Triumph in England and the Enlightenment 1: Absolutism and Revolution

Cromwell and the Commonwealth

After the execution of Charles I, the House of Commons abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords, and established the Church of England. It declared England a republic, known as the Commonwealth, under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell.

How did parliamentary government constitute an oligarchy in England?

An oligarchy is a government that is run by only a few people, and the British Parliament was controlled by wealthy nobles and landowners who ran the country.

Cavaliers and Roundheads

At first, the odds seemed to favor the supporters of Charles I, called Cavaliers. Many Cavaliers were wealthy nobles, proud of their plumed hats, and fashionably long hair. Well trained in dueling and warfare, the Cavaliers expected a quick victory. But their foes proved to be tough fighters with the courage of their convictions. The forces of Parliament were composed of country gentry, town-dwelling manufacturers, and Puritan clergy. They were called Roundheads because their hair was cut close around their heads. The Roundheads found a leader of genius in Oliver Cromwell. A Puritan member of the lesser gentry, Cromwell proved himself to be a skilled general. He organized the "New Model Army" for Parliament into a disciplined fighting force. Cromwell's army defeated the Cavaliers in a series of decisive battles. By 1647, the king was in the hands of parliamentary forces.

The English Bill of Rights

Before they could be crowned, William and Mary had to accept several acts passed by Parliament in 1689 that became known as the English Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights ensured the superiority of Parliament over the monarchy. It required the monarch to summon Parliament regularly and ensured that the House of Commons kept control over spending. A king or queen could no longer interfere in parliamentary debates or suspend laws. The Bill of Rights also barred any Roman Catholic from sitting on the throne. The Bill of Rights also restated the traditional legal rights of English citizens, such as trial by jury. It abolished excessive fines and cruel or unjust punishment. It affirmed the principle of habeas corpus. That is, no person could be held in prison without first being charged with a specific crime. The legal ideas contained in the English Bill of Rights would later have a strong influence on the United States. Soon after, the separate Toleration Act of 1689 granted limited religious freedom to Puritans, Quakers, and other Protestant dissenters. Still, only members of the Church of England could hold public office. And Catholics were allowed no religious freedom.

The Glorious Revolution

Charles's brother, James II, inherited the throne in 1685. Unlike Charles, James practiced his Catholic faith openly. He angered his subjects by suspending laws on a whim and appointing Catholics to high office. Many English Protestants feared that James would restore the Roman Catholic Church. In 1688, alarmed parliamentary leaders invited James's Protestant daughter, Mary, and her Dutch Protestant husband, William III of Orange, to become rulers of England. When William and Mary landed with their army, James II fled to France. This bloodless overthrow of the king became known as the Glorious Revolution.

How did Elizabeth I handle her relationship with Parliament? Why do you think this was the case? Cite evidence from the text in your answer.

Elizabeth I did not appear before Parliament. The text tells us "Her advisers conveyed the queen's wishes to Parliament and forbade discussion of certain subjects." By not appearing in person and operating through her advisors, she could keep a level of control over her interactions and issue orders without confrontation.

Stuart Monarchs Clash with Parliament

Elizabeth died childless in 1603. The throne passed to her relatives the Stuarts, the ruling family of Scotland. The Stuarts were neither as popular as the Tudors nor as skillful in dealing with Parliament. They also inherited problems that Henry and Elizabeth had long suppressed. The result was a "century of revolution" that pitted the Stuart monarchs against Parliament.

Influence of the Glorious Revolution

English Bill of Rights Writings of John Locke Constitutional Government OUTCOME IN ENGLAND People elect representatives to Parliament, which is supreme over the monarch. All citizens have natural rights. People have natural rights such as life, liberty, and property. There is a social contract between people and government. Government is limited and defined by law. Political parties, the cabinet, and the office of prime minister arise. IMPACT ON THE UNITED STATES Colonists believed that they too had rights, including the right to elect people to represent them. Locke's ideas shaped the American Revolution and the writing of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Government is limited and defined by law. The new nation formed a constitutional government with two parties and even stronger provisions for the separation of powers.

