The Art of Public Speaking - Final Exam

Fallacy

An error in reasoning

Consensus

A group decision that is acceptable to all members of the group.

Evidence

Supporting materials used to prove or disprove something.

Disposition toward the speaker

* An audience's response to a message is colored by their perception of the speaker * The more competent a speakers is perceived to be by an audience, the more likely they are to believe and trust their message

Physical setting

* Any adverse conditions (cramped conditions, too hot, etc.) can seriously impair an audience's willingness to accept your ideas or even listen to you at all. * If you know there will be some, try your best to change them or keep them in mind when you speak

Disposition toward the occasion

* Audiences have fairly definite ideas about the speeches that they would consider to be appropriate * Occasion often dictates how long a speech should be

Disposition toward the topic

* Interest - assess the audience's interest in advance if possible; find ways to generate interest w/in your audience * Knowledge - people tend to be interested in topics that they know a lot about; if your listeners know little about your topic, you have to simplify * Attitude - if you know the prevailing attitude, one can adjust speech to address their concerns or answer their objections

Sexual orientation

* Keep an eye out for language, examples, and other elements that may unintentionally exclude listeners with same-sex partners * No homosexual * No single homosexual lifestyle

Using language appropriately

* Occasion - adjust your language based on different occasions * Audience - use watered-down or technical language depending on the audience; avoid language that might offend your audience, err on the side of caution * Topic - does the topic require straightforward description and explanation, or does it need to evoke emotion and appreciation? * Speaker - distinguish between your everyday style of speaking and your developed style of speaking

Group membership

* People tend to organize themselves into groups with similarly-minded individuals.

Religion

* Religious views are incredibly emotionally charged * Consider the religious orientations of your listeners

Gender

* Speakers should take into account current gender attitudes and practices * Men and women are not all alike in their values and beliefs, but be careful of making generalizations

Size

* The larger the audience, the more formal your presentation must be. * May also affect your language, choice of appeals, and use of visual aids.

Racial, ethnic, and cultural background

* The majority of Americans support this diversity as a positive development in today's globalized world. * Take into account the different customs and beliefs that different people groups have

Age

* Whatever your age you're a product of your world * Each generation has more or less common values and experiences that set it apart from other generations * Cater speaking to your audience's age; don't reference to current or old ideas depending on the audience

Thesaurus

A book of synonyms. * Important to use language accurately

Small group

A collection of three to twelve people who assemble for a specific purpose.

Hasty generalization

A fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence. * Throughout American history, military leaders have always made excellent presidents. Look at the examples of George Washington, Andrew Jackson, and Dwight Eisenhower

False cause

A fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the fist event is the cause of the second. * When a team from the NFC wins the Super Bowl, economic growth during the next year is stronger than when a team from the AFC wins the Super Bowl. Therefore, if we want economic growth, we should root for a team from the NFC to win this year's Super Bowl.

Ad hominem

A fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in the dispute. * The head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let's not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family.

Either-or

A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist. * The government must either raise taxes or eliminate services for the poor.

Red herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion. * How are my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the United States.

Bandwagon

A fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable. * The governor must be correct in his approach to social policy; after all, the polls show that 60 percent of people support him.

Appeal to novelty

A fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something old. * Our church should adopt the 2011 New International Version of the Bible because it is 400 years newer than the King James Version.

Appeal to tradition

A fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new. * I don't see any reason to abolish the electoral college. It has been around since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution in 1787, and we should keep it as long as the United States continues to exist.

Slippery slope

A fallacy which assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented. * Now that the TSA is allowed to use full body scanners and invasive pat-downs before letting us through security, it's only a matter of time before they strip-search every man, woman, and child who wants to fly on a plane

Reflective-thinking method

A five-step method for directing discussion in a problem-solving small group.

Attitude

A frame of mind in favor of or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, etc.

Implied leader

A group member to whom other members defer because of her or his rank, expertise, or other quality.

Emergent leader

A group member who emerges as a leader during the group's deliberations.

Dyad

A group of two people.

Brainstorming

A method of generating ideas by free association of words and thoughts.

Comparative advantages order

A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main pint explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions.

Problem-solution order

A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem.

Problem-cause-solution order

A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first min point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the cases of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem.

Monroe's motivated sequence

A method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of the motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.

