Theory - Cresswell Chapter 3

Reserachers state their theories in proposals in several ways, such as...

...a series of hypotheses, if-then logic statements, or visual models.

Cresswell

2014

What is a research question? (Random House)

A research question is the fundamental core of a research project, study, or review of literature. It focuses the study, determines the methodology, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting.

How Theories Develop

Theories develop when researchers test a prediction over and over. For example, here is how the process of developing a theory works. Investigators combine independent, mediating, and dependent variables into questions based on different forms of measures. These questions provide information about the type of relationship (positive, negative, or unknown) and its magnitude (e.g., high or low). Forming this information into a predictive statement (hypothesis), a researcher might write, "The greater the centralization of power in leaders, the greater the disenfranchisement of the followers." When researchers test hypotheses such as this over and over in different settings and with different populations (e.g., the Boy Scouts,

How to Write a Theory

"The theory that I will use is___( name the theory). It was developed by___ (identify the origin, source, or developer of the theory), and it was used to study_____( identify the topics where one finds the theory being applied). This theory indicates that___ (identify the propositions or hypotheses in the theory). As applied to my study, this theory holds that I would expect my independent variable( s) ___ (state independent variables) to influence or explain the dependent variable( s) ___ (state dependent variables) because___ (provide a rationale based on the logic of the theory)."

Variables are distinguished by two characteristics

(a) Temporal order means that one variable precedes another in time. Because of this time ordering, it is said that one variable affects or causes another variable; though a more accurate statement would be that one variable probably causes another. and (b) their measurement or observation

Social Science Theory Use

1. It may be presented as a literature review, as a conceptual model, or as a theory that helps to explain what the researcher seeks to find in a study. 2. Place the theory (model or conceptual framework) at the beginning of the article as an a priori framework to guide the questions/ hypotheses in the study. 3. Write about the theory by first advancing the name of the theory to be used followed by a description of how it informs the quantitative and qualitative components of a mixed methods study. It should at least explain the major relationship of variables in the study. Discuss the studies that have used the theory, especially studies that relate to the topic being examined in the present study. 4. Include a diagram of the theory that indicates the direction of the probable causal links in the theory and the major concepts or variables in the theory. 5. Have the theory provide a framework for both the quantitative and the qualitative data collection efforts in the study. 6. Return to the theory at the end of the study to review how it informed the findings and the results and compared with the use of the theory in other studies.

Qualitative Theory Use

1. as a broad explanation for behavior and attitudes, and it may be complete with variables, constructs, and hypotheses. 2. Second, researchers increasingly use a theoretical lens or perspective in qualitative research, which provides an overall orienting lens for the study of questions of gender, class, and race (or other issues of marginalized groups). 3. Third, distinct from this theoretical orientation are qualitative studies in which theory (or some other broad explanation) becomes the end point.

In qualitative research the theory is...

1. varied 2. employ theory as a broad explanation 3. a theoretical lens or perspective that raises questions related to gender, class, race, or some combination of these. 4. Theory also appears as an end point of a qualitative study, a generated

Variables, research question and hypotheses

In a quantitative research study, variables are related to answer a research question (e.g., "How does self-esteem influence the formation of friendships among adolescents?") or to make predictions about what the researcher expects the results to show. These predictions are called hypotheses

Independant Variables

Independent variables are those that (probably) cause, influence, or affect outcomes. They are also called treatment, manipulated, antecedent, or predictor variables.

Kerlinger's Definition of Theory (1979)

QUANTITATIVE THEORY a theory is "a set of interrelated constructs (variables), definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining natural phenomena

Labovitz and Hagedorn (1971)

QUANTITATIVE THEORY: Theory helps to explain (or predict) phenomena that occur in the world.

Quantitative Theory

Theory in quantitative research is the use of an interrelated set of constructs (or variables) formed into propositions, or hypotheses, that specify the relationship among variables (typically in terms of magnitude or direction) and predicts the outcomes of a study. .

Creswell Rainbow Metaphore

This rainbow ties together the variables and provides an overarching explanation for how and why one would expect the independent variable to explain or predict the dependent variable.

Definition of Scientific Theory (Random House)

a coherent group of propositions formulated to explain a group of facts or phenomena in the natural world and repeatedly confirmed through experiment or observation:

Placement of Theories in Quantatative

deductively and places it toward the beginning of the proposed study. A general guide is to introduce the theory early in a plan or study: in the introduction, in the literature review section, immediately after hypotheses or research questions

Variables often measured in studies include...

gender; age; socioeconomic status (SES); and attitudes or behaviors such as racism, social control, political power, or leadership.

Variables

refers to a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be measured or observed and that varies among the people or organization being studied. A variable typically will vary in two or more categories or on a continuum of scores, and it can be measured.

Intervening or mediating variables

stand between the independent and dependent variables, and they mediate the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

Dependant Variables

those that depend on the independent variables; they are the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent variables

In quantitative research the theory is used ...

to provide an explanation or prediction about the relationship among variables in the study and a hypotheses. A theory explains how and why the variables are related, acting as a bridge between or among the variables.