Theories of development
Erikson's Developmental Tasks summary
0-1: Trust vs. Mistrust 1 -3: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt 3-6: Initiative vs. Guilt 6-11: Industry vs. Inferiority Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation Maturity: Ego-integrity vs. Despair
oral sensory stage (Erikson's theory)
0-1yr; crisis is basic trust vs. basic mistrust; correlates to Freud's oral stage; overcoming the conflict involves dependability, consistency and sameness of experience provided by caretaker; failing to succeed is demonstrated via ease of feeding, depth of sleep, bowel relaxation; upon successful completion of stage child maintains a hopeful attitude; negative outcomes from problems with this stage include depression, thrill-seeking behaviors
Sensorimotor stage (Piaget's theory)
0-2yrs; child learns ab his/her relationship to various objects; includes learning a variety of fundamental movements and perceptual activities; knowledge involves ability to manipulate objects (holding a bottle); child begins to develop meaning for symbols and using words (knows what a ball looks like even though child can't say it); in later part of this period child starts to think about events which are not immediately present; object permanence (begins at 8 months) is critical achievement for this period (child understands that objects continue to exist even when they can't see them)
muscular-anal stage (Erikson's theory)
1-3 yrs; crisis is autonomy vs. shame and doubt; correlates w/ Freud's anal stage; biological includes learning to walk, feed self, talk; sets stage for "holding on and letting go"; need for outer control (limits) and firmness of caretaker; parent's task is to teach children to learn appropriate social behavior w/o crushing independence; shame occurs when child is overtly self-conscious via negative exposure (over-shaming → self doubt, OCD in adults)
Anal stage (Freud's theory)
1-3yrs; main issue is control of bodily wastes and conflicts involve toilet training; fixation produces stinginess, obsessive behavior, or cruelty
Practicing (Mahler's theory)
10-18mos; second subphase of separation-individuation phase; child can walk which brings ab new perspective and mood elation; mother is used as home base; characteristic anxiety: separation anxiety
Autonomous morality
11yrs +; considered morality of cooperation; belief that rules are arbitrary and alterable when the ppl who govern them agree to change them; right/wrong is determined based on intentions rather than and act's consequences
Level II: Conventional/role conformity (Kohlberg's theory)
11yrs-late adolescence; conformity to social rules is important; not for self-interest, rather to maintain societal order and gain approval; includes 2 stages
Formal operational stage (Piaget's theory)
12yrs +; capable of abstract thinking and enjoys abstract thought; can formulate hypotheses w/o actually manipulating concrete objects and can test the hypotheses systematically; can generalize from one kind of real object to another and to an abstract notion; able to think ahead and plan solution path; capable of metacognition (thinking ab thinking); understands proverbs
Genital stage (Freud's theory)
12yrs +; libido is centered on genitals; successful outcome occurs when sexual desire is blended with affection to produce mature sexual relationships
Rapprochment (Mahler's theory)
18-24mos; third subphase of separation-individuation phase; infant now a toddler; more aware of physical separateness (dampens mood); child tries to bridge gap btw. himself and his mother (brings toys/objects to mother); mother's efforts to help toddler often not perceived as helpful → temper tantrums; characteristic crisis: wanting to be soothed by mother and yet not able to accept her help; resolution of crisis occurs as child's skills improve and he/she is able to get gratification from doing things independently
Normal symbiotic phase (Mahler's theory)
2-5mos; dim awareness of caretaker, but still functions as if he and caretaker are in state of undifferentiation or fusion; social smile characteristic
Preoperational stage- intuitive phase (Piaget's theory)
2-7yrs; child slowly moves away from drawing conclusions based solely on concrete experiences w/ objects; becomes possible to carry on a convo w/ a child; develop the ability to classify objects on the basis of different criteria; learn to count and use concept of numbers (not size)
Preoperational stage- preoperational phase (Piaget's theory)
2-7yrs; children use language and try to make sense of the world but have a much less sophisticated mode of thought than adults; begin to use language and symbols more extensively; so not appear able to learn from generalizations made by adults; have difficulty connecting cause and effect
Object constancy (Mahler's theory)
24mos.-5yrs; fourth subphase of separation-individuation phase; comfortable w/ absence of parent knowing she will return; can begin to feel comfortable w/ substitutes; gradual internalization of image of mother as realistic and stable; increasing verbal skills and better sense of time allows child to tolerate delay and endure separations
locomotor genital stage (Erikson's theory)
3-6yrs; crisis is initiative vs. guilt; correlates w/ Freuds phallic stage; favorable relationships w/ family members result in ability to set goals and devise/carry out plans w/o infringing on the rights of others; initiative arises in relation to tasks for the sake of activity, both motor and intellectual (take pride in this); guilt may arise over goals contemplated, esp. those that violate social norms (aggression); desire to mimic adult world; involvement in oedipal struggle leads to resolution via social role identification (want to be like same-sex parent); sibling rivalry is frequent; problems in this stage lead to conflict in the superego
Phallic stage (Freud's theory)
3-6yrs; sexual energy is centered in the genitals; primary task is to resolve Oedipal conflict; successful outcome results in identification w/ same sex parent and development of the superego; fixation can involve sexual exploitation of others
Differentiation (Mahler's theory)
5-10mos; first subphase of separation-individuation phase; process of hatching from autistic shell; beginning of comparative scanning (know who caretaker is); characteristic anxiety: stranger anxiety involves curiosity and fear (most prevalent ~ 8mos.)
