Unit 1 Exam
In Eastern Europe between 1500 and 1650, the growth of commercial agriculture was accompanied by the a. growth of a class of small landowners. b. consolidation of serfdom. c. establishment of many privileged towns as market centers. d establishment of an independent peasantry.
B. Consolidation of serfdom
In return for financial support, what did Charles II of England secretly promise Louis XIV of France? a. England would provide troops to France in the event of war with Austria. b. English laws against Catholics would be eased and England gradually re-Catholicized. c. English laws would be strengthened to protect the property of French nobles in England. d. England would lift trade restrictions against French products.
B. English laws against Catholics would be eased and England gradually re-Catholicized.
When speaking of "moral economy," historians are referring to A. the goal of the state to compel all able-bodied men and women into productive activity that will bring wealth to the community. B. the right of the church to regulate economic activity in order to promote virtue and righteousness. C. a vision of the world in which community needs predominate over competition and profit. D. a set of laws that forbid "sinful" activity such as prostitution and drinking alcoholic beverages.
C. A vision of the world in which community needs predominate over competition and profit.
In Africa, the slave trade primarily resulted in a. greater prosperity and a growing population. b. more consumer goods and greater prosperity. c. larger empires and more wars. d. more wars and likely fewer people.
d. more wars and likely fewer people.
Typically, French classicism a. emphasized individualistic renderings of society. b. had little support from the royal government. c. challenged existing concepts concerning art. d. presented subject matter associated with classical antiquity.
d. presented subject matter associated with classical antiquity.
To improve the rural economy and the lives of peasants, Empress Maria Theresa of Austria a. increased church influence on the agricultural population. b. ordered the adoption of scientific farming techniques. c. abolished serfdom. d. reduced nobles' power over their serfs.
d. reduced nobles' power over their serfs.
The concept of the reading revolution refers to the a. acquisition of literacy by the masses. b. spread of literacy among women. c. invention of the printing press. d. shift from reading religious texts aloud as a family to reading diverse texts individually.
d. shift from reading religious texts aloud as a family to reading diverse texts individually.
Cardinal Jules Mazarin's struggle to increase royal revenues to meet the cost of war led to the uprisings of 1648-53, known as the a. Jacquerie. b. Levée en Masse. c. Fronde. d. Vendée.
Fronde
The Baroque style flourished in the context of the a. Catholic Reformation. b. Protestant Reformation. c. Scientific Revolution. d. Commercial Revolution.
A. Catholic Reformation
What was the consequence of Prince Francis Rákóczy's rebellion for Habsburg rule? a. The Habsburgs lost control over most of their lands in northern Italy. b. The Bohemian nobility was crushed and replaced with new nobles loyal to the Habsburgs. c. The German nobility established itself as dominant within the Habsburg lands. d. Hungary was never fully integrated into a centralized, absolute Habsburg state.
D. Hungary was never fully integrated into a centralized, absolute Habsburg state.
How did the nature of armed forces change in the latter half of the seventeenth century? a.Improvements in artillery made the use of cavalry obsolete. b. Army officers became obedient to monarchs instead of serving their own interests. c. The size of armies decreased as they professionalized and became more efficient. d. Gunpowder technologies were used for the first time in field operations.
b. Army officers became obedient to monarchs instead of serving their own interests.
What was one of the social consequences of Peter the Great's bureaucratic system? a. Women were allowed to serve in a few judicial positions. b. People of non-noble origin were able to rise to high positions. c. Only ethnic Russians were permitted to serve in the bureaucracy. d. Clergy were allowed to hold bureaucratic offices.
b. People of non-noble origin were able to rise to high positions.
Which book by the baron de Montesquieu is considered the first major work in the French Enlightenment? a. The Spirit of Laws b. The Persian Letter c. On Crimes and Punishments d. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
b. The Persian Letter
What was a competitive advantage of the rural putting-out system? a. Production in the countryside could be carefully supervised by merchant capitalists b. The rural poor worked for low wages c. Rural workers were highly skilled in a number of crafts d. The workers purchased the raw material themselves, saving the merchant capitalist money.
b. The rural poor worked for low wages
In Primary Source 19.2: What Is the Third Estate?, what does the Abbé de Sieyès say about the third estate? a. The third estate is much larger than the first and the second estates. b. The third estate contains everything that pertains to the nation, and thus it is everything. c. The third estate wants to have the same privileges the second estate has. d. The first and second estates have always unfairly dominated the third estate.
b. The third estate contains everything that pertains to the nation, and thus it is everything.
The proletarianization of peasants in the eighteenth century forced them to a.move to the cities to seek work. b. become landless rural wage earners. c. emigrate. d. join the army or navy.
b. become landless rural wage earners.
According to Olympe de Gouges, a. women should enjoy special rights and privileges. b. men and women should be equal in the eyes of the law. c. it was natural to exclude women from the political process. d. monarchy was the most oppressive form of government.
b. men and women should be equal in the eyes of the law.
Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate was ultimately a a. popular democracy. b. military dictatorship. c. constitutional monarchy. d. parliamentary government.
b. military dictatorship
A striking feature of the salons was that a. clerics were banned. b. philosophers, nobles, and members of the upper middle class intermingled. c. they were often sponsored by the government. d. members of the working classes often attended.
b. philosophers, nobles, and members of the upper middle class intermingled.
Copernicus's theory of the universe a. was endorsed by the Catholic Church. b. postulated a sun-centered view of the universe. c. strengthened the Ptolemaic theory of the universe. d. used epicycles to explain planetary motion.
b. postulated a sun-centered view of the universe.
People of Spanish ancestry born in the Americas were referred to as a. Mestizos. b. Mulattoes. c. Creoles. d. Peninsulares.
c. Creoles.
What was the economic effect of Napoleon's Continental System? a. French merchants and manufacturers profited from the monopoly they now held on continental trade. b. British merchants prospered, for the French merchants were now barred from British colonies. c. French artisans and the middle class suffered, for they were economically damaged by the blockade of Great Britain. d. British merchants and craftsmen lost their major market, deeply harming the British economy and the British tax base for its wars against France.
c. French artisans and the middle class suffered, for they were economically damaged by the blockade of Great Britain.
How did Napoleon consolidate his rule? a. He expanded certain civil rights, such as freedom of speech and freedom of the press. b. He presented himself as a true Son of the Revolution in contrast to the corruption of the Directory. c. He appealed both to disillusioned revolutionaries and members of the old nobility and offered them high posts in the expanding centralized state. d. He imposed harsh martial law that permitted no expression of dissent.
c. He appealed both to disillusioned revolutionaries and members of the old nobility and offered them high posts in the expanding centralized state.
France's strong economy was created by the mercantilist policies of a. Cardinal Mazarin. b. Count-Duke of Olivares. c. Jean-Baptiste Colbert. d. the Duke of Saint-Simon.
c. Jean-Baptiste Colbert.
In the eighteenth century, the West's largest and richest city was a. Vienna. b. Paris. c. London. d. Berlin.
c. London.
In Primary Source 19.3: Petition of the French Jews, what is the main argument for citizenship? a. If Protestants were granted civil rights, so, too, French Jews should be granted those same civil rights. b. Jews have no way to make a living unless they become citizens. c. Since civil rights are independent from religious principles, all men are equally able to serve the fatherland and should have the title of citizen. d. Extending citizenship to the French Jews would be the Christian thing to do.
c. Since civil rights are independent from religious principles, all men are equally able to serve the fatherland and should have the title of citizen.
What helped to justify the growth of slavery in the eighteenth century? a. The defense of social inequalities between men and women by certain philosophers b. The bureaucratic reforms of practitioners of enlightened absolutism c. The emergence of scientific racism d. The common philosophical belief that the masses were like children in need of firm guidance
c. The emergence of scientific racism
In the 1780s, over 50 percent of France's annual budget was expended on a. bread subsidies for the poor. b. the military. c. interest payments on the debt. d. the royal court.
c. interest payments on the debt.
Rousseau's concept of the general will asserts that a. enlightened monarchs protect the interests of the entire society and should be relied on for reform. b. the people's political wishes can be conveyed only by direct democracy. c. the general will is not necessarily the will of the majority. d. public opinion polling can be a valuable support to democracy.
c. the general will is not necessarily the will of the majority.
Catherine the Great's goal of domestic reform never came to fruition, owing to a. the overthrow and murder of her husband, Peter III, in 1762. b. the grant to the nobles of absolute control over their serfs after 1775. c. the rebellion led by Emelian Pugachev in 1773. d. the first partition of Poland in 1772.
c. the rebellion led by Emelian Pugachev in 1773.
The British won the American component of the Seven Years' War owing to a. France's lack of allies. b. ineffective French military leadership. c. the size and strength of British naval power. d. the support of all Native American tribes to the British cause.
c. the size and strength of British naval power.
Joseph II's conversion of peasant labor obligations to cash payments a. had the support of the nobles. b. transformed a barter economy into a cash economy. c. was opposed by both nobles and peasants. d. remained in effect long after his death.
c. was opposed by both nobles and peasants.
How did the Peace of Westphalia mark a turning point in European history? a. Central Europe emerged as an economic powerhouse. b. German lands were finally unified under the German emperor. c. Religious toleration was adopted throughout the Holy Roman Empire. d. Large-scale armed conflicts over religious faith came to an end.
d. Large-scale armed conflicts over religious faith came to an end.
Which country spearheaded the trend in scientific expeditions? a. England b. Austria c. Italy d. Spain
d. Spain
Mercantilist theory postulated that a. government should not interfere in the economy. b. free trade would maximize the wealth of all nations. c. imports and exports should be equally balanced. d. economic activity should be regulated by and for the state.
d. economic activity should be regulated by and for the state.
Mercantilist theory postulated that a. imports and exports should be equally balanced. b. government should not interfere in the economy. c. free trade would maximize the wealth of all nations. d. economic activity should be regulated by and for the state.
d. economic activity should be regulated by and for the state.
In Two Treatises of Government (Primary Source 15.5), John Locke notes that a. the government cannot run efficiently if it must always check with the people. b. the government must levy taxes as it sees fit. c. the government must be free to set taxes at whatever DIFF: Level is necessary. d. the government must obtain the consent of the majority for taxes.
d. the government must obtain the consent of the majority for taxes.
Holland's leadership in farming methodology can be attributed to a. the absence of marshes and swamps in the Netherlands. b. the increased migration of peasants from cities to the country. c. the strong nobility of the Dutch. d. the necessity to provide for a densely populated country.
d. the necessity to provide for a densely populated country.
The final collapse of Spain as a great military power was symbolized by the defeat at the Battle of Rocroi and the resulting Treaty of a. the Pyrenees. b. Utrecht. c. Westphalia. d. the White Mountain.
A. The Pyrenees
The Ottomans divided their subjects into religious communities or a. Cossacks. b. Moriscos. c. Estates. d. millets.
D. Millets
What was the Republic of Letters? a. A cosmopolitan network involving Western Europe and its colonies as well as Eastern Europe and Russia b. An organization established to assist with Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopedia c. A governmental system advocated by Rousseau in The Social Contract d. A source of funding for philosophes developed by Catherine the Great
a. A cosmopolitan network involving Western Europe and its colonies as well as Eastern Europe and Russia
Why did the English government arrive at a crisis situation by 1640? a. Charles I imposed unwelcome laws and reforms on the country. b. Charles I sought to impose the Scottish religion on England. c. Charles I married a Presbyterian princess. d. James I frequently lectured the House of Commons about his divine authority.
a. Charles I imposed unwelcome laws and reforms on the country.
Who provided the labor force for Britain's initial colonization of Australia? a. Convicted prisoners b. Aboriginal people c. Indentured servants d. Slaves
a. Convicted prisoners
Britain's great rival for influence in India in the eighteenth century was a. France. b. Portugal. c. Spain. d. the Netherlands.
a. France.
What was Jethro Tull's contribution to English agriculture in the eighteenth century? a. He critiqued accepted farming methods and developed better methods through empirical research. b. He paved the way for peasants to own land—after he became the first non-noblemen to be England's largest landowner. c. He caused a rural rebellion and ultimately the demise of the enclosure movement after burning his fields rather than enclosing them. d. He demonstrated that slow oxen that produced more manure were preferred for plowing than swifter-moving horses.
a. He critiqued accepted farming methods and developed better methods through empirical research.
