test 4
TWO-PARENT FAMILIES
About 2/3 of children under 18 are raised in 2 parent families Children tend to fare better in 2-parent families - may not include marriage. This is true particularly if the parent's relationship with each other is caring and they create a positive atmosphere in the home. In two-parent families children have more daily contact with parents, are read to more often, progress more steadily in school and participate more in extracurricular activities.
Long term affects on children of divorced parents:
Are 2 times more likely to drop out of HS. More likely to marry young and divorce - may fear of commitment. More likely to become a parent early and unwed. Some children who experience a high conflict divorce may learn from the experience and go on to form happy and highly intimate relationships
ONSET OF PUBERTY
Around age 10 girls start to see changes associated with puberty, boys at the age of 12. Puberty is increasingly earlier - trend in developed countries that began 100 years ago. Causes - better nutrition, childhood obesity, food additives and /or environmental causes? Changes may occur as young as 6 years of age.
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS
Children in this stage have a better understanding of how far away something is and how to get there. Ability to use maps and models and can communicate spatial information. Writing, drawing improves. Ability to organize the environment.
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF THE PEER GROUP:
Develop skills needed for sociability and intimacy - enhance relationships and a sense of belonging. Motivate the individual to achieve and develop sense of identity. Learning - transmission of information (superstitions, folklore, riddles, gossip, sexual information). Form an opinion of self compared with others; choose values, test opinions, feelings and attitudes, social referencing, new perspectives. Provides security, companionship, model and practice social behaviors. Friendships very important to development at this age
THE CHILD IN SCHOOL
Entering first grade - In our culture, considered a milestone - a sign of the developmental achievement that makes it possible. Parents/caretakers should be involved at all levels of student success in school Children of authoritative parents tend to be the highest achievers and most interested in learning. Children of permissive and authoritarian parents tend to be lower achievers Interest, attention and active participation are associated with achievement that leads to increased self-confidence in the child. According to learning theorists, children who believe they can master schoolwork usually make more efforts and find greater success. Girls tend to outperform boys in most areas academically. Extracurricular activities correlate with higher math and reading scores. Socioeconomic status can have a significant effect on school success, however involvement of a supportive family tends to increase performance regardless of socioeconomic status. School physical environment and class size impact on student performance. Educational innovations - "At-risk" programs, home schooling, charter schools.
POVERTY - LOW SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS (SES)
Estimated 18% of U.S. children - approx. 40% of U.S. homeless are children. Affects of poverty on children are often dependent on parent's emotional state - anxious, depressed, pessimistic - leads to lesser affection and responsiveness to child's needs. Children are more likely to have emotional, behavioral, and academic problems resulting from depression, poor social interactions, low selfconfidence and antisocial behaviors. Effective parenting and use of available resources can counteract effects of low SES, proving children with support and success.
COGNITIVE ADVANCES
Gains an increased understanding of rules, customs and situations. Classifying information with increased use of symbols: math concepts, concepts of time and space. Distinguishes reality from fantasy. Less egocentric - more understanding of other people's viewpoints.
COMPANION ANIMALS
70% - 90% of families with children in this age group own pets. Children form emotional attachments to animals, learn empathy, responsibility and to care for others in interaction with animals. May contribute to establishing Erikson's "basic trust", "autonomy" and "industry". In studies, children rank their pets among their most important relationships
MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES
Common Emotional Disorders of the Middle Age Child
INFORMATION PROCESSING:
Memory and Other Skills School age children are making steady progress in abilities to process and retain information Executive functioning increasing Speed of mental processing increases as brain develops - more information can be kept in working memory ⇒ more complex thinking. Metamemory - In school children learn to understand about how the memory process works Mnemonic strategies: Techniques to aid memory. Children learn to use strategies or techniques to increase ability to remember large amounts of information. Get better and more flexible as child gets older. Metacognition: Awareness of one's own thinking processes and how they work
GARDNER'S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
People have one or several of 8 distinct types of Intelligence; linguistic, logicmathematical, spatial, musical, body-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic. Intelligences are not necessarily related to IQ score. Person may be gifted in one or more areas but not in others. Helps to identify the individuals' strengths and weaknesses in order to maximize potential. Assessments are time consuming and open to tester bias.