Designated leader

A person who is elected or appointed as a leader when the group is formed.

Speech to gain passive agreement

A persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy. * Persuade listeners that the speaker's policy is necessary and practical * Persuade audience that there should be stricter safety standards on amusement-park rides

Speech to gain immediate action

A persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy. * Persuade listeners to seek immediate action * Want listeners to participate in alternative spring break

Symposium

A public presentation in which several people present prepared speeches on different aspects of the same topic.

Question of fact

A question about the truth or falsity of an assertion. * Questions that have an absolute right answer: What college basketball team has won the most games since 2000? * Persuasive speech- organize topically; move from topic to topic

Question of value

A question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action. * Bicycle riding is the ideal form of land transportation * You must justify such claims with evidence in order to persuade * Speeches are often organized topically

Question of policy

A question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken. * Goal is to either gain passive agreement or to motivate immediate action from your listeners.

Hidden agenda

A set of unstated individual goals that may conflict with the goals of the group as a whole. * Fulfill individual assignments, avoid interpersonal conflicts, encourage full participation, keep the discussion on track

Problem-solving small-group

A small group formed to solve a particular problem.

Brief example

A specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point. * Used for one short instance, or can be in succession to build for a more dramatic impact

Example

A specific case used to illustrate or represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, or the like. * Vivid, concrete examples have a strong impact on listeners' beliefs and actions

Oral report

A speech presenting the findings, conclusions, or decisions of a small group.

Acceptance speech

A speech that gives thanks for a gift, an award, or some other form of public recognition.

Speech of introduction

A speech that introduces the main speaker to the audience.

Commemorative speech

A speech that pays tribute to a person, a group of people, an institution, or an idea.

Speech of presentation

A speech that presents someone a gift, and award, or some other form of public recognition.

Extended example

A story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point. * By telling a story vividly and dramatically, the pull listeners into the speech.

Panel discussion

A structured conversation on a given topic among several people in front of an audience.

Creating common ground

A technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience.

Cliche

A trite or overused expression

Invalid analogy

An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike. * Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit on the head to get them to work, so must employees.

Hypothetical example

An example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation. * Usually are brief stories that relate a general principle or a point that speaker is trying to prove

Similie

An explicit comparison, introduced with the word "like" or "as," between things that are essentially different yet have something in common.

Metaphor

An implicit comparison, no introduced with the word "like" or "as," between two things that are essentially different yet have something in common.

Demographic audience analysis

Audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background. 1. Identify the general demographic features of your audience 2. Gauge the importance of those features to a particular speaking situation

Situational audience analysis

Audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical setting for the speech, and the disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion.

Maintenance needs

Communicative actions necessary to maintain interpersonal relations of a small group. * How well members get along w/ one another, how willing members are to contribute to the group, whether members are supportive of one another, etc.

Stereotyping

Creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike. * Want to avoid when doing demographic audience analysis

Clutter

Discourse that takes many more words than are necessary to express an idea. * Keep language clean and lively, beware of using several words when one will do; reorganize and force yourself to throw away unnecessary words.

Audience-centeredness

Keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation. Good public speakers are audience-centered; primary purpose of speech-making is to gain a desired response from listeners. * To whom am I speaking? * What do I want them to know, believe, or do as a result of my speech? * What is the most effective way of composing and presenting my speech to accomplish that aim?

Inclusive language

Language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors.

Statistics

Numerical data * Often cited in passing to clarify or strengthen a speaker's points * Have to be careful that statistics aren't framed in a tricky manner * Make sure that statistics are representative, statistical measures are used correctly, are they from a reliable source?

Open-ended questions

Questions that allow respondents to answer however they want. What is your opinion about the insanity plea in U.S. court cases? * May not get the intended narrow, usable responses

Fixed-alternative questions

Questions that offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives. Do you know what the insanity plea is in the U.S. legal system? Yes No Not sure * Limited responses, clear and unambiguous responses; tend to yield superficial responses.

Scale questions

Questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers. How often do you believe the insanity plea is used in U.S. court cases? Very seldom -------------- Very often * Good at gauging strength of respondent's attitudes

Testimony

Quotations or paraphrases used to support a point. * We are often influenced by the testimony of other people; audiences tend to respect the opinions of people who have special knowledge or experience on the topic at hand

Quoting out of context

Quoting a statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the statement from the words and phrases surrounding it. * Making sure that you do not misquote someone, you do not violate the meaning of statements you paraphrase, and making sure you don't quote out of context.

