UNIT 2, 3, 5

Peace of Augsburg

- 1555, ended the religious civil war between Roman Catholic and Lutherans in Germany, Each German prince power to choose the religion of the state, but failed to provide recognition for Calvinists or other religious groups - left the Holy Roman Empire divided between Protestantism and Catholicism Initiated by King Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire. It stated that the individual princes of the Holy Roman Empire could decide whether they wanted to be catholic or Lutheranism. Their decision dictated the religion of the people in their lands. Therefore, people could only be either Lutheranism or catholic and they had to follow what their prince decided, or move to new land. This "law" created temporary peace within the H.R.E., but led to some unrest because it excluded calvinism.

Absolutism

- A form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc) - Consolidation of sovereign power into a single ruler or monarch - Absolutism was a form of government in which all sovereign power rested in the hands of a single monarch. Absolute monarchies notably limited participation by the nobility in governance while preserving the social position and legal privileges of the aristocracy. These rulers claimed and justified their power by divine right, the philosophy that authority came directly from God, and that monarchs were entitled to rule without interference from other government institutions or individuals - Divine rights were widely accepted in Europe during the Middle Ages to legitimize authoritative control over the affairs of the state and the people within it. Since rulers were only accountable to God, their subjects could not question or resist this authority - In an absolutist state, the ruler, as the ultimate authority, made all laws and decisions. Without the separation of governmental powers or checks by external bodies, there were abuses of authority by absolutist monarchs who suppressed the individual freedoms of the general population

Peace of Utrecht

- A series of treaties, from 1713 to 1715, that ended the War of the Spanish Succession, ended French expansion in Europe, and marked the rise of the British Empire - Created peace between France and England, and rivalry between England and Spain - 1713, ended War of Spanish Succession between Louis XIV's France and the rest of Europe; prohibited joining of French and Spanish crowns; ended French expansionist policy; ended golden age of Spain; vastly expanded British Empire

Mercantilism

- A system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state based on the belief that a nation's international power was based on its wealth, specifically its supply of gold and silver - the belief that there was a finite amount of wealth in the world, and whoever controlled the most wealth and resources would hold the most power. In particular, wealth was measured by the amount of gold and silver a country possessed---mercantilism was driven by a desire to build strong and self-sufficient economies. - Nations wanted to maintain favorable balances of trade, meaning they would export (sell) more than they would import (buy) - Colonies were central to the mercantile system; they provided markets in which nations could sell goods in addition to resources and raw materials (including precious metals) - "As knowledge of the New World spread after its exploration by Christopher Columbus in 1492, countries wanted to gain more land, materials and subsequently power by gaining land in the new world. This led to intense competition for this land. Mercantilism states that the supply of materials such as gold and silver is limited and for a country to be more powerful than another country it must have more of these supplies/materials."

"Divine Rights"

- Belief that the monarchs got their power directly from God and are responsible for knowing one except God - in defense of monarchical absolutism which asserted that kings derived their authority from God and could not therefore be held accountable for their actions by any earthly authority such as a parliament

Martin Luther and Lutheranism

- Martin Luther was a German Monk who wanted to reform the Catholic Church - His ideas spread quickly because of the printing press. After many debates, Luther realized that a reform of the Catholic church was not possible, so he broke away from the church. Luther created his own religion-Lutheranism - Lutheranism believes in infant baptism, going back to the bible and holding it as the supreme authority. Also, that things within the church should be plain and simple, and the eucharist is both symbolic and in a way part of transubstantiation.

English Civil War

- Phase 1 (1642-1646)-Parliament was victorious in this phase. The creation of the New Model Army was the most important part of their victory. It was composed of mostly extreme Puritans who believed they were doing battle for the Lord. - This phase ended with the capture of Charles I- - There was a split in Parliament the Presbyterian wanted to disband the army and restore Charles I with a Presbyterian state church. the more radical independents, marched on London in 1647 and began negotiations with the king Charles flee and went to get help from the Scots-Phase 2(1648) they were angered at the King's treachery, and the war ended with Cromwell's victory and the capture of Charles. - Presbyterian embers in Rump Parliament of the House of Commons who tried to condemn Charles on the counts of treason. He was beheaded in January 1649

Oliver Cromwell

- The leader of the Roundhead Parliamentarians, Oliver Cromwell, drove the monarchists out of parliament. Charles, I was sentenced to death, and the English or Commonwealth Republic was proclaimed. - Cromwell assumed leadership of the Commonwealth as Lord Protector of the Kingdom. - Cromwell's Commonwealth imposed a strict moral code and crushed the Irish uprising, causing an intense famine that was worsened by a plague. Cromwell's Commonwealth Republic essentially functioned as a military dictatorship.

Peace of Westphalia

- series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648 and the Eighty Year's War (between Spain & Dutch Republic) - marked the end of large-scale religious violence in Europe - brought about a sovereignty-based international system - The treaties did not restore peace throughout Europe, but they did create a basis for national self-determination. - Holy Roman Empire remained divided - Established the precedent of peaces established by diplomatic congress,[4][5] and a new system of political order in central Europe, later called Westphalian sovereignty, based upon the concept of co-existing sovereign states. I - Inter-state aggression was to be held in check by a balance of power. - A norm was established against interference in another state's domestic affairs. - As European influence spread across the globe, these Westphalian principles, especially the concept of sovereign states, became central to international law and to the prevailing world order. ****STARTED THE IDEA OF USING DIPLOMACY OVER WARFARE - didn't give religious freedom

Thirty Years War (1618-1648)

- series of wars in Central Europe - Initially a war between Protestant and Catholic states in the fragmenting Holy Roman Empire, it gradually developed into a more general conflict involving most of the great powers of Europe, becoming less about religion and more a continuation of the France-Habsburg rivalry for European political pre-eminence. - Devastation of entire regions, with famine and disease significantly decreasing the population of the German and Italian states, the Kingdom of Bohemia, and the Low Countries. - The war also bankrupted most of the combatant powers. Both mercenaries and soldiers in armies were expected to fund themselves by looting or extorