1997, President Bill Clinton awarded the Medal of Honor to seven African American WWII veterans; only one recipient, Vernon Baker, was still alive to receive it... Although five Native Americans who served in WWII were Medal of Honor recipients, few have acknowledged the clandestine and important mission served by the group known as code talkers. With the value of their significant contributions, it was not until 9/17/1992, that they were honored in a ceremony at the Pentagon.

The Class Approach: (Pages 277-278, includes the definition of *class approach, instrumentalism, and structuralism*.)

The *class approach* to power, politics, and identity assumes that the type of economic system a society has determined the kind of political structures that evolve. Two different intellectual traditions derive from this perspective: 1) *Instrumentalism:* Views the state as being dominated by an economic class that controls both political and economic spheres. 2) *Structuralism:* Posits that the state and all political institutions exist relatively independent of each other and are essentially by-products of conflict between and in class groups. Critics of the class approach (and its derivatives) claim that they tend to reduce all aspects of power to what happens in the market. - Further, class approaches tend to minimize racial, ethnic, and immigrant bases of power, such as the Congressional Black Caucus and the Congressional Hispanic Caucus, that serve as resistance and countervailing forces in our political structure. - The biggest challenge for social change has to do with the gaps that exist among the various identity groups, which implies that the ideal social change movement garnering the most momentum is intersectional, bridging between the.gaps that exist among various identity groups.

The Nurture Perspective: (Includes the definitions of *nurture perspective* and *agency*.) (Pages 312-315)

The *nurture perspective* views gender, racial, cultural, and national group differences in athleticism as products of socialization and environment. For years gender norms have been reinforced by gender segregation within individual sports... Sports reinforce the rules and roles of life... As we will examine in more depth, critical scholars have pointed out that sport socialization serves to preserve the dominant gender, racial, and class hierarchy... The links among race, nurture, and sport, has also been demonstrated repeatedly... The NBA's Charlotte Hornets, owned by Michael Jordan, is the only professional team among the six biggest leagues that has a Black majority owner. Critical theorists currently argue that *agency*, the capacity of individuals to make choices and to act independently given access, resources, and ability) interacts with sport in a process that links identities, nature, and nurture. In addition to gender binaries, class, and space, can also affect who has access to sport. Research also has demonstrated that sports participation is linked to both race and gender. Some argue that sport serves as a means through which subordinate males and females can seek status, respect, empowerment, and upward mobility; however, the reality is quite the opposite. (See Pages 312-315 for more details.)

The Power Elite Model: (Pages 278-279, includes the definition of *power elite model*.)

The *power elite model* suggests that power is concentrated among a discrete group of elites who control the resources of significant social institutions. The power elite consists of members from three specific realms: 1) Holders of the highest political offices, such as the President of the United States, key cabinet members, and close advisers. 2) Heads of major corporations and directors of corporate boards. 3) High-ranking military personnel. While inherited wealth and position can help an individual attain the status of a power elite, individuals can also gain admittance to the highest circles by working hard and adopting elite values. The first major criticism of the power elite model is that it erroneously assumes equality among economic, political, and military elites. - Another criticism of the model is that it presents political and corporate elites as unified, while regional and economic interests interact to produce specific types of power structures. In the sections that follow, we will return to how this demonstrates how White, southern elites pursued a policy of segregation that not only harmed their long-term interests but also to pit low-status Whites against low-status Blacks and Hispanics, which repercussions have lasted to date.

De Jure Political Practices: (Civil War and Its Aftermath: Includes *poll taxes*, *literacy tests*, and *grandfather clauses*.) (Page 287-289)

The Civil War, although centered on the issue of slavery, was equally about what political system should govern the country. - In the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln freed some slaves, under Confederate control (over which he had no power) while others were still enslaved; this is what tipped the Civil War in the direction of the Union. In the aftermath of the Civil War, half a million Black men became voters in the South during the 1870s. - Black women would have to wait until 1920 when all American women were granted the right to vote... When federal troops left the old Confederacy, voting significantly declined among Blacks, as White employers and groups like the Ku Klux Klann sought to preserve White political supremacy at all costs. - To segregate public spaces by race, poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses were put into place to only benefit White citizens; many Blacks, and newly-immigrated from Italy, Russia, and other parts of Europe had difficulty too. - *Poll Taxes*: Taxes individuals had to pay 2-years in advance before voting. - *Literacy Tests*: Required reading and interpretation of a White country court - *Grandfather Clauses*: Gave voting to anyone whose Grandfather was able to pre-Civil War. With Blacks effectively removed from the electorate, Whites were in control of all federal and state legislative and executive offices, and so, they were able to pass a whole range of Jim Crow laws that enforced racial segregation through the South, led to political disfranchisement, economic discrimination, and social ostracism towards Blacks, Natives, and Chinese, as well.