Rule by an Oligarchy

Even as Parliament and the cabinet assumed new powers, British government was far from democratic. Rather, it was an oligarchy—a government in which the ruling power belongs to a few people. Landowning aristocrats were believed to be the "natural" ruling class. The highest nobles held seats in the House of Lords. Other wealthy landowners and rich business leaders in the cities controlled elections to the House of Commons. The right to vote was limited to a relatively few male property owners, whose votes were often openly bought. The lives of most people contrasted sharply with those of the ruling elite. The majority made a meager living from the land. In the 1700s, even that poor existence was threatened. Wealthy landowners, attempting to increase agricultural production, bought up farms and took over common lands, evicting tenant farmers and small landowners. Because they controlled Parliament, they easily passed laws ensuring that their actions were legal. A small but growing middle class included successful merchants and manufacturers. These prosperous and often wealthy people controlled affairs in the towns and cities. Some improved their social standing by marrying into the landed gentry. The middle class also produced talented inventors and entrepreneurs who would soon help usher in the Industrial Revolution.

Execution of the King

Eventually, Parliament set up a court to put the king on trial. It condemned him to death as "a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy." On a cold January day in 1649, Charles I stood on a scaffold surrounded by his foes. "I am a martyr of the people," he declared. Showing no fear, the king told the executioner that he himself would give the sign for him to strike. After a brief prayer, Charles knelt and placed his neck on the block. On the agreed signal, the executioner severed the king's neck with a single stroke. The execution sent shock waves throughout Europe. In the past, a king had occasionally been assassinated or killed in battle. But for the first time, a ruling monarch had been tried and executed by his own people. The parliamentary forces had sent a clear message that, in England, no ruler could claim absolute power and ignore the rule of law.

Tudor Monarchs Work with Parliament Henry VIII

From 1485 to 1603, England was ruled by Tudor monarchs. Although the Tudors believed in divine right, they shrewdly recognized the value of good relations with Parliament. When Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church, he turned to Parliament to legalize his actions. Parliament approved the Act of Supremacy, making the monarch head of the Church of England. A constant need for money led Henry to consult Parliament frequently. Although he had inherited a bulging treasury, he quickly used up his funds fighting overseas wars. To levy new taxes, the king had to seek the approval of Parliament. Members of Parliament tended to vote as Henry's agents instructed. Still, they became accustomed to being consulted on important matters.

What was Voltaire's contribution to the Enlightenment?

He criticized the government through his writings against slavery and in favor of free speech.

Why did Henry VIII work with Parliament?

He needed Parliament's approval to levy new taxes and to obtain a divorce

How did Rousseau's ideas affect how government is set up?

He wrote about the social contract and believed in minimal government control.

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Charles I Clashes with Parliament

In 1625, Charles I inherited the throne. Like his father, Charles behaved like an absolute monarch. He imprisoned his foes without trial and squeezed the nation for money. By 1628, however, his need to raise taxes forced Charles to summon Parliament. Before voting any funds, Parliament insisted that Charles sign the Petition of Right. This document prohibited the king from raising taxes without Parliament's consent or from jailing anyone without legal justification. Charles did sign the Petition, but he then dissolved Parliament in 1629. For 11 years, he ignored the Petition and ruled without Parliament. During that time, he created bitter enemies, especially among Puritans. His Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, tried to force all clergy to follow strict Anglican rules, dismissing or imprisoning dissenters. Many people felt that the archbishop was trying to revive Catholic practices. In 1637, Charles and Laud tried to impose the Anglican prayer book on Scotland. The Calvinist Scots revolted. To get funds to suppress the Scottish rebellion, Charles once again had to summon Parliament in 1640. When it met, however, Parliament launched its own revolt.

From Restoration to Glorious Revolution

In late May 1660, cheering crowds welcomed Charles II back to London. An observer described the celebration as a triumph. This day came in his Majesties Charles the Second to London after a sad, and long Exile ... with a Triumph of above 20,000 horse and [soldiers], brandishing their swords, and shouting with inexpressible joy; the [ways strewn] with flowers, the bells ringing, the streets hung with [tapestry]. —John Evelyn, Diary

England's Constitutional Government Evolves

In the century following the Glorious Revolution, three new political institutions arose in Britain: political parties, the cabinet, and the office of prime minister. The appearance of these institutions was part of the evolution of Britain's constitutional government—that is, a government whose power is defined and limited by law.

Political Parties

In the late 1600s, political parties emerged in England as a powerful force in politics. At first, there were just two political parties—Tories and Whigs. Tories were generally aristocrats who sought to preserve older traditions. They supported broad royal powers and a dominant Anglican Church. Whigs backed the ideas embodied in the Glorious Revolution. They were more likely to reflect urban business interests, support religious toleration, and favor Parliament over the crown. For much of the 1700s Whigs dominated Parliament.

What did the English Bill of Rights mean to Parliament?

It ensured that Parliament had superiority over the monarchy. It required the monarch to summon Parliament on a regular basis and prevented the monarch from interfering in Parliamentary debates or disbanding Parliament against its will.