What change within the Jewish community accompanied the Haskalah Enlightenment movement? a. Interactions between Jews and Christians increased, and rabbinic controls diminished. b. Jews increasingly converted to Christianity as Judaism demanded faith over reason. c. The Jewish community isolated itself from the Christian community as racial thinking emerged. d. The Jewish community sought to create an independent state that would not be subject to Christian laws.
a. Interactions between Jews and Christians increased, and rabbinic controls diminished.
By July 1794, how had the central government in Paris managed to reassert control over the provinces and gain momentum against the First Coalition? a. It harnessed the explosive forces of a planned economy, revolutionary terror, and modern nationalism into a total war effort. b. It used its control over bread supplies to starve the provinces into obedience. c. It bribed local officials by placing them into high government offices. d. It negotiated peace arrangements with all of the provinces, offering them control over conquered foreign territories.
a. It harnessed the explosive forces of a planned economy, revolutionary terror, and modern nationalism into a total war effort.
Why did European slave traders in Africa adopt the "shore method" of trading in the eighteenth century? a. It permitted Europeans to move easily along the coast, obtaining slaves at various slave markets and then departing quickly for the Americas. b. It secured for Europeans supplies of slaves by establishing fortified trading posts on the coast, thus preventing wasted days at sea looking for slaves to purchase. c. It gave Europeans more control over the slave trade by sending ashore slave-hunting teams to seize slaves and force them aboard. d. It relieved Europeans of the moral difficulty of separating families by having all slaves separated into unrelated groups of fifteen before the ships captains purchased them.
a. It permitted Europeans to move easily along the coast, obtaining slaves at various slave markets and then departing quickly for the Americas.
Why was the Declaration of Independence so important to the American Revolution? a. It universalized the traditional rights of English people and made them the rights of all mankind. b. It was a brilliant summation of the ideas in Thomas Paine's Common Sense. c. It emphasized the unyielding response of the British government to American protests. d. It was a stirring indictment of the Loyalists and their failure to support the revolution.
a. It universalized the traditional rights of English people and made them the rights of all mankind.
How did famines affect the European population in the seventeenth century? a. Malnutrition made people susceptible to deadly diseases, which reduced the population significantly. b. The population remained relatively stable as the little food available was distributed evenly to all social classes at a "just price." c. Large segments of the population immigrated to the American colonies. d. The population continued to grow despite widespread malnutrition.
a. Malnutrition made people susceptible to deadly diseases, which reduced the population significantly.
Who wrote the influential Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697)? a. Pierre Bayle b. Baruch Spinoza c. John Locke d. Margaret Cavendish
a. Pierre Bayle
After a defeat at Narva, Peter the Great constructed a new army and eventually beat the Swedish in 1709 at a. Poltava. b. St. Petersburg. c. Naseby. d. Novgorod.
a. Poltava.
Which powers participated in the partitioning of Poland in the late eighteenth century? a. Prussia, Russia, and Austria b. The Ottoman Empire, Russia, and Prussia c. Sweden, Prussia, and Russia d. Sweden, Saxony, and Austria
a. Prussia, Russia, and Austria
What mistaken belief did the Count-Duke of Olivares hold that brought disaster to Spain? a. Spain must return to the imperial tradition of the sixteenth century in order to solve its economic and political difficulties. b. Spain must ally with England in order to establish naval domination of the Atlantic and secure access to trade routes. c. Spain must require all Jews and Muslims to leave Spain in order to purify the kingdom and earn God's favor. d. Spain must secure peace with all of its neighbors in order to reduce the expenses borne by the royal treasury.
a. Spain must return to the imperial tradition of the sixteenth century in order to solve its economic and political difficulties.
From 1701 to 1763, what was at stake in the wars between Great Britain and France? a. The position as Europe's leading maritime power, with the ability to claim profits from Europe's overseas expansion b. The ability of each to establish effective systems to supply expanding militaries c. The control over slave trade routes to support colonial development in the Caribbean d. The preeminent position in continental Europe with the ability to shape domestic policy in many nations
a. The position as Europe's leading maritime power, with the ability to claim profits from Europe's overseas expansion
Why did the French commissioners in Saint-Domingue abolish slavery in 1793? a. They were desperate to rally the rebel slaves to the French cause against the Spanish and English forces on the island. b. They were captured by slave armies and forced to issue the edict abolishing slavery. c. They were required by the Committee of Public Safety to apply the principles of liberty and equality to all French lands. d. The British and Spanish had already outlawed slavery; the French commissionaires feared a rebellion if they did not do likewise.
a. They were desperate to rally the rebel slaves to the French cause against the Spanish and English forces on the island.
Which of the following characterizes the condition of peasants in Western Europe in the eighteenth century? a. They were generally free from serfdom and owned land that they could pass on to their children. b. They were technically free but suffered under a system of debt obligation to feudal lords that prevented them from owning their own land. c. They were free to own small plots of land but never enough to fully support themselves, requiring them to continue to work the land of the local lord, who owned a vast majority of it. d. They were bound to a lord's feudal manor and worked the lord's land as part of a long series of feudal obligations.
a. They were generally free from serfdom and owned land that they could pass on to their children.
What was the primary goal of Galileo Galilei's experimental method? a. To discover what actually occurred in nature rather than to speculate on what should occur b. To expose how the workings of nature demonstrated the presence of God c. To uncover the hidden forces that directed nature and that humans could manipulate d. To produce benefits for humankind rather than seek abstract knowledge
a. To discover what actually occurred in nature rather than to speculate on what should occur
The treaty that ended the Seven Years' War in Europe and the colonies in 1763 and ratified British victory on all colonial fronts was the a. Treaty of Paris. b. Peace of Westphalia. c. Peace of Utrecht. d. Treaty of London.
a. Treaty of Paris.
Madame du Châtelet, Voltaire's longtime companion, a. believed that women's limited contribution to science was the result of unequal education. b. was the first woman admitted into the Royal Academy of Sciences. c. was the powerful mistress of Louis XV. d. inspired Jean-Jacques Rousseau's ideas on education and emotion.
a. believed that women's limited contribution to science was the result of unequal education.
In seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Europe, guild masters a. guarded their guild privileges jealously. b.denied themselves the right to train their sons or wives in their crafts. c. permitted easy access to guilds in order to maintain a strong labor force. d. allowed both men and women entry into all guilds.
a. guarded their guild privileges jealously.
In the eighteenth century, European public health measures a. improved water supply and sewage systems. b. completely eradicated famine owing to increased supply lines. c. blocked off roads and canals to prevent the spread of disease. d. banned foreign soldiers from entering towns.
a. improved water supply and sewage systems.