latency stage (Erikson's theory)
6-11yrs; crisis is industry vs. inferiority; correlates to Freud's latency stage; child is busy building, creating, accomplishing; new found skills (social/academic) leads to productivity and child takes pride in accomplishments; receives systematic instruction as well as fundamentals of technology (building blocks of learning); danger of sense of inadequacy and inferiority if child despairs of his tools/skills and status among peers; socially decisive age (most imp. influences in this stage are school and neighborhood); treatment later in life is difficult if child begins to despair this early
Latency stage (Freud's theory)
6-12yrs; libidinal energy is diffuse rather than centered on a specific area of body; goal is to develop social skills
Heteronomous morality
7-10yrs; considered morality of constraint; belief that rules are self by authority figures and are unalterable; right/wrong is determined based on whether rules are broken and what the consequences are; greater negative consequence are viewed as worse acts
Concrete operational stage (Piaget's theory)
7-12yrs; child can do more complicated mental operations but one w/ real objects, events or situations; can take on another's perspective; capable of conversation; serialize, order and group things into classes based on common attributes; understand the concept of reversibility in that one thing can turn into another and back again; logical reasons are now understood; 30-60% of adults stay in this stage throughout life (fewer in engineering programs)
Level I: preconventional/premoral (Kohlberg's theory)
<11yrs; children accept rules of authority figures and judge actions by their consequences ; includes 2 stages
Premoral stage (Piaget's theory)
<6yrs; children exhibit little concern (if any) for rules
Piaget's Stages of Intellectual Development summary
Age 0-2: Sensorimotor stage Age 2-7: Preoperational stage Age 7-12: Concrete Operational Stage Age 12+: Formal Operational Stage
Ego
Component of Freud's structural theory; develops at 6 mo. of age in response to id's inability to gratify all needs; operates on basis of reality principle; defers gratification of id's instincts until appropriate/realistic; involves rational thinking and planning; main job is to mediate the conflicting demands btw. id and reality
Id
Component of Freud's structural theory; present at birth, consists of a person's life and death instincts (source of all psychic energy); operates on basis of pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification of instinctual drives/needs in order to avoid tension
Superego
Component of Freud's structurl theory; develops btw. the ages of 4-5 years and represents an internalization of society's standards; attempts to permanently block all of id's socially unacceptable drives; conscience
Mahler's theory of development summary
Normal Autistic Phase: Birth to 2 months Normal Symbiotic Phase: 2 months to 5 months Separation-Individuation Phase : First Subphase: Differentiation 5 to 10 months Second Subphase: Practicing 10 to 18 months Third Subphase: Rapprochement 18 to 24 months Fourth Subphase: Object Constancy 24 months to 5 yrs
Freud's Psychosexual Theory of Development
Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Stage Latency Stage Genital Stage
Piaget's 3-stage moral theory
Studied moral development by questioning children ab dilemmas related to the violation of game rules
Erikson's theory of development
Theories are borrowed heavily from Freud, but stressed social factors rather than sexual ones; each stage involves a psychosocial crisis that needs to be resolved; development occurs over entire lifetime (not just in childhood) and occurs in 8 stages
Limitation of formal operational stage
adult egocentrism is renewed; imaginary audience is tendency of adolescents to believe that they are always center of attention (self-conscious); personal fable is the belief that one is unique and not subject to natural laws that govern others (it's not going to happen to me)
Oral stage (Freud's theory)
birth-1yr; mouth is the focus of sensation/stimulation and weaning is the source of conflict; fixation results in dependence, passivity, and orally focused habits
Normal autistic phase (Mahler's theory)
birth-2mos; state of half asleep-half awake; major task is to achieve homeostatic equilibrium w/ environment
Damon (1999) and learning theorists
children acquire behavioral norms and values through observation, intuition and reward; they conclude moral behavior is context bound
Cognitive theories such as Piaget's and Kohlberg's
children's early moral beliefs are oriented toward power and authority
Adolescence stage (Erikson's theory)
correspond's to Freud's genital stage; crisis is identity vs. role confusion; struggle to develop ego identity (sense of who oneself is); preoccupation w/ appearance, hero worship, ideology (perception by others is critical); intense need to fit in (and to exclude those who are different); group identity develops (peers are primary influence, not parents); danger of role confusion, doubts ab sexual and vocational identity; psychosocial moratorium (in btw. phase btw. childhood and adulthood)
Stage 6 of level III: morality of universal ethical principles (Kohlberg's theory)
corresponds to Piaget's formal operational thinking; orientation not only toward existing social rules, but also toward conscience; action is controlled by internalized ideals regardless of reactions of others; if one acts otherwise, self-condemnation and guilt result; Heinz response: "If he doesn't do everything to save his wife, he is putting something else above the value of her life and that is wrong."