The Role of Women: (Pages 347-348)

The Revolutionary War afforded women on both sides of the conflict a variety of wars, including combat, boycotts, acts of sabotage, espionage (disguised as maids and cooks), and services, as well as nurses, and medics too.

Race and Gender in the Civil War: (Pages 352-353)

The Union army, despite intense prejudices, actively recruited Natives under the condition that they would fight only in Indian Territory. The start of hostilities put a strain on the Union army and forced it to abandon many of its forts in Indian Territory. Although it is difficult to document the contributions of women during the Civil War, we do know of distinguished service by some woman, as at least 250 women, dressed as men, fought on both sides of the war, as well as figures like Harriet Tubman and Cathay Williams. Sexual violence is one of those peculiar atrocities in war upon women and the Civil War was no exception; as the Lieber Code even protected Black women against sexual violence from White mean. After the Civil War, the army disbanded all of the volunteer "colored" regiments and established six segregated Black regiments under White officers.

The Legacy of Civil Rights: (Pages 321-322)

The civil rights movement of the mid-20th-century had significant impact on sport in the US. Through legislation, court actions, and organized efforts, the movement helped to abolish many of the formal mechanisms of racial discrimination. As a registered, conscientious objector, Black heavyweight boxing champion, Muhammed Ali drew attention to the racial injustices present... Critical scholars researching sport also became highly successful in bringing about change.

Harnessing Social Media: (Page 294-296)

The day after Clinton lost the 45th Presidential US election, women across the US and the world marched in protest. - In the Women's March, as many as 2.5 million people, men, and women, took to the streets, out of fear and justice for reproductive, civil, and human rights. The story and history of Black Lives Matter (BLM) demonstrates how political activism can be a form of resistance and transformation, originating in 2013 with the #BlackLivesMatter. Furthermore, the advocation of the Oscars as #OscarsSoWhite, appears to have led to the following years of the Academy to have seemingly made an effort to invite more women, people of color, and nominations outside of older White males.

Class, Gender, and Race in the US Military: (Page 334-336)

The five branches that comprise the military are the US Army, Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard, and Marine Corps, which are all authorized to use deadly force to support and protect the interests of the nation. The US Department of Defense is the largest employer in the world, and spends 16% or 602 billion dollars of the federal budget. While the military is predominantly male, White, and young, significant differences are seen across the branches, such as how Air Force recruits are older, while ~50% of Marine Corps are 17-18 years old, and most Army and Navy recruits are 19-20.

Functionalism: (Includes the definitions of *functionalism*, *war*, *terrorism, and *dysfunctional*.) (Pages 339-340)

The functionalist theory assumes that institutions come into being to meet specific and basic, societal needs. A *functionalist theory* assumes that institutions come into being to meet specific and basic societal needs. A *functionalist approach to the military* argues that the military, war, and terrorism serve specific and important tasks, or functions, within society. *War*, defined as the use of organized force, represents a state of armed conflict between different nations, states, or groups within a nation or state. War functions to legitimate state claims, regulate conflict between states, minimize collateral damage among noncombatants, and extend the social, political, and economic values of the victor upon the vanquished. *Terrorism* is the unlawful use of force, particularly against civilians, in pursuit of political, economic, or social aims. Functionalism views terrorism as *dysfunctional*, as it disrupts social structures, increases stress, and violates norms and rules of engagement.

Examining the Stock Sociological Theories of Sport: (Pages 310-311)

The link between race and sport predates the actual sociology of sport, which has emerged as an academic field only in the past half century. There are four popular sociological theories about sport. Two pit biology and socialization against each other, with the biological viewpoint holding that certain groups are born with athletic abilities. The nurture perspective, in contrast, assumes individuals are socialized into becoming, or not becoming, athletes. Other scholars, assuming either nature or nurture, have been more interested in the functions served by sport in society and how sport serves to perpetuate certain myths about the US... These dominant theories are reinforced and promoted by media and pop culture, are also our sport stock stories.