The men elected to represent the third estate at the Estates General were primarily a. lawyers and government officials. b. wealthy peasants. c. provincial nobles. d. businessmen.
a. lawyers and government officials.
As noted in Primary Source 17.3, Adam Smith thought that a proper division of labor would make it possible for a small number of men to do the work of many more because it a. makes it possible for an unskilled worker to be part of the manufacturing process. b. keeps workers from spending more time than necessary on the manufacture of the product. c. allows the worker to work harder without tiring himself. d. permits the overseer to control the manufacturing process.
a. makes it possible for an unskilled worker to be part of the manufacturing process.
The industrious revolution was a result of a. poor families choosing to reduce leisure time and the production of goods for household consumption in order to earn wages to buy consumer goods. b. efforts by Protestant and Catholic churches to combat sin by promoting a gospel of prosperity and industry that would keep workers productively at their labors. c. merchant capitalists gaining greater authority over workers and forcing them into factories, where their work activity could be more closely monitored and controlled. d. the reduction of holidays and festivals by the state in order to create more workdays during the year, combined with laws requiring the closing of taverns two hours past sunset.
a. poor families choosing to reduce leisure time and the production of goods for household consumption in order to earn wages to buy consumer goods.
French foreign policy under Cardinal Richelieu focused primarily on the a. prevention of the Habsburgs from unifying the territories surrounding France. b. destruction of the economic power of the Low Countries. c. destruction of English naval power. d. protection of Protestants in neighboring territories.
a. prevention of the Habsburgs from unifying the territories surrounding France.
In the eighteenth century, the biggest increase in British foreign trade was with a. the British colonial empire. b. the European continent. c. France. d. Asia.
a. the British colonial empire.
Although perhaps best known as the longtime companion of Voltaire, Gabriel-Emilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil, marquise du Châtelet, published a. the first translation of Newton's Principia into French. b. The Persian Letters. c. The Social Contract. d. The Theory of Moral Sentiments.
a. the first translation of Newton's Principia into French.
The English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes held that a. the power of the ruler was absolute and prevented civil war. b. a constitutional monarchy was possible only in England. c. kings ruled by divine right. d. mankind is inherently good and requires no formal government.
a. the power of the ruler was absolute and prevented civil war.
At the center of Adam Smith's arguments in The Wealth of Nations was the belief that a. the pursuit of self-interest in competitive markets would improve the living conditions of citizens. b. the government had a responsibility to protect consumers and the general public from price gouging and fraud. c. guilds provided a structural stability to the economy that permitted the free market to function effectively. d. capitalism could only flourish if workers' wages were kept low.
a. the pursuit of self-interest in competitive markets would improve the living conditions of citizens.
Which of the following characterizes the English Revolution of 1688? a. The revolution did not constitute a democratic revolution since sovereignty was placed in the Parliament, which only represented the upper classes. b. The revolution marked the emergence of democratic politics, with the establishment of natural rights and the defense of private property. c. The revolution secured equal rights for all Christians, including Catholics, d. The revolution restored the monarchy after the disastrous era of Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate.
a. the revolution did not constitute a democratic revolution since sovereignty was placed in the parliament, which only represented the upper classes.
Which of the following characterizes the regions to which slaves were carried from Africa to the Americas? a. Brazil received about one-half of the slaves carried across the Atlantic, while the Caribbean and North America each received about 25 percent. b. About 90 percent of slaves were transported to Brazil or the Caribbean, with only 3 percent brought to North America. c. The Caribbean received about 50 percent of the slaves, while North American and Spanish South America received about 25 percent each. d. The Spanish colonies of South America received about 35 percent of slaves from Africa, while Brazil received about 15 percent and the Caribbean and North America each received about 25 percent.
b. About 90 percent of slaves were transported to Brazil or the Caribbean, with only 3 percent brought to North America.
Why did Great Britain seek to raise taxes on its American colonies in the 1760s? a. Great Britain sought to prepare the colonies for eventual independence by establishing local governments with existing systems of taxation. b. After doubling its national debt in the Seven Years' War, Great Britain sought to tax the American colonies to fund the further defense of the colonies. c. British merchant shipping to the colonies was under increased attack from pirates and hostile forces, requiring the British to provide expensive naval convoys. d. The rising cost of increasingly elaborate court ceremonies forced the government to seek tax increases on all its territories.
b. After doubling its national debt in the Seven Years' War, Great Britain sought to tax the American colonies to fund the further defense of the colonies.x
How did the idea of "race" transform Europeans' idea of their superiority over other peoples? a. European superiority was increasingly defined as culturally superior as well as religiously superior. b. European superiority was increasingly defined as biologically superior as well as culturally superior. c. European superiority was increasingly defined as culturally superior rather than religiously superior. d. European superiority was increasingly defined as religiously superior rather than biologically superior.
b. European superiority was increasingly defined as biologically superior as well as culturally superior.
In general, what was Voltaire's attitude toward government? a. He believed in democracy, like most philosophes. b. He believed that a good monarch was the best one could hope for in government. c. He saw the despot or autocrat as designated by God. d. He believed in enlightened despotism as long as he could be the despot.
b. He believed that a good monarch was the best one could hope for in government.
The Glorious Revolution and the concept of representative government found its best defense in the Second Treatise of Civil Government by a. Thomas Hobbes. b. John Locke. c. Jean Racine d. Peter Paul Rubens.
b. John Locke
Why did Leopold II cancel his brother Joseph's radical edicts in the early 1790s? a. Leopold was preparing Austria for war. b. Leopold was attempting to restore order in Austria. c. Leopold was negotiating a second partition of Poland. d. Leopold was responding to criticism from Catherine the Great.
b. Leopold was attempting to restore order in Austria.
Which of the following describes the role of women in guilds in the eighteenth century? a. Guilds dropped all restrictions that forbade women from serving as masters or laborers. b. Masters began to hire more female workers, often in defiance of guild rules. c. Guilds reinforced the regulations forbidding all work by and mastership for women. d. Guilds permitted women to serve as workers but forbade any women from becoming masters.
b. Masters began to hire more female workers, often in defiance of guild rules.