FAMILY STRUCTURE
The composition of a family, such as single versus two parents, only child or several children, adopted children, stepfamilies, and other nontraditional families
Who should direct the Play?
Child-Directed Play vs. Adult-Directed Play • Which is more beneficial?
CATEGORIZATION (CON'T)
Class inclusion (which things go together) - "18 red blocks and 2 green blocks - Is the total number of blocks greater than the number of red blocks?"
PLAY
Games are spontaneous and informal in school recess setting. Boys are competitive and physically active (ball games), girls are verbally expressive and more organized (jump rope, hopscotch). School recess play promotes physical development, social competence and fosters adjustment in school setting. Rough-and-tumble play: Vigorous play involving wrestling, hitting, chasing often accompanied by laughing/yelling (usually boys). Peaks during this stage. About 40% of children participate in organized sports - usually baseball, soccer, softball and basketball.
MORAL REASONING
In the previous stage children developed internalized and absolute standards of what was right or wrong. By the end of this stage (age 11 or 12) the child has learned to consider equity or special circumstances for different treatment in moral judgments. Piaget's "ink story"
LEARNING DIFFERENCES
Most school districts have special programs to provide education to students with differences Students with cognitive, learning or physical disabilities receive special education services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1975), which ensures a free, appropriate education for all children in the "least restrictive environment" for their needs. 14% of U.S. children receive services under IDEA English as a Second language (ESL) - Bilingual Education - 20% of 5 -17 year olds speak a language other than English at home. Gifted children - approx. 6% - High general intelligence - IQ of 130⇑ and/or high potential for achievement in general intellect and/or specific aptitudes. Learning disabilities - Often have average or above IQ with problems processing sensory information - dyslexia is a common example. Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder - approx. 3% - persistent inattention, distractibility, low frustration tolerance, highly active. Mental retardation - IQ of 70⇓ and a deficiency in adaptive performance
Developmental Stages of Social Play
Parten's six stages of play
EDUCATIONAL AND VOCATIONAL PREPARATION
Transition from grade school can be a difficult time. 8 years of grade school to 4 years of high school seems to be easier transition than 6 years of grade school to 3 years middle school to 3 years high school. • School is the central experience in adolescents' lives. • Number of high school graduates is rising. High school diploma has become a minimum requirement for entering the labor force. • Issues that affect school success: self-efficacy beliefs, parenting styles (authoritative is best), socioeconomic status, gender, quality of school
DISCIPLINE / COREGULATION
Transitional stage in the control of behavior in which parents exercise general supervision and children exercise moment-to-moment selfregulation - the parents and the child share power over the child's behavior. Parents supervise while child regulates own activities. Process of cooperation with need for communication. "Main job of parents is to work themselves out of a job
MEDICAL PROBLEMS
Illness in middle childhood tends to be brief. Accidental Injuries - leading cause of death in school age children in U.S. (MVA, bicycles, snow mobiles, trampolines, firearm accidents, sports injuries). Children should wear protective gear - helmets, mouth guards, goggles, etc. Adult supervision necessary Acute medical conditions - infections, colds, flu, viruses (school is a breeding ground). Not as much as in age 3-6 group - immune system is getting stronger. Chronic medical conditions (last for a least 3 months) - allergies, asthma (12% of children), diabetes, HIV/AIDS (2.2 million children worldwide). Obesity on the rise, along with related diseases - diabetes, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia Vision and hearing problems - 13% of children have vision loss to some extent, 15% have some hearing loss. Impairments at this age affect communication, learning, self-esteem, behavior and relationships.