Analogical reasoning

Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second. * If you're good at playing tennis, you will probably be good at playing ping pong * Often used with questions of policy; what is a similar policy that has worked elsewhere?

Reasoning from principle

Reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion. * Moves from general to more specific * Pay attention to your general principle, will your listeners accept it without evidence? If not support it with some evidence

Reasoning from specific instances

Reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion. * Moves from specific to general * Not foolproof; no matter how many specific instances you give, it is always possible that an exception exists; make sure that the instances that you present are fair and unbiased representations

Causal reasoning

Reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects. * The relationship between causes and effects is not always clear; just because one event happened after another does not mean that the first caused the second

Repetition

Reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences.

Alliteration

Repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words.

Mean

The average value of a group of numbers.

Procedural needs

Routine "housekeeping" actions necessary for the efficient conduct of business in a small group. * Deciding on when and where a group will meet, reserving room, etc.

Criteria

Standards on which a judgement or decision can be based.

Task needs

Substantive actions necessary to help a small group complete its assigned task. * Analyzing the issues facing the group, distributing the workload among the members, collecting information, etc.

Peer testimony

Testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic. * Valuable because it gives a more personal viewpoint on issues than can be gained from expert testimony.

Expert testimony

Testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields. * Lends credibility to your speeches; even more important when a topic is controversial or when the audience is skeptical about a speaker's point of view

Direct quotation

Testimony that is presented word for word. * More effective when they are brief or when they convey meaning better than you can.

Leadership

The ability to influence group members so as to help achieve the goals of the group.

Credibility

The audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic. The two major factors influencing a speaker's credibility are competence and character.

Terminal credibility

The credibility of a speaker at the end of a speech.

Initial credibility

The credibility of a speaker before she or he starts to speak.

Derived credibility

The credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech.

Need

The first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy? * Convince listeners that there is a serious problem with things as they are

Antithesis

The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel structure. * "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." (John F. Kennedy)

Denotative meaning

The literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase.

Supporting materials

The materials used to support a speaker's ideas. The three major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony. * V. important in establishing credibility for the speaker

Connotative meaning

The meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word or phrase.

Mental dialogue with the audience

The mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech.

Median

The middle number in a group of numbers arranged from highest to lowest.

Logos

The name use by Aristotle for the logical appeal of the speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning.

Pathos

The name used by Aristotle for what modern student of communication refer to as emotional appeal.

Ethos

The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility.

Mode

The number that occurs most frequently in a group of numbers.

Burden of proof

The obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary.

Imagery

The use of vivid language to create mental images or objects, actions, or ideas. * Concrete words are key to effective imagery; call up mental impressions of sights, sounds, touch, smell, and taste to the listener

Rhythm

The pattern of sound in a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words.

Target audience

The portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade. * Know your audience, who will you be able to persuade, and who won't you be able to persuade?

Persuasion

The process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions.

Reasoning

The process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence. * An extension of reasoning in other aspects of life, you must try to get your listeners to agree with your reasoning

Plan

The second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: If there is a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem? * Identify major features of your plan

Parallelism

The similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences.

Egocentrism

The tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well-being. * Every speech contains two messages; one sent by the speaker, and one heard by the listeners (largely shaped by egocentrism) * Cater to your audience and they will be engaged

Practicality

The third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Will the speaker's plan solve the problem? Will it create new and more serious problems? * Show that your plan is workable; listeners want assurance that a speaker's plan will actually solve the problem

Generic "he"

The use of "he" to refer to both women and men.

Paraphrase

To restate or summarize a source's ideas in one's own words. * Better than direct quotation when the wording of a quotation is obscure or cumbersome and when it is longer than two or thee sentences.

Familiarity of words

Use familiar words rather than larger ones that an audience might not understand

Using evidence

Use specific evidence, use novel evidence, use evidence from credible sources, make the point of your evidence clear

Abstract wods

Words that refer to ideas or concepts.

Concrete words

Words that refer to tangible objects. * More likely to capture an audience's attention