How did French armies during the French Revolution offer a mixed message to the people they conquered? a. They promised to retain local tradition and institutions but removed all of the older nobility and eliminated the power of the Catholic Church. b. They presented themselves as liberators to the peasants and middle class but seemed more like foreign invaders as they requisitioned food and supplies and plundered local treasure. c. They chose not to seize territory permanently for France but began to appoint French military commanders as new nobles in conquered lands. d. They spoke of peace and prosperity but instituted harsh purges of all political opponents and high new taxes to pay for the army.
b. They presented themselves as liberators to the peasants and middle class but seemed more like foreign invaders as they requisitioned food and supplies and plundered local treasure.
How did the delegates to the Legislative Assembly that convened in October 1791 differ from the delegates to the Estates General/National Assembly? a. They were drawn mostly from the provinces and rural countryside. b. They were younger and less cautious; many joined political clubs. c. They were more experienced politicians with a strong commitment to reforming the nation. d. They were more sympathetic to the monarchy.
b. They were younger and less cautious; many joined political clubs.
The idea of the public sphere that emerged during the Enlightenment refers to a. a government bureau that regulated the work of the philosophers. b. an idealized space where individuals gathered to discuss social and political issues. c. the marketplaces at which peasants gathered to gossip and share news. d. the practice of legislatures to permit citizens to make addresses before deputies.
b. an idealized space where individuals gathered to discuss social and political issues.
Voltaire was a deist who viewed God as akin to a a. loving father who intervened when necessary in human affairs. b. clockmaker who set the universe in motion and then ceased to intervene in human affairs. c. king who required Christians to be intolerant of any who did not worship him correctly. d.farmer who carefully tended his crops from planting through harvest.
b. clockmaker who set the universe in motion and then ceased to intervene in human affairs.
Between 1700 and 1835, Europe's population a. tripled. b. doubled. c. experienced almost no growth. d. increased by 50 percent.
b. doubled.
Francis Bacon formalized the research methods of Tycho Brahe and Galileo into a theory of reasoning known as a. dualism. b. empiricism. c. naturalism. d. materialism.
b. empiricism.
The discipline of natural philosophy focused on a. specific natural laws that governed all matter in material universe. b. fundamental questions about the nature, purpose, and function of the universe. c. the application of ancient philosophy to theological questions. d. theological principles that can be discovered in the study of nature.
b. fundamental questions about the nature, purpose, and function of the universe.
The spinning of thread for the loom a. marked a new type of industry in which the merchants created unambiguous standards for spun thread that reduced conflicts between merchants and spinners. b. required the work of several spinners for each loom, which led merchants to employ the wives and daughters of agricultural workers at terribly low wages. c. was established as a unique craft in which communities and even regions specialized, especially sheepherding regions. d. was quickly turned into a mechanized process, which freed more women to take up operation of the loom.
b. required the work of several spinners for each loom, which led merchants to employ the wives and daughters of agricultural workers at terribly low wages.
At the center of Adam Smith's arguments in The Wealth of Nations was the belief that a. guilds provided a structural stability to the economy that permitted the free market to function effectively. b. the pursuit of self-interest in competitive markets would improve the living conditions of citizens. c. capitalism could only flourish if workers' wages were kept low. d. the government had a responsibility to protect consumers and the general public from price gouging and fraud.
b. the pursuit of self-interest in competitive markets would improve the living conditions of citizens.
Within the family, the operation of the loom a. was considered a woman's job, as were most of the sewing crafts. b. was reserved for the male head of household. c. generally only occupied one person, leaving other family members to farm or seek outside employment. d. was somewhat dangerous, and children were forbidden from helping with it.
b. was reserved for the male head of household.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that a. women should play an active role in public life. b. women were best suited to a passive role in social relations. c. civilization was the foundation of freedom. d. without rational thought, human society would crumble.
b. women were best suited to a passive role in social relations.
Political power in the Dutch Republic was a. held by the central government. b. held by the stadholder and his royal courtiers. c. exercised by a democratically elected States-General. d. controlled by an oligarchy of wealthy businessmen.
d. controlled by an oligarchy of wealthy businessmen.
Catherine the Great of Russia came to power in 1762 through a. inheritance of the throne from her mother. b. Frederick II of Prussia's invasion of Russia. c. a military coup. d.election by the general public.
c. a military coup.
According to its editor, the fundamental goal of the Encyclopedia was to a. "popularize the scientific revolution." b. "improve the material life of Europeans." c. "change the general way of thinking." d. "undermine French absolutism."
c. "change the general way of thinking."
What was the result of the War of the Austrian Succession? a. A French victory that forced Britain to abandon its last remaining land claims on the North American continent b. An Austrian victory that forced Prussia to abandon much of its territory c. An inconclusive standoff that set the stage for further warfare d. A British victory that forced the French to retreat from North America
c. An inconclusive standoff that set the stage for further warfare
In the seventeenth century, why did rulers hesitate to crush rebellions? a. Local rebels rarely caused much damage. b. City and regional officials might side with the rebels. c. Armies were expensive to deploy, and rulers feared creating martyrs. d. Local rebels easily hid when troops arrived.
c. Armies were expensive to deploy, and rulers feared creating martyrs.
Which of the following characterizes eighteenth-century colonial trade in Europe? a. The Spanish empire collapsed, for Spain lacked the resources to sustain its military presence in the colonies. b. Spanish landowners in the colonies instituted slavery among all the Indian populations in order to force them to work on their estates. c. Britain's mercantilist system achieved remarkable success as trade with its colonies grew substantially. d. It became insignificant to the French after the loss of their colonies in New France (Canada).
c. Britain's mercantilist system achieved remarkable success as trade with its colonies grew substantially.
Galileo was placed on trial for heresy owing to publication of a. The Sidereal Messenger. b. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. c. Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World. d. Principia Mathematica.
c. Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World.
How did Cardinal Richelieu increase the power of the centralized French state? a. He reorganized the French economy according to mercantilist policies. b. He encouraged Louis XIII to establish an elaborate palace and ground at Versailles. c. He extended the use of intendants, commissioners for each of France's thirty-two districts. d. He concentrated on repairing and expanding the country's infrastructure, building new roads and canals.
c. He extended the use of intendants, commissioners for each of France's thirty-two districts.
