The Experience of war on the Western Front
Battle of the Somme, July-Nov 1916
Allies decided to launch a co-ordinated attack on Germans to break the stalemate. B.A was now in excess of 2.5 mil strong and General Haig, British commander on Western Front, was able to plan infantry attacks of enormous magnitude.
The Course of the war - Phase 2: 1915-17 - static trench warfare
A front line was established running through Belgium and northern France. The two sides established trench systems. The was was primarily in a situation of stalemate.
The Course of the war - Phase 1: 1914 - race for the sea
After the British and French halted the German advance through Belgium and northern France in Autumn 1914, both sides raced to control the nearby North Sea coastline.
More tactics
Another tactic, used by British at Messines Ridge near Ypres in 1917, for example, was to dig underground towards German lines and detonate mines underneath them. By the end of the war tanks were used by British to break through enemy lines. Chemical warfare developed: poisonous mustard gas was deployed from 1915.
Medical developments - Prosthetics & Orthopaedics
Artificial limbs were greatly improved as a response to the high numbers of injured soldiers with missing limbs.
The rest of the battle
Battle of the Somme continued until Nov 1916. Although the Germans did eventually withdraw from the area, no major breakthrough was achieved at the Battle of the Somme and overall casualties were high at 1.2 mil. According to historians Robin Prior and Trevor Wilson, British casualties were twice that of the Germans.
Causes - Problems in the Balkans
Conflicts and power struggles that took place in the Balkans were a source of instability in Europe before WWI. Ottomans controlled the area but their grip weakened and some countries like Serbia asserted independence. 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, a multi-ethnic state containing many Serbs.
Medical developments - Blood transfusions
Developed in field hospitals during war. As transfusions were an innovative treatment, most of those who suffered major haemorrhages died.
Discipline: Punishments - field punishment 1 and other
Field punishment number 1 was designed to humiliate miscreants. They were fettered and tied to a field gun for up to 2 hrs per day. Other punishments that could be given by court martials included imprisonment, fines and demotion. Commanding officers could impose extra duties or confine soldiers to barracks for minor offences.
The Course of the war - Phase 3: 1918 - a war of movement again
German high command decided to launch one final push against the Allies on the Western Front, spring 1918. Initial successes were short-lived however and by Nov, the Allies had defeated the German army on the Western Front.
Medical developments - skin grafts
Harold Gillies developed the use of plastic surgery to treat soldiers with facial injuries through pioneering use of skin transplants. - One of the first surgeons to consider impact of work on patient's appearance.
Medical developments - brain surgery
Improvements in treatment for brain injury enhanced survival rates during WWI.
Tactics of trench warfare
Infantry advancing by going 'over the top' through no man's land or by bombarding opposing forces with shells and shrapnel. Creeping barrage: advancing infantry would be protected by an arc of artillery fire landing in front of them.
British weapons
Lee Enfield rifle - very efficient, issued to infantry soldiers. Vickers machine gun - fired 450-550 rounds a min & had range of approx 3000 yards, proved very valuable in trench. Lewis gun - initially Germans had no similar gun. Stokes mortar - fired 22 shells per min. Grenades and shells - initial shortages but available by 1916-17.
Haig and controversy over the Battle of the Somme.
Length of the campaign, the high level of casualties and the lack of decisive result have contributed significantly to widely held view of WWI as one of cruel futility. General Haig's reputation, high in the immediate aftermath of the war, had been particularly damaged. He advised the battle plan and has been called the 'Butcher of the Somme' for sending wave after wave of soldiers to fight for so little apparent purpose. It should be remembered, however, that his tactics were standard for the time, and that the Somme also contributed to the 'war of attrition' that was to ultimately grind the German army down.
Passchendaele/Third Ypres, Jun-Dec 1917
Main attack launched July 1917 involved a skilful creeping barrage. British had the initial success, but poor weather and poor drainage rendered the battlefield a swamp. They advanced slowly and at great cost but had established dominance by Oct. Passchendaele was finally captured by Dec 1918: it had taken British 4 months to advance 7 miles. The German casualties were 200,000 and British 250,000. Despite its reputation as a futile battle, and the fact the British lost the land they'd gained in March 1918, Passchendaele did contribute to exhausting the German army.
Infection
Major problem facing medical treatment during WWI. Lack of antibiotics meant that most wounds went septic. Gangrene frequently set in and was a big killer. Shrapnel, shell fragments and bullets often remained within the body and sometimes created septicaemia.
Battle of the Somme, July-Nov 1916
Massive German strike against French at verdun meant that offensive at the Somme was primarily a British attack. German trenches were bombarded for a week in advance of the attack and the assumption was that much of the German trench system and the barbed wire guarding it would be destroyed.
Medical provision
Medical provision organised by Royal Army Medical Corps. Provision was generally good with 1 hospital ship and 1 hospital train assigned to each division. Problem was shortage of doctors and large numbers of doctors from US had to be deployed. By 1918, 23,000 nurses were employed, supplemented by 38,000 members of VAD. Pain relief such as morphine was more available, while stomach disorders such as typhoid were less common. Inoculation against typhoid and improved hygiene reduced incidence of the disease to only 2% of that of Boer War and for first time, death from battle wounds was higher than disease, 740,000 to 84,000.
Morale - time away from front line
Most British soldiers were in the trenches for an avg of 10 days per month and only 2 of these days were at front line. Troops received on avg 70 days leave per year. The constant rotation of troops had some drawbacks, as soldiers were not always as familiar with their trench area as were the troops of other armies, but rotation helped to maintain morale.