What was an important result or effect of the Civil War?

It provided a signal that no ruler could assert absolute Possible response: power and ignore the law of Parliament.

How is laissez-faire policy different from mercantilism?

Laissez-faire policy dictates the free market should be allowed to regulate business activity, while mercantilism required government regulation of the economy to achieve a favorable balance of trade.

In what ways were the ideas of John Locke and Jean-Jacque Rousseau similar?

Locke and Rousseau both emphasized the rights of the people with regard to their government. Locke believed that government has an obligation to the people it governs, and that people could overthrow an unjust government. Rousseau thought only a freely elected government was just.

Puritan Rule Ends

Oliver Cromwell died in 1658. Soon after, the Puritans lost their grip on England. Many people were tired of military rule and strict Puritan ways. In 1660, a newly elected Parliament invited Charles II to return to England from exile. England's "kingless decade" ended with the Restoration, or return of the monarchy. Yet Puritan ideas about morality, equality, government, and education endured. These ideas were already shaping England's colonies in North America, where many Puritans had settled.

The Prime Minister

Over time, the head of the cabinet came to be known as the prime minister. This person was always the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons. Eventually, the prime minister became the chief official of the British government and the prime minister's power would exceed that of the monarch. From 1721 to 1742, the able Whig leader Robert Walpole molded the cabinet into a unified body by requiring all members to agree on major issues. Although the title was not yet in use, Walpole is often called Britain's first prime minister.

What was the result of the English Civil War?

Parliament won and had Charles I executed.

How was the Scientific Revolution directly related to the development of the concept of natural law?

Scientific successes and breakthroughs reflected the new reliance on reason and the application of scientific principles.

The Long Parliament Begins

The 1640 Parliament became known as the Long Parliament because it lasted on and off until 1653. Its actions triggered the greatest political revolution in English history. In a mounting struggle with Charles I, Parliament tried and executed his chief ministers, including Archbishop Laud. It called for the abolition of bishops and declared that the Parliament could not be dissolved without its own consent. Charles lashed back. In 1642, he led troops into the House of Commons to arrest its most radical leaders. They escaped through a back door and soon raised their own army. The clash now moved to the battlefield.

What was the Commonwealth?

The Commonwealth was the republic of England under Cromwell

A Limited Monarchy

The Glorious Revolution turned England into a limited monarchy, a type of government in which a constitution or legislative body limits the monarch's powers. English rulers still had much power, but they had to obey the law and govern in partnership with Parliament. In an age of absolute monarchy elsewhere in Europe, the limited monarchy in England was quite radical. Among the people who lived at the time of the Glorious Revolution was the political thinker, John Locke. Events in England helped shape his philosophy. Much later, Locke's ideas about government and natural rights would influence the Americans who drew up the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution.

The Cabinet System

The cabinet, another new feature of government, evolved in the 1700s after the British throne passed to a German prince. George I spoke no English and relied on the leaders in Parliament to help him rule. Under George I and his German-born son George II, a handful of parliamentary advisors set policy. They came to be referred to as the cabinet because of the small room, or "cabinet," where they met. In time, the cabinet gained official status. It was made up of leaders of the majority party in the House of Commons. The cabinet remained in power so long as it enjoyed the support of the Commons. If the Commons voted against a cabinet decision, the cabinet resigned. The cabinet system (also called a parliamentary system) was later adopted by other countries in Europe and elsewhere around the globe.

The English Civil War

The civil war that followed lasted from 1642 to 1651. Like the Fronde that occurred about the same time in France, the English Civil War posed a major challenge to absolutism. But while the forces of royal power won in France, in England the forces of revolution triumphed.

Challenges to the Commonwealth

The new government faced many threats. Supporters of Charles II, the uncrowned heir to the throne, attacked England by way of Ireland and Scotland. Cromwell led forces into Ireland and brutally crushed the uprising. He then took harsh measures against the Irish Catholic majority that are still vividly remembered in that nation today. In 1652, Parliament passed a law exiling most Catholics to barren land in the west of Ireland. Any Catholic found disobeying this order could be killed on sight. Squabbles also splintered forces within the Commonwealth. One group, called Levellers, thought that poor men should have as much say in government as the gentry, lawyers, and other leading citizens. "The poorest he that is in England hath a life to live as the greatest he," wrote one Leveller. In addition, woman Levellers asserted their right to petition Parliament. These ideas horrified the gentry, who dominated Parliament. Cromwell suppressed the Levellers, as well as more radical groups who threatened ownership of private property. In 1653, as the challenges to order grew, Cromwell took the title, Lord Protector. From then on, he ruled as a virtual dictator, using the army to back up his orders.