How did the problem of food shortages change in the eighteenth century? a. A return to the open-field system evened out food distribution and helped to prevent food shortages. b. The European colonies became an alternate source for food that could be used to overcome poor harvests. c. Increased road and canal building permitted food to be more easily transported to regions with local crop failure and famine. d. Advances in agricultural methods produced abundant food supplies and eradicated famine.
c. Increased road and canal building permitted food to be more easily transported to regions with local crop failure and famine.
How did Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation bring the Scientific Revolution to maturity? a. It demonstrated that the biological and physical properties of nature operated by different principles. b. It proved that the workings of nature could be understood without reference of God. c. It synthesized mathematics with physics and astronomy to demonstrate that the entire universe was unified into one coherent system. d. It provided evidence that proved the existence of God.
c. It synthesized mathematics with physics and astronomy to demonstrate that the entire universe was unified into one coherent system.
In music, the baroque style reached its culmination in the work of a. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. b. Frédéric Chopin. c. Johann Sebastian Bach. d. Peter Paul Rubens
c. Johann Sebastian Bach.
Who wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Man (1790) and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), the latter a founding text of the feminist movement? a. Olympe de Gouges b. Abigail Adams c. Mary Wollstonecraft d. Émilie du Châtelet
c. Mary Wollstonecraft
In the wake of the Great Fear in the summer of 1789, the National Assembly restored order by a. reducing taxes on agricultural products. b. calling up army and militia units to suppress the rebellious peasants. c. abolishing all of the old noble and church privileges. d. promising to reestablish the control on bread prices.
c. abolishing all of the old noble and church privileges.
Which of the following correctly characterizes the response of various religious perspectives to Nicolaus Copernicus's hypothesis? a. The Catholic Church declared Copernicus a heretic, while Protestant faiths believed that the hypothesis had no bearing on Christian teaching. b. Protestant clerics rejected Copernicus, while Catholics embraced the interpretation as a new foundation for the heavens. c. Protestants rejected Copernicus's idea that the earth moved, while the Catholic Church largely overlooked his theory until declaring the hypothesis false in the seventeenth century. d. Lutheran and Catholic officials rejected Copernicus's hypothesis as heretical to a literal interpretation of Scripture, while Protestants recognized a more modern approach to truth and adopted it.
c. Protestants rejected Copernicus's idea that the earth moved, while the Catholic Church largely overlooked his theory until declaring the hypothesis false in the seventeenth century.
The Junkers were a. Dutch merchants who made up the oligarchy that controlled the government of the Netherlands. b. Russian administrators who accepted the westernization policies of Peter the Great. c. Prussian nobles who reluctantly worked with Frederick William to consolidate the Prussian state. d. Members of the janissary corps who filled the posts of the Ottoman bureaucracy and military.
c. Prussian nobles who reluctantly worked with Frederick William to consolidate the Prussian state.
How did the Concordat resolve the crisis over Catholicism in France in the Napoleonic era? a. The Catholic Church was again recognized as the state religion, which all citizens had to embrace or face prosecution under the law. b. The Catholic Church promised to promote French nationalism, while the French state agreed to abandon efforts to control church doctrine. c. The Catholic Church gained the right to practice religion freely, while the French state gained greater control over the nomination of church officers and church activities. d. The Catholic Church reclaimed full authority over the appointment of church officials, while the French state gained the right to oversee church finances.
c. The Catholic Church gained the right to practice religion freely, while the French state gained greater control over the nomination of church officers and church activities.
Which of the following correctly characterizes the transformation of the English and Scottish countryside in the enclosure era? a. Forced to sell their land following enclosures, most of the nobility left the countryside and moved to the cities. b. The large pools of urban laborers were forced to work in the countryside, for the growing agricultural innovations required more workers for the land. c. The elimination of common rights and access to land turned small peasant farmers into landless wage earners. d. While enclosure affected some land usage, most land remained deeply tied to traditional feudal structures.
c. The elimination of common rights and access to land turned small peasant farmers into landless wage earners.
Which of the following describes the enclosure movement of the eighteenth century? a. The land was not divided, so the lord of the manor could directly control agricultural techniques and introduce farming innovations. b. The land was divided into long, narrow strips that were not enclosed by fences or hedges. c. The land was divided into plots bounded by fences to farm more effectively. d. The land was not divided but worked communally as villages labored in large fields side by side.
c. The land was divided into plots bounded by fences to farm more effectively.
In Primary Source 15.5, how does Locke understand the process by which a government functions? a. Once a government has been appointed, it is free to make those laws that seem necessary for efficient government. b. The best government is that provided by a group of capable administrators acting in the name of the people. c. The people are in full liberty to resist those who, without authority, would impose anything upon them. d. Because people seldom agree about political issues, it is best to have a monarch with long experience in government making decisions.
c. The people are in full liberty to resist those who, without authority, would impose anything upon them.
How did governments respond to the new science? a. They viewed new scientific communities as a threat to their control of knowledge. b. They rejected the new science as a threat to their religious foundations. c. They established academies of science to support and sometimes direct scientific research. d. They supported and defended the complete freedom of the scientist against religious officials.
c. They established academies of science to support and sometimes direct scientific research.
In Primary Source 19.1, what does Abigail Adams want John Adams to do when she asks him to "remember the ladies"? a. To include in the new code of laws some protection for women b. To finish his work at the Continental Congress as quickly as possible and return home c. To grant women full political rights d. To fight against the possibility of tyranny and unlimited power in politics
c. To grant women full political rights
In Historical and Critical Dictionary, Pierre Bayle demonstrated that a. the Bible was a fraudulent document promoted by the Catholic Church. b. the mind and body are united into one substance. c. all knowledge can be questioned and doubted. d. human beliefs are unified in their singular origins from God.
c. all knowledge can be questioned and doubted.
Wealthy Spanish landowners kept indigenous workers on their estates through a system of a. collusion with government officials to prevent workers from leaving an estate. b. slave labor in which workers had no rights. c. debt peonage in which landowners advanced food, shelter, and some money, in this way keeping the workers in perpetual debt. d. indentured servitude in which workers had a specified numbers of years to work before gaining their freedom.
c. debt peonage in which landowners advanced food, shelter, and some money, in this way keeping the workers in perpetual debt.
In Primary Source 17.1, Arthur Young, writing at the end of the eighteenth century on the benefits of enclosure, believes that a. the only solution for rural overpopulation is for peasants to move to towns. b. enclosures will provide the same amount of employment but under better conditions. c. enclosures will increase the amount of employment compared with open fields. d. the only solution for rural overpopulation is cottage industry.
c. enclosures will increase the amount of employment compared with open fields.