WORKING MOTHERS
In 2019, 72.3% of children under age 18 have working mothers. More than half of mothers go to work within a year of giving birth. If mother is satisfied with her work she will be a more effective parent. Quality of supervision of the child is more important than whether the mother works. Child has greater responsibility and more independence. Child develops more androgynous roles (rather than male / female) in the home.
DIVORCE
U.S. has one of highest divorce rates in the world - approx 50%. 1 in 3 marriages dissolve within the first 10 years. Effect of the child is dependent on the child's age, maturity, gender, temperament and psychosocial adjustment at the time of the divorce. Parents' approach to custody, visitation, finances, household duties, parent contact, remarriage and stepparent relationship. Younger children experience more anxiety, selfblame, feelings of abandonment and rejection. Important for the parents to shield the children from the discord, stress and conflict of divorce - most children adjust reasonably well.
Generation X - Busters
born 1964-1979 Now 41-55 years old Children of the Baby Boomers. Increasingly multicultural. More divorced parents than prev. generations - "latch key kids". The "Me" generation (preppies, money, materialism, excess, individualistic, solitary sports). Like being in the spotlight - entertainers are heroes. Focused on individual - risk takers - extreme sports - wall street Politically apathetic Frequently change jobs - want control and positive reinforcement in the workplace Money is important - want big homes, cars, vacations, luxuries Work alone - don't like teams
Fine Motor Skills
- Refinement of release - Bilateral hand skills - Pencil/crayon usage - In-hand manipulation
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
AGES 6 - 11
HYPOTHETICAL-DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Ability to develop, consider, and test hypotheses in order to solve problems • Imagining all possibilities and testing them systematically
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Adolescent growth spurt: Sharp increase in height and weight that precedes sexual maturity - lasts about 2 years - may be quick or slow - early or late. • Physical changes generally occur first, before social, cognitive and emotional changes although all are interrelated. • Primary sex characteristics: Organs directly related to reproduction, which enlarge and mature during adolescence. • Secondary sex characteristics: Physiological signs of sexual maturation (such as breast development and growth of body hair) that do not involve the sex organs
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Adolescents (16 to 18) know about 80,000 words • Can define and discuss abstractions such as love and justice. • Conscious of multiple meanings of word - use irony, puns, and metaphors. • Social perspective taking - ability to understand another person's point of view and level of knowledge and speak accordingly. Speak differently with peers than with adults.
ADOLESCENCE
Ages 12-20 • A Developmental Transition • Transitional period between childhood and adulthood • Adolescence begins with puberty (process leading to sexual maturity - the ability to reproduce) • It is the second most rapid period of growth for the human (infancy is most) Adolescence - Developmental transition between childhood and adulthood entailing major physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes • Puberty - Process by which a person attains sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce. Onset represents the end of childhood
ERIKSON'S FOURTH CRISIS
Ages 6 to 11 Industry Vs. Inferiority Fourth stage of psychosocial development, in which children must learn the productive skills their culture requires or else face feelings of inferiority. Child's positive self-esteem comes from their view that they are able to perform productive work (at home, in school, hobbies, sports, etc.) Positive outcome is competence - a view of the self as able to master skills and complete tasks. Failure to resolve this crisis results in children who view themselves as inadequate compared to their peers - will retreat, lack initiative or do just the minimum due to fear of failure or turn into "workaholics" - trying to prove their worth and neglecting social relationships.