What were the new political institutions that developed as a result of Britain's constitutional government?

The new institutions were political parties, the cabinet, and the office of prime minister.

—King James I

The state of Monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth; for kings are not only God's lieutenants upon earth and sit upon God's throne, but even by God himself they are called gods. ... Kings are justly called gods for that they exercise a manner or resemblance of Divine power on earth ... And to the King is due both the affection of the soul and the service of the body of his subjects....

After you complete the Concept Web, answer this question in a written paragraph: How do Enlightenment ideas about the rights of citizens contrast with the rights of citizens under absolute monarchies?

Under Enlightenment ideas, the rights of citizens come from nature, are protected by the government, and are rights that citizens demand to have. Under absolute monarchy, citizens have only the rights given to them by the monarch, and those rights can be taken away at any time.

England Under the Puritans

Under the Commonwealth, Puritan preachers tried to root out godlessness and impose a "rule of saints." The English Civil War thus ushered in a social revolution as well as a political one. Parliament enacted a series of laws designed to make sure that Sunday was set aside for religious observance. Anyone over the age of 14 who was caught "profaning the Lord's Day" could be fined. To the Puritans, theaters were frivolous. So, like John Calvin in Geneva, Cromwell closed all theaters. Puritans also frowned on taverns, gambling, and dancing. Puritans felt that every Christian, rich and poor, must be able to read the Bible. To spread religious knowledge, they encouraged education for all people. By mid-century, families from all classes were sending their children to school, girls as well as boys. Puritans pushed for changes in marriage to ensure fidelity. In addition to marriages based on business interests, they encouraged marriages based on love. Still, as in the past, women were seen mainly as subordinate to men. Although Cromwell did not tolerate open worship by Roman Catholics, he believed in religious freedom for other Protestant groups. He even welcomed Jews back to England after more than 350 years of exile.

Elizabeth I

When Henry's daughter Elizabeth I gained the throne, she too both consulted and controlled Parliament. In theory, the monarch called Parliament for advice. In practice, Elizabeth rarely asked for its view. During her 45-year reign, she summoned Parliament only 13 times. All but one time, she asked for money. When Parliament met, the queen's advisers conveyed her wishes. Certain subjects, such as foreign policy or the queen's marriage, were forbidden. Her skill in handling Parliament helped make "Good Queen Bess" a popular and successful ruler.

James I Asserts Divine Right

When the first Stuart monarch, James I, took the throne, he agreed to rule according to English laws and customs. Soon, however, he was lecturing Parliament about divine right. In 1610, the king made a speech in Parliament. Parliament was not impressed with the king's claim to rule by divine right. Instead, James faced repeated clashes with Parliament, mostly over money and foreign policy that involved the king's wars in Europe. James lived extravagantly and had to ask Parliament for funds to finance his lavish court. More than once, when members wanted to discuss foreign policy before voting funds, James dissolved Parliament and raised money without their consent. These actions poisoned relations between the king and Parliament. James also found himself embroiled in religious disputes. He clashed with dissenters, Protestants who differed with the Church of England. One group were called Puritans because they sought to "purify" the English church of Catholic practices. Puritans called for simpler services and a more democratic church without bishops. James rejected their demands, vowing to "harry them out of this land or else do worse."

A Popular King

With his charm and flashing wit, young Charles II was a popular ruler. He reopened theaters and taverns and presided over a lively court in the manner of Louis XIV. Charles restored the official Church of England but encouraged toleration of other Protestants such as Presbyterians, Quakers, and Baptists. Although Charles accepted the Petition of Right, he shared his father's belief in absolute monarchy and secretly had Catholic sympathies. Still, he shrewdly avoided his father's mistakes in dealing with Parliament. Charles was a strong supporter of science and the arts. He helped found the Royal Society, a group formed to advance scientific knowledge. Its early members, such as Isaac Newton, Robert Hooke, and Robert Boyle, advanced the study of mathematics, biology, physics, and chemistry. Charles was equally supportive of the arts, especially architecture. After the Great Fire of 1666 destroyed much of London, Charles appointed the great architect, Sir Christopher Wren, to rebuild the city.

What were the causes of the English Civil War?

a clash between King Charles I and Parliament after Charles tried to assert divine right to rule England.

What was the Petition of Right?

a legal document that prohibited the king from raising taxes without Parliament's consent or imprisoning people who had not violated laws

What was the Glorious Revolution?

the bloodless overthrow of James II and the installation of William and Mary as monarchs