The English Navigation Acts mandated that all English imports and exports be transported on English ships, and they also a. created an alliance with the Dutch against the French. b. prevented the American colonists from building ships. c. gave British merchants a virtual monopoly on trade with British colonies. d. restricted English banks from making foreign loans.
c. gave British merchants a virtual monopoly on trade with British colonies.
In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, John Locke claimed that a. sovereign authority rests in the hands of the people. b. all people are born with certain ideas and ways of thinking. c. human development is determined by education and society. d. governments are formed by contracts among free individuals.
c. human development is determined by education and society.
In the eighteenth century, advocates for agricultural innovation argued that a. the key to agricultural innovation was to provide support for the peasants against the lords, as the lords resisted innovation that they feared would diminish their authority. b. the rights of the nobility over land needed to be reinforced, since until that time only nobles could force through innovations. c. landholdings and common lands needed to be consolidated and enclosed in order to farm more efficiently. d. farming should be strictly separated from herding for sheep and cattle, as herds diminished the lands' productivity by trampling and flattening loose soil.
c. landholdings and common lands needed to be consolidated and enclosed in order to farm more efficiently.
Arthur Young, an eighteenth-century agricultural experimentalist, advocated a. the retention of open-field farming with the addition of crop rotation and other innovations. b. government intervention as a means of lessening rural poverty. c. large-scale enclosure as a necessary means to achieve progress. d. the development of a primary education system as a means of lessening rural poverty.
c. large-scale enclosure as a necessary means to achieve progress.
In the summer of 1789, the National Assembly was driven toward more radical action by a. King Louis XVI's attempted flight from France. b. Maximilien de Robespierre's brilliant rhetoric. c. revolutionary actions of French peasants and the common people of Paris. d. the completion of the American constitution.
c. revolutionary actions of French peasants and the common people of Paris.
In the summer of 1789, the National Assembly was driven toward more radical action by a. the completion of the American constitution. b. King Louis XVI's attempted flight from France. c. revolutionary actions of French peasants and the common people of Paris. d. Maximilien de Robespierre's brilliant rhetoric.
c. revolutionary actions of French peasants and the common people of Paris.
Soft pastels, ornate interiors, and sentimental portraits are all characteristics of the style known as a. classicalism. b. baroque. c. rococo. d. romanticism.
c. rococo.
The enlightened policies of Frederick the Great included a. freeing the Prussian serfs. b. curtailing the privileges of the nobility. c. simplifying Prussia's laws. d. censoring the publications of scholars.
c. simplifying Prussia's laws.
In the Netherlands, tensions were always present between supporters of the staunchly republican Estates and supporters of a. the Bourbons. b. the Stuarts. c. the House of Orange. d. the Hohenzollerns.
c. the House of Orange
"Guard yourself, my son, whichever side you take in this dispute among the philosophers, against the inevitable obstinacy to which the spirit of partisanship carries one. . . . The search for truth is the only thing in which the love of your country must not prevail, and it is surely very unfortunate that the opinions of Newton and of Descartes have become a sort of national affair." This quotation from Primary Source 16.3: Foundations of Physics refers to a. the controversy concerning who first put forth the idea that the earth orbits around the sun. b. the controversy concerning who should be credited with discovering the concept of the universal force of gravity. c. the controversy concerning whether Descartes' or Newton's systems should be considered the superior method of scientific investigation. d. the controversy concerning whether all ideas and thoughts are the result of sensory impressions.
c. the controversy concerning whether Descartes' or Newton's systems should be considered the superior method of scientific investigation.
Christianity in colonial societies in the Americas a. remained a foundation of European culture and tradition on which European settlers could depend to defend traditional European practices. b. so fully embraced native customs and traditions that European Christians came to consider the Christianity practiced in the Americas to be heretical. c. took on distinctive characteristics through a complex process of cultural exchange that made Christianity more comprehensible to indigenous peoples. d. remained almost exclusively connected to European colonists, for few native people adopted the religion.
c. took on distinctive characteristics through a complex process of cultural exchange that made Christianity more comprehensible to indigenous peoples.
Which of the following correctly identifies Napoleon Bonaparte's background? a. He came from an impoverished Sardinian family. b. His campaign in Egypt was a great military success. c. He trained as a lawyer before joining the military. d. He won brilliant victories in Italy in 1796 and 1797.
d. He won brilliant victories in Italy in 1796 and 1797.
Who was the author of On Crimes and Punishments, a passionate plea for the reform of the penal system? a. Adam Smith b. Immanuel Kant c. Benjamin Franklin d. Cesare Beccaria
d. Cesare Beccaria
Who predicted in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) that reform like that occurring in France would lead only to chaos and tyranny? a.Abbé de Sieyès b. Mary Wollstonecraft c. Thomas Paine d. Edmund Burke
d. Edmund Burke
How did Frederick William the Great Elector of Prussia persuade the Junker nobility to accept taxation without consent in order to fund the army? a. He offered the Junkers the exclusive right to sit in the royal councils. b. He permitted the Junkers to seize church lands as compensation. c. He confirmed the Junkers' privileges, including their authority over the serfs. d. He threatened the Junkers with military attack.
d. He confirmed the Junkers' privileges, including their authority over the serfs.
How did Frederick William I, king of Prussia, sustain agricultural production while dramatically expanding the size of his army? a. He required monks, priests, and other clerics to perform agricultural work when needed by local nobles. b. He required women to work in the fields when their husbands served in the military. c. He purchased African slaves to sustain agricultural production while Prussian men trained for the military. d. He ordered all Prussian men to undergo military training, after which they could return home and serve as army reservists.
d. He ordered all Prussian men to undergo military training, after which they could return home and serve as army reservists.
How did William Laud, the archbishop of Canterbury, create conflict in Britain in the 1630s? a. He launched a purge against the remaining Catholics in England, seeking to force them to flee to Ireland. b. He imposed new church taxes in order to secretly funnel money to the monarchy. c. He implemented Puritan reforms into the Anglican Church. d. He sought to impose a new prayer book modeled on the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on Presbyterian Scotland.
d. He sought to impose a new prayer book modeled on the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on Presbyterian Scotland.