Toys Should
Allow for complex investigation of their functions. • Have unique functions (bounce, roll, stack, fit together) • Allow for creative interactions (sounds, moving arts, visual displays, etc.) • Elicit imitative, imaginary behaviors (dolls, phones, cars, etc.) • Should be appropriate for the child's cognitive and sensori-motor stage. In clinical therapy settings, know your goals and match baby's developmental stage to toys and games used in treatment Toy Rotation is a MUST
Influencing Factors
Availability of playmates - siblings • Presence of toys / stimulating - enriching environment / freedom-safety to explore • Parental / caregiver reinforcement of play • Availability of outside play or gross motor activity • Limited reliance on the TV / videos
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Brain changes begin occurring prior to puberty • Increased gray matter particularly in the frontal lobe - associated with executive functions such as planning, reasoning, judgment, regulation of emotions and impulse control. • Followed by a period of 'pruning' of the nerve cells that are unused. • Myelination of gray matter occurs throughout adolescence
NUMBERS AND MATHEMATIC REASONING
By ages 6 to 7 children can count in their heads. By ages 8 to 9 can solve simple word problems involving math. Ability to add is universal and develops intuitively through experience - even in countries where people are unschooled
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF THE PEER GROUP:
Can learn undesirable values May be exclusive and foster prejudicial attitudes toward "outsiders". Pressure to conform especially if caused to act against better judgment
THE CHILD IN THE FAMILY
Child spends increasingly more time away from the family mainly due to the emphasis on education. Parents spend less time with children - about 30 minutes/day. This time tends to be task-oriented: school, playing, TV, sports, clubs, lessons, computers, reading, etc.
ANXIETY DISORDERS
Disorders having to do with excessive fear or anxiety School phobia: Unrealistic fear of going to school; may be a form of separation anxiety disorder or social phobia. Separation anxiety disorder: Condition involving excessive, prolonged anxiety concerning separation from home or from people to whom a child is attached. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: Anxiety aroused by repetitive, intrusive thoughts, images or impulses, often leading to compulsive ritual behaviors
VOCATIONAL PLANNING
Fantasy period - During elementary school children fantasize about careers without looking realistically at them • Tentative period - Begins at puberty - child begins to match interests, abilities, values • Realistic period - end of high school - career planning, educational pursuit Importance of part time work - to learn work ethics, money responsibility, work habits and work behaviors. Downfalls - less time for educational, activities and social pursuits.
PIAGET FOURTH AND FINAL STAGE
Formal Operations • Age 12 years to Adulthood
ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH,NUTRITION AND SLEEP,MOTOR DEVELOPMENT,PLAY,ONSET OF PUBERTY,MEDICAL PROBLEMS,COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT,COGNITIVE ADVANCES,SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS,CAUSALITY,CATEGORIZATION,CATEGORIZATION (CON'T),INDUCTIVE REASONING,DEDUCTIVE REASONING,CONSERVATION,ELEMENTS OF CONVERSATION,NUMBERS AND MATHEMATIC REASONING,MORAL REASONING,INFORMATION PROCESSING:,ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE - IQ CONTROVERSY,IS THERE MORE THAN ONE INTELLIGENCE?, GARDNER'S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES,LANGUAGE AND LITERACY,THE CHILD IN SCHOOL,THE CHILD IN SCHOOL,PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH
Growth slows considerably from earlier years. During this period child grows 2-3 inches a year and about 7 pounds a year. Varied body types due to genetic predisposition: tall / stocky / petite Decrease in gray matter in cerebral cortex that indicates pruning - "use it or lose it". Increase in white matter (myelination) indicating increasing organization and interaction of regions of the brain.
CHARACTERISTICS ACCORDING TO ELKIND
Idealism and criticalness - Adolescents look at the world in an idealized way and when it falls short they blame parents and others in authority for what is wrong • They are often highly critical of authority figures and enjoy satire and parody of them • Argumentativeness - Adolescents need opportunities to try out and practice their newfound reasoning abilities - arguing helps them to organize thinking, piece together facts and logic to make a case for just about anything they want
ELEMENTS OF CONVERSATION
Identity: Knowledge that a substance retains its nature even when it looks different. Reversibility: Knowledge that reversing an action will cause the substance to revert to its former appearance. Decenter: Ability to focus on more than one feature at a time.