Late adulthood (Erikson's theory)
crisis is ego integrity vs. despair and isolation; stage is described as a conflict btw. sense of satisfaction that a person feels reflecting on a life productively lived and dispair; individuals engage in life review; life had little meaning and it's too late to make a difference → despair (poised for depression); coming to terms w/ one's mortality
Middle adulthood (Erikson's theory)
crisis is geneativity vs. self-absorption and stagnation; concerns a person having or raising children or producing things and ideas through work; includes a vital interest outside the home; guiding and caring for the next generation; improving society (most ppl want to cont. their personalities and energies in the care of offspring); stagnation is barren state; self absorption occurs when ppl do not care for others but only focus on their own success
Young adulthood (Erikson's theory)
crisis is intimacy vs. isolation; tasks at this stage are to love and to work; intimacy is characterized by self abandonment once one's identity is established; development of close intimate relationships, marriage, life-long attachments, meaningful work; w/o a friend or SO or partner in marriage a person can become self-indulgent or isolative
Freud's theory of psychosexual development
emphasizes drives of id; proposes that personality is formed during childhood as the result of certain experiences that occur during 5 stages; proposes that a person's sexual energy (id/libido) centers on a different part of the body during each stage of development and that personality traits result from the ways conflicts are resolved at each stage; failure to resolve conflict in any stage is due to excessive or insufficient gratification of the id's needs and can result in fixation
Kohlberg's moral theory
extended Piaget's theory to address more complex development in adolescence; interviewed children of all ages by asking them questions ab dilemmas (Heinz dilemma) and analyzing their reasoning behind the answers; believed that moral development in universal and invariant and divided into 6 stages arranged in 3 levels
Stage 1 of level I: Obedience and punishment orientation (Kohlberg's theory)
fear of authority or avoidance of punishment is reason for behaving morally; "I won't do it b/c I dont want to get punished"; the right course of action is the one allowing the child to avoid punishment; Heinz response: "You shouldn't steal the drug b/c you'll get caught and go to jail"
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
intellectual development occurs in 4 distinct stages; intellectual development is continuous but the operations in the different stages are different; children progress through the 4 periods in the same order but at vary different rates; stages do not end abruptly but tend to trail off and may overlap; both environment and genetics play a role i how each stage is negotiated
Level III: Postconventional/self-accepted moral principles (Kohlberg's theory)
late adolescence-early adulthood; move beyond unquestioning support for society's rules/laws in favor of more abstract laws that may be broken in certain circumstances (conscience); includes 2 stages
Magical thinking
limitation of Piaget's preoperational stage; child believes that thinking bad thoughts can cause bad things to happen
Conservation
limitation of Piaget's preoperational stage; child cannot understand that changing one dimension of an object does not change its other dimensions (amt. of water in a tall, skinny glass vs. a short, fat glass)
Centration
limitation of Piaget's preoperational stage; child does not recognize that actions can be reversed and focus on the most noticeable features of an object (water/ice connection is difficult)
Egocentrism
limitation of Piaget's preoperational stage; child sees himself as center of universe and canot take on another's perspective (empathy is v. difficult)
Animism
limitation of Piaget's preoperational stage; tendency to attribute human abilities or emotions to inanimate objects (sun looks sad)
Stage 5 of level III: contractual/legalistic orientation (Kohlberg's theory)
norms of right and wrong are defined in terms of laws or institutionalized rules which seem to have a rational basis; laws make sense and can be changed when they interfere w/ basic rights; tend to side w/ law in conflicts btw. individual needs and laws b/c of concern for majority and general welfare of society; Heinz response: "There is a law against this, but it was not meant to violate a person's right to life. The law should be reinterpreted."
Stage 4 of level II: Law and order orientation (Kohlberg's theory)
orientation to "doing duty" and to showing respect for authority and maintaining the given social order for its own sake; "I won't do it b/c it is against the law"; laws should always be obeyed w/o exception; concern for society as a whole; Heinz response: "He should steal it b/c it is his duty to protect his wife, but he needs to understand that he must accept the penalty of breaking the law"
Stage 3 of level II: good boy/girl orientation (Kohlberg's theory)
orientation to approval, pleasing and helping others; conformity to stereotypical images of majority or natural role behavior; action is evaluated in terms of intentions; Heinz response: "no one will think you are bad for stealing the drug, but your family will think you are a bad husband if your don't help her"
Morality
refers to a set of principles or ideals that help a person distinguish right from wrong and guide one's actions when faced w/ dilemmas and problems
Stage 2 of level I: Instrumental hedonism (Kohlberg's theory)
right action is based on satisfying the self's needs and occasionally others (not just to avoid punishment); includes an understanding that there are different sides to an issue; Heinz response: "If he wants to risk jail to save his life it's up to him" or" he should do it b/c his wife might return the favor later"
Madsen (1995)
studied charing in preschoolers in 9 cultures and found similar attitudes; conclusion: children everywhere start life w/ caring feelings toward others close to them and adverse reactions to inhumane or unjust behavior
Margaret Mahler's theory of development
studied object relations in infants and related them to personality development through the relationship btw. infants and their mothers in 3 phases (last has 4 subphases)