How did America's Constitutional Convention of 1787 deal with the discord between pro- and anti-slavery delegates? a. It decided that slavery would not be permitted in new states formed after the Constitution's ratification. b. It took no action because many delegates believed slavery would end in the near future as it became less and less profitable. c. It decided that a new state would make the decision whether to permit slavery itself before seeking admission to the Union. d. It compromised by stipulating that an enslaved person would count as three-fifths of a person for purposes of taxation and proportional representation in the House of Representatives.
d. It compromised by stipulating that an enslaved person would count as three-fifths of a person for purposes of taxation and proportional representation in the House of Representatives.
Who was Denis Diderot's co-editor of the Encyclopedia? a. Voltaire b. Jean-Jacques Rousseau c. Pierre Bayle d. Jean le Rond d'Alembert
d. Jean le Rond d'Alembert
After the arrest and deportation of Toussaint L'Ouverture, how was the war of Haitian Independence resolved? a. A rival to L'Ouverture, André Rigaud, defeated the French forces and declared Haitian independence. b. The British invaded Saint-Domingue and, after defeating the French, allowed the Haitians to form the sovereign nation of Haiti. c. The Spanish invaded from their colony of Santo Domingo, defeated the French, and allowed the formation of the sovereign nation of Haiti. d. Jean-Jacques Dessalines, L'Ouverture's lieutenant, led the resistance to a crushing victory over the French and later declared Haitian independence.
d. Jean-Jacques Dessalines, L'Ouverture's lieutenant, led the resistance to a crushing victory over the French and later declared Haitian independence.
How did the Peace of Utrecht resolve the problem of succession to the Spanish throne? a. The leader of the Spanish House of Alva was placed on the throne by the nobility on offering guarantees that he would protect noble rights. b. The monarchy was abolished and Spain declared a republic. c. The German Habsburg Duke of Austria was placed on the throne after the death of his cousin, the Spanish Habsburg Charles II. d. Louis XIV of France's grandson, Philip, was placed on the French throne with the agreement that the French and Spanish thrones would never be united.
d. Louis XIV of France's grandson, Philip, was placed on the French throne with the agreement that the French and Spanish thrones would never be united.
Who forced the king and the royal family to abandon Versailles and return to Paris? a. The peasants involved in the Great Fear b. The rioters of the Bastille c. The National Assembly d. Several thousand Parisian women
d. Several thousand Parisian women
After his victory in 1709 at Poltava, Peter the Great built a new, Western-style city on the Baltic called a. Moscow. b. Leningrad. c. Narva. d. St. Petersburg.
d. St. Petersburg
One of the largest rebellions in seventeenth-century Russia was that led by a. Michael Romanov. b. Ivan the Terrible. c. Peter the Great. d. Stenka Razin.
d. Stenka Razin.
What two fundamental principles of the French Revolution were incorporated into the Napoleonic Code? a. The rejection of monarchy and the adoption of republicanism b. The ideal of nationalism and the guarantee of civil rights to all people c. The abolition of slavery and the recognition of freedom of religion d. The equality of all male citizens before the law and the absolute security of wealth and private property
d. The equality of all male citizens before the law and the absolute security of wealth and private property
Within the Ottoman government, who staffed the top DIFF: Levels of the bureaucracy? a. The royal family b. Islamic religious officials c. Military commanders d. The sultan's slave corps
d. The sultan's slave corps
In Primary Source 15.3, how does Olearius view Russians as a people? a. They do not drink a great deal or get drunk often. b. They are peace-loving and do not care for war. c. They never become enraged, even though they are treated harshly. d. They are naturally tough and born for slavery.
d. They are naturally tough and born for slavery.
What was the status of Jews in European colonies in the eighteenth century? a. They were considered heretical people subject to enslavement and lacking all rights. b. They were welcomed in colonies desperate for European settlers as full citizens equal with Christian settlers. c. They settled in the colonies but were forbidden from practicing the Jewish faith. d. They faced political and economic forms of discrimination but were considered to be white Europeans and thus could not be enslaved.
d. They faced political and economic forms of discrimination but were considered to be white Europeans and thus could not be enslaved.
How did the princes of Moscow seek to legitimize their authority as rulers of an independent state? a. They eliminated all taxes. b. They adopted French coronation rituals. c. They claimed to be both political and religious leaders. d. They modeled their rule on the Mongol khans.
d. They modeled their rule on the Mongol khans.
The primary cause of the English Glorious Revolution was a. conflict between Charles II and Parliament over taxation. b. defeat suffered in the War of the Spanish Succession. c. the 1640 uprising in Ireland. d. a fear of the establishment of Catholic absolutism by James II.
d. a fear of the establishment of Catholic absolutism by James II.
In Primary Source 16.1: The Sidereal Messenger, Galileo wrote about constructing a telescope and using it to view the surface of the moon. His observations led him to a. venerate the moon as an example of God's handiwork. b. decide that the moon was indeed smooth, free from inequalities, and exactly spherical. c. report that although he could see the moon more clearly than with his naked eye, he could not come to any conclusions about it. d. assert that the moon was uneven, similar to the surface of the earth.
d. assert that the moon was uneven, similar to the surface of the earth.
By the eighteenth century, the elite of Spanish colonial society a. created an exaggerated sense of their "Spanish-ness" to distinguish themselves from the local peoples. b. largely abandoned European cultural forms and practices in order to create a new Latin American culture. c. had so thoroughly merged with local populations as to be indistinguishable from them. d. came to believe that their circumstances gave them different interests and characteristics from those in Spain.
d. came to believe that their circumstances gave them different interests and characteristics from those in Spain.
Johannes Kepler believed that the elliptical orbit of planets a. caused each planet to move at a uniform speed. b. demonstrated the presence of Satan's disruptive influence in the universe. c. were interspersed with epicycles and deferents. d. produced a musical harmony of heavenly bodies.
d. produced a musical harmony of heavenly bodies.
The guiding force behind Cardinal Richelieu's domestic policies was a. reform of the church. b. the sovereignty of the people. c. a belief in decentralization. d. the subordination of all institutions to the monarchy.
d. the subordination of all institutions to the monarchy.
The most influential aspect of René Descartes' theories of nature was that a. spiritual forces were infused throughout nature. b. mind and matter could be reduced to the same substance. c. true knowledge required the use of inductive reasoning. d. the universe functioned in a mechanistic fashion.
d. the universe functioned in a mechanistic fashion.