BEF by 1917
Numbered 80,000 men in 1914, but by Oct 1917 totalled 3.9 mil men. As the Germans concentrated on use of 'unrestricted submarine warfare' to try to starve Britain into defeat, the British launched a major strike against the Germans near Ypres in Belgian Flanders.
Discipline: Punishments - Execution
Of the 5.7 mil men who served in B A during WWI, only 306 were executed for desertion of their post or for cowardice. A number of those who were executed for desertion were young men possibly suffering from shell shock such as Private Harry Farr.
Battle of the Somme, July-Nov 1916
On first day of battle, 1 July 1916, a huge British infantry attack was launched: soldiers were ordered to progress at walking pace to prevent panic and were protected by a creeping barrage. Events did not entirely go to plan, however, and the first day of Battle of the Somme was the single worst day in British military history in terms of casualties.
Morale in British Army - pay
Pay was not high but those from the lowest-paid occupations, such as agricultural labourers, would have been better off than in peacetime. Lowest rate of pay was 1 shilling a day, but average wages were 50% higher than this and soldiers did not have to pay for food ration or clothing.
Morale in British Army - post, food
Regular and efficient postal services were organised by the Royal Engineers Postal Section (REPS). In 1916, 11 million letters and 875,000 parcels were handled. The B A managed to keep soldiers supplied with reasonable rations throughout the war. The French Army's ration contained more calories but was of poorer quality nutritionally and often consisted of just bread and wine.
Medical developments - neurasthenia
Shell shock was recognised from 1915 and the Mental Health Bill of 1916 provided for the treatment of mental disorder resulting from war. Shell shock initially thought to be caused by physiological reaction to exploding shells but was gradually recognised that a cause of the condition was psychological. By end of war 80,000 cases of shell shock diagnosed.
Situation in 1918
Spring 1918, Germans launched huge offensive against Allies. Initial success and British lost nearly all gains made at Passchendaele. However, Britain and her allies halted the German advance at Amiens in Aug, where Australian and Canadian troops took 18,000 German prisoners; the French and the Americans did the same at the Marne. The German army were weak and overextended. Allies launched massive counter-attack, breaking the Hindenburg line by Sept, and on 11 Nov 1918 the Germans surrendered.
Discipline in British Army
Strictness of discipline varied across B A between different units and divisions. During the war, 5,952 officers and 298,310 other ranks were court martialled and 89% of these were convicted. The most common offence was being absent without leave.
Causes - Long-term rivalry between the Great Powers of Europe
Tensions between the European powers intensified before WWI, making conflict more likely. Conflict and competition emerged over the size of armed forces and an arms race developed between Britain and Germany over naval armaments and Germany, France and Russia over army size.
Causes - The alliance system
Tensions increased due to formation of Triple Entente: Britain, France & Russia and Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Germany feared possibility of fighting Russia and France simultaneously and developed 'Schlieffen Plan'. The plan assumed that Russians would take 6 weeks to be fully ready for war and therefore in the event of a war, Germany had a chance to defeat France quickly before Russia was ready.
BEF in 1918
The BEF, who took 188,700 prisoners and 2,840 guns from the Germans in 1918, experienced in 1918, 'by far the greatest military victory in British history', to historians Gary Sheffield. BEF was skilled and experienced. Accuracy of guns and creeping barrage had definitely improved since 1916. The British had sufficient artillery, a growing tank division and large air force: British military production (organised by Churchill) outstripped German. Tanks were now more reliable and could be deployed to seize land quickly. The British could now advance using their creeping barrage, infantry and tanks at a rate of 100 yards every 3 mins.
Battle of the Somme, July-Nov 1916
The British and the Allies suffered 57,000 casualties on the first day of Battle of the Somme and 19,000 deaths. Many problems emerged for the British on the first day of battle: many of the explosives that had bombarded the German trenches were duds. German trenches were very deep and well-constructed and most were not destroyed: in fact German soldiers had been able to shelter in them from the pub bombardment. Much of the barbed wire remained intact. The creeping barrage had some success although it lacked precision.
Why did the Allies win in 1918?
The improved BEF was not the only reason why the Allies were in 1918. Fighting was a joint effort between Allied armies and imperial forces. In addition, the Germans were exhausted because of the strain of previous battles and the impact of the blockade on German ports. Arrival in 1918 of American soldiers also aided the counter-attack and the Americans helped British and French with supplies and finance. Finally, role of Russians in wearing the Germans down from 1914-17 was also important.
Causes - Short-term trigger: Murder if Franz Ferdinand, 28 Jun 1914
The murder of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne by Serb nationalists who wanted Bosnia to unite with Serbia caused a crisis as the Austrians blames Serbia. Russia, concerned to prevent Austria-Hungary gaining more territory from Serbia, mobilised their army and the Austrians, backed by their ally Germany, invaded Serbia 28 July.
Conditions in the trenches
There were a number of problems associated with trench warfare in terms of conditions for soldiers. Included prevalence of rats, trench foot and lice causing trench fever. Conditions were dangerous: 31% of those who served in army were wounded compared with only 3-4% of those in navy or air force.
Morale in British Army - tobacco, leave, entertainment
Tobacco was often issued to soldiers for free by the B A. Many soldiers did not get home for considerable periods of time during the war. By 1918, however, all soldiers returned home on leave after 6 months. Entertainment such as concerts were arranged as were many sporting activities such as football and athletics.
Injury
Trench warfare, shelling and gas all created significant problems with injury. British soldiers experienced: 41,000 amputations, 272,000 additional injuries to arms or leg, 60,500 wounds to head or eyes and 89,000 other serious wounds to body.