DAVID ELKIND THEORY
Immature Characteristics of Adolescent Thought • Adolescent's immaturity of thought stems from inexperience in formal operational thought (Piaget) • This new and unfamiliar way of looking at the world and themselves is awkward and hard to cope with at times
CATEGORIZATION
Improved ability to categorize including: Seriation - Putting things into order by height, size, etc (in a series) Transitive inference - ability to infer a relationship between 2 objects from a relationship between one of them and a third. If A>B and B>C Then A>C (If horse > dog and dog > cat, then horse > cat)
CAUSALITY
Improved understanding of cause and effect. Can predict future events Can understand consequences
FAMILY ATMOSPHERE
In reference to the family environment, the general demeanor of the family, including personalities, presence or absence of support, monetary status, and conflicts
CONSERVATION
In this stage children can work out problems related to conservation in their heads. Increasing memory at this age aids in development of conservation skill.
CHARACTERISTICS (CON'T)
Indecisiveness - Adolescents may keep many alternatives in mind but have problems deciding between them - on issues large and small • Apparent hypocrisy - Adolescents may have problems with expressing an ideal or value and then making the real world changes or sacrifices that are required to live up to it • Self-consciousness - The idea that everyone is thinking about the same thing they are thinking about - them. Preoccupation with one's own mental state
TREATMENT TECHNIQUES FOR CHILDREN
Individual Psychotherapy - Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees a troubled person one-on-one. Behavior Therapy - Therapeutic approach using principles of learning theory to encourage desired behaviors or eliminates undesirable ones; also called behavior modification. Family Therapy - Family members are seen together - allows view of family patterns and functioning. Can help to resolve issues. Art Therapy - Therapeutic approach that allows a child to express troubled feelings without words, using a variety of art materials and media. Play Therapy - Therapeutic approach in which a child plays freely while a therapist observes and occasionally comments, asks questions, or makes suggestions. Drug therapy - Administration of drugs to treat emotional disorders.
FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY
Latency Stage - 6 years old to puberty Described by Freud as a time of relative calm between more turbulent stages. Sexual feelings are sublimated by the industriousness of this stage of life and the focus on same sex playmates This has been criticized due to seeing behaviors during this time related to psychosexual development (curiosity and questions related to sex / sex-play).
FREUD-PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Mature Genital Stage • Fifth and Final Phase - (Puberty through adult) • Phallic stage (3rd stage) typified self-centered images related to sexuality. • Genital stage directed less towards bodily pleasure but more to emotional satisfaction and attachment to mature adult love. The individual directs feelings of lust and affection towards others. • At puberty, adult sexual needs become the most important motivators of behavior. The individual seeks to fulfill needs and expend energy in socially acceptable activities, such as work, and through marriage with a partner who will substitute for the early object of desire (the opposite-sexed parent). • Defense mechanisms may be used to sublimate sexual drives for some. • Final resolution of Phallic stage identification difficulties for women - accepting themselves. Freud believed women were essentially bisexual. During phallic stage wanted to be male (penis envy) but by accepting resolution in genital stage - end up bisexual. • No Freudian stages after this - according to Freud, problems after this stage relate back to unresolved issues in childhood.
CHILDHOOD DEPRESSION:
Mood disorder characterized by such symptoms as a prolonged sense of friendlessness, inability to have fun or concentrate, fatigue, extreme activity or apathy, feelings of worthlessness, weight change, physical complaints, and thoughts of death or suicide
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Motor skill development continues through this period. Poorer fitness of children these days due to limited physical play activity, increased sedentary tasks such as watching TV, computer use, more hours spent on schooling and homework. Pre-pubescent years - girls & boys motor skill levels are similar - able to participate in same sports activities together. Gross and fine motor skills continue to develop in terms of timing, control, precision, rhythm, dexterity, speed and strength.
PEER GROUP INFLUENCE
Now a central focus of the child's life yet children still rate their parents as most important. Peer relationships are strong predictor of later adjustment. Groups form naturally - neighborhood, same sex, school.
ONE-PARENT FAMILY
Numbers have doubled since 1970 - 28% of children live with one parent. Children are 4 times more likely to live with a single mother than a single father. The child's age, developmental level and family atmosphere (finances, stability, social supports, etc) make a difference in outcomes.
NUTRITION AND SLEEP
Nutrition plays a role in physical / cognition development and in energy level. Increasing problem of obesity in U.S. children - can affect body image and self esteem in this age group. Previously 5% of children in this age group were obese - now 19% of children are considered obese (genetics & environment). Can lead to health complications such as diabetes, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and cardiac problems. Sedentary lifestyle (TV / computers) and fast foods contribute to this. Impact on self-esteem / fitness / socialization - usually will be obese as an adult. Decline in need for sleep: 11 hrs at age 5, 10 hrs at age 9 and 9 hrs at age 13.
DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR DISORDERS
Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) - Pattern of behavior, persisting into middle childhood, marked by negativity, hostility, and defiance. Conduct disorder (CD) - Repetitive, persistent pattern of aggressive, antisocial behavior violating societal norms or the rights of others. Antisocial personality disorder - Chronic psychiatric condition characterized by behavior, often criminal, that manipulates, exploits, or violates the rights of others.
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Period of increased autonomy while maintaining attachment to parents • Boys more concerned about separating from parents than girls. • Parents continue to have influence than peers on occupation and moral issues. • Communication patterns with parents change - more discussion of issues or telling the parent rather than asking permission.
FORMAL OPERATIONS
Piaget's final and highest stage of cognitive development, characterized by the ability to think abstractly (more flexible way to manipulate information) • Requires brain maturation and expanding environmental opportunities • Some people never reach this stage
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Piaget: The Concrete Operational Child Concrete Operations: Approximately 7 to 12 years old Third stage of Piaget's cognitive development during which children develop logical but not abstract thinking.
Definitions of play
Play is freely chosen, intrinsically motivated and personally directed." Play is activity, by children, that is guided more by imagination than by fixed rules. Play is the spontaneous activity of children
what does play do?
Provides an avenue for exploration and learning about the environment • Experience success and failure • Practice decision making • Develop sense of identity • Rehearse adult roles - Imitation and drama - rehearse life situations - gender roles. • Work out emotions and feelings in acceptable ways - like adults with sports. • Involves development in multiple areas - cognition, language, perception, motor, sensory, psycho-social, emotional, skill reinforcement • Culture can influence play
ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE - IQ CONTROVERSY
Psychometric Approach Good predictors of academic success among highly verbal school age children. Underestimate the intelligence of children who are ill, don't respond well to testing or are slow and deliberate. Criticized for testing what children have learned not innate intelligence. Criticized for cultural biases in IQ testing - Minorities score approximately 15 points lower on IQ tests with no evidence that there are differences in intelligence levels among ethnic, cultural or racial groups. Intelligence is greatly influenced by the environment / exposure
ERIKSON'S FIFTH CRISIS
Puberty to Adulthood • Identity versus Identity Confusion • Identity - According to Erikson, a coherent conception of the self, made up of goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is solidly committed
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Self-Concept Development Middle childhood is a time of strong, long lasting selfconcept development. The third stage of development of self-definition, characterized by assessment of various aspects of the self. Compares real self to ideal self. "Who you really are vs. who you would like to be or think you should be". Child acknowledges positive and negative aspects of self and assesses overall self worth. Understands shame, guilt and pride. Research shows the most vital contribution to self worth is the degree to which the child feels regard from significant people - parents are most important
Gender Influences on Play
Sex segregation in play is universal across cultures. • Provide practice for adult roles and behaviors. • Boys are active, play in large groups, competitive, spontaneous outdoor play. • Girls are quieter, more harmonious play with one playmate, structured, adult supervised activities. • In mixed groups, play tends to be more masculine.
CRITICS OF PIAGET'S THEORY
Some children reach this stage earlier, later or not at all • Individual, social and cultural differences are not accounted for • Does not consider affect of knowledge and expertise in a specific field
IS THERE MORE THAN ONE INTELLIGENCE?
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Describes three types of intelligence Componential element: Analytic aspect of intelligence. The ability to process information efficiently, as in problem solving. Experiential element: Insightful aspect of intelligence. The ability to think originally and creatively. Contextual element: Practical aspect of intelligence. The ability to size up a situation and decide what to do: adapt to it, change it, or get out of it.
CHANGES IN INFORMATION PROCESSING DURING ADOLESCENCE
Structural Changes • Increase amounts of knowledge stored in long term memory • Declarative knowledge • Procedural knowledge • Conceptual knowledge • Functional Changes • Obtaining • Handling • Retaining • Includes: math, spatial reasoning and scientific reasoning
ERIKSON (CON'T)
The adolescent must develop a coherent sense of self, including the role he/she is to play in society. Adolescent must determine own sense of self - "Who am I?" • Conflict in becoming a unique adult with an important role in life. • Involves organization of the individual's abilities, needs, desires, goals, values and beliefs. Includes the individual's recognition and acceptance of differences, disabilities and inadequacies. • The individual resolves 3 issues: choice of occupation, adoption of values to live by, sexual identity. • Establishment of an identity means that its OK to be different - individual is unique.
PUBERTY
The onset age of puberty has decreased over the last 100 years. Could be due to the increased quality of nutrition (in poorer countries the age is higher), childhood obesity and possibly environmental causes. • There are many psychological issues related to physical changes. • Impact of early versus late maturation on family relations, play, modesty, inadequacy, strength, sports, socially, responsibility, esteem.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Type of logical reasoning that moves from a general premise about a class to a conclusion about a particular member or members of the class. Piaget believes this reasoning does not begin until adolescence. Example: "Cowboys ride horses, Tex is a cowboy, Tex will ride a horse"
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Type of logical reasoning that moves from particular observations about members of a group to a general conclusion about that group. Used exclusively at this stage Example: "My mom drives a car. My friends' moms drive cars. Must be that all moms drive cars." New information may not support the conclusion
Different kinds of play
Unoccupied Behavior - The child does not seem to be playing but watches anything of interest. • Onlooker - Watches and talks to other children but does not enter into play with them. Prefers to play at random and with self. • Solitary Independent - Playing alone while others present with no effort to be close by. More interested in play than other people. • Parallel - Side by side play with no attempt to influence the other. May play with similar toys - does not try to influence others. • Associative - Borrowing and lending, talking, play similar but with no goal. May control who enters the group - may be more interested in being with others than in the play. • Cooperative - Division of labor and roles, organized for a goal, lots of imagination and fantasy. Starts at 2 years and increases at the 3-4 year level - slowly declines and is replaced by competitive play - games with rules.
LANGUAGE AND LITERACY
Vocabulary is growing and language usage is becoming more precise and sophisticated in grammar and syntax in this stage. Pragmatics - Skill in this area is increasing - children become more proficient at the practical language skills of conversational speech and complex story telling. Literacy - reading and writing skills go hand-inhand. Much research being done in this area to improve proficiency levels. In one study, less than 1/3 of 4th and 8th graders performed at grade level
THE OPPOSITE OF PLAY IS
WORK!!!
MIDDLE YEARS
also called the school years Characterized by physical growth that approaches adolescence Physical skills to participate in organized games and sports Development of logical and creative thinking Advances in moral development and memory Significant stage for the development of selfesteem Greater influence of the peer group
The Greatest Generation
born 1901-1924 Experienced the Great Depression and fought in WW II. Named from Tom Brokaw book. Sense of community - "do what's right" - conformists - government is good and should be trusted. Disciplined, loyal workers - same job for whole career - hardworking (9-5) - set retirement age.
The Silent Generation
born 1925-1945 "Sandwich generation" The smallest generation of the 20th century - may be like the generation before or after.
Baby Boomers
born 1946-1964 Now 56-74 years old Born during the "boom" period after WWII. The "We" generation (hippies, love generation, anti-war). Indulged children of WW II generation Personal freedom - "Power to the people" - individual power/choice - sexual revolution. Know better than the government and want to make positive changes. Politically aware - follows the news. Have created a culture they are comfortable in Hard workers - 40-70 hour work weeks - "rules the workplace".
Generation Y - The Millennials
born 1980- 2000 Now 20-40 years old "Technology generation" (highly networked, "helicopter parents", close to families, joiners, team sports). Conformists, confident, optimistic, serious, focused, "smart is good", increasing SAT scores. Ethnically diverse Team players - respect authority - strongly attached and influenced by "helicopter parents" and family. Heroes are parents, teachers, mentors, etc. Drug, alcohol and crime decreasing in this age group Expect to work hard - want to be involved personally with co-workers, boss "Look at me" generation - Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter, YouTube 1/3 to ½ have tattoos
Generation Z - Digital Natives
born 2001-? Now 19 and younger The "Now" generation? Currently under development! Will have to solve the worst environmental, social and economic problems in history. Will be more self-directed. Will be smarter.
Play is The child's occupation
key to the child's development
Active Play vs Passive Play
• Active Play versus Passive Play (Entertainment)
ASPECTS OF FORMAL OPERATIONS
• Can think about things they've never experienced - things beyond their own experience (history, unknown places). • Ability to use symbols to represent other symbols. Greater math abilities - algebra, calculus. • Understand metaphor and allegory - enriched meanings of language. • Can imagine possibilities, hypothetical situations, and philosophical questions - "What might be". • Can form and test hypothesis.
Imaginary Companions
• Common in early childhood. • According to studies, can result in children being more imaginative, friendly, happy, more fluent with language, less TV, more curiosity, greater emotional understanding. • Can provide comfort and support in difficult situations. • Children with imaginary companions are able to distinguish reality from fantasy as well as other children
Developmental sequence
• Functional play: The lowest cognitive level of play, involving repetitive muscular movements. Begins in infancy (shaking a toy, throwing a ball). • Constructive play: 1-3 years primarily - The 2nd cognitive level of play, involving use of objects or materials to make something. (legos, drawing, playdoh) • Dramatic play: The 3rd cognitive level of play, involving imaginary people or situations; also called fantasy play, pretend play, or imaginative play. The more TV, the less imaginative play. May involve imaginary friends. • Formal games with rules: School age - The 4th cognitive level of play, involving organized games with known procedures and penalties, (hopscotch and marbles game)
What are the benefits of Play?
• Healthy Brain Development: bilateral coordination & midline crossing • Creativity & Curiosity • Expanded Cognitive, Language, Social-Emotional and Motor Skills • Play is relevant and meaningful to the child: autonomy & independence • Facilitates productive & appropriate social interactions with peers and adults • Dynamic process • Children gain a better understanding of the world • Children learn how to learn, learn problem solving skills • Motivating
Play helps develop readiness for school
• Helps children develop attitudes and mental skills: concentration, curiosity, problem solving, decision making, dealing with frustration, sharing, communicating, teamwork, planning, following rules • Increases cognitive development - vocabulary, names of things, numbers, colors, shapes, etc • Following directions - carrying out an assigned task • Learning to use materials - art/crafts, creativity - making things out of "found" materials (box = house). Using materials in new ways (pot lids = musical instrument).
CHARACTERISTICS (CON'T)
• Imaginary audience: Elkind's term for the self-conscious acting as an "observer" who exists only in an adolescent's mind and is as concerned with the adolescent's thoughts and actions as the adolescent is. Strong in early teens, persists to a lesser degree in later life • Specialness and invulnerability - Form of egotism that underlies most risky, self-destructive behavior. Continues in adulthood when adults routinely do risky things as part of daily functioning • Personal fable - Adolescents believe they are different, have unique experiences and are not subject to the rules that govern the rest of the world
Cognitive Levels of Play
• In Piaget's and Smilansky's terminology
Motor Development
• Needed for Play and Play Skills • Gross Motor Skills - Greater control in standing/walking - Increased bipedal activity - Further refinement of balance - Ball play