Assuming Legitimacy: (Includes the definitions of *interstate forms of war*, *intrastate forms of war*, and *nonstate actors*. (Pages 343-344)

The major criticism of this approach is that it assumes the military has a monopoly on the coercive use of force, and further, that such use is legitimate. This theory also assumes that *interstate forms of war*, conflicts involving national states such as WWI and WWII, are somehow more legitimate than *interstate forms of war*, conflicts that exist or occur within the boundaries of particular states. Now, what are termed *"nonstate actors"*, individuals or organizations with economic, political, or social power, that allows them to influence both national and international events, typically with violence, are most often the initiators of terrorist attacks, wars, and other conflicts.

Applying the Matrix to Sports in the United States: (Pages 316-317)

The matrix of race, class, and gender operates throughout the institution of sport. Geographic and social locations and identities across time influence how sport and athleticism develop, which groups and identities become involved, and the ways in which these might serve to facilitate change. The stock story of US sports has been central to our national narrative. However, our concealed stories reveal the historical, political, cultural, and social processes that have shaped the development of sport in the US. Sport can also be a source of both resistance and transformative change, as individuals and groups engaged in sport use their status to effect changes both within sport and in the wider society.

The Military Preserves Social Values: (Page 340)

The military functions to preserve social values by encouraging patriotism, compliance with normative expectations, and order, both domestically and internationally. Accordingly, the stratification, that occurs within the military, such as along racial and gender lines, reflects these functions. The military provides these functions at multiple levels. At the national level, a strong military helps maintain social cohesion and relative calm, as it is perceived as a deterrent to hostile and wanton attacks. The military also serves at the individual level by socializing individuals and advancing such notions, as patriotism, maturity, and solidarity.

Citizenship: (Pages 284-285) (Building a Nation's Identity): (Includes the definition of *citizenship*.)

The next step in nation-building that cemented the intersectional basis of our political institutions involved citizenship and immigration. - The status of citizenship reflects the legal processes that a country uses to regulate national identity, membership, and rights. - Citizenship also establishes the political boundaries that define who is and is not included in the democratic franchise, which also has a history of white privilege and power imbalances.

*Political Identities:* (Page 270, includes the definition of Political Identities.)

The political positions, based on the interests and perspectives of social groups, with which people associate themselves.

Revolutionary War (1775-1783) (Page 346)

The war fought between the American colonies and England. American colonies won the war and gained independence and British land in North America. This featured immense diversity in the soldiers, as a display of intersectionality. It involved 217,000 colonial soldiers, 4,435 died in combat, and another 6,188 were wounded.

Claudette Colvin (Page 290)

The young woman who at the age of 15, in March 1955, refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus (before Rosa Parks).

Institutionalizing Sport - Industrialization, Immigration, and Team Sports: (Page 319)

Theorists employing a matrix or intersectional approach have characterized sport as a mirror of capitalistic society and have examined how sport has increasingly become globally commercialized. A matrix analysis of sport demonstrates that sporting events are more than media representations or cultural products, as they become major spaces were race, class, and gender intersects. Concerning this, the club movement served to preserve and magnify sport and race, class, and gender hierarchies.

War Is a Bonding Experience: (Page 340)

War, viewed functionally, helps citizens develop a form of social bonding or solidarity. Wars have served to stimulate advances in technology, production processes, and sciences, leading to leaps forward in many areas, from airplanes and jets to space flight, medical innovations, mass transit, and the Internet.

The Nature Perspective: (Includes the definition of *nature perspective*.) (Pages 311-312)

We live in a time when many of our behaviors have been linked to specific sets of genes, to the point that companies capitalize on this through misleading, gene counseling, as critics point this questionable business out. Thus, let's take a look at the science. The *nature perspective* posits that biological differences between genders and among racial, cultural, and national groups, account for variations in athletic ability, performance, and success. This stems into biological determination, and racial biases, with no evidence to support this. (See page 312 for more details.)

The Sports Industry: (Page 304-305)

While the Olympics are spectacular, the most watched sport in the United States has traditionally been football, and the Super Bowl leads all other single sporting events. Among the viewership numbers, some interesting demographics can be identified, such as: - NBA has the youngest audience and highest share of Black viewers. - MLB and NBA tie for highest numbers of male viewers. - NHL has the richest audience. - Hispanics are more likely to view the games of MLS. - NASCAR has the highest female and White viewers of either gender. - PGA has the oldest audience. It should not be surprising that the sports we watch reveal something about our values and interests, that the audience can largely impact the business of sports, and that the makeup of a sport's fan base not only affects viewership, though links directly to the salaries and endorsement contracts athletes may earn. Sports constitutes a significant portion of the US economy, and the popularity of sports means that billions of dollars are generated each year. - (Please note that Page 305 goes into more detail on the amounts, purchases, and sports-related costs and earnings on the US economy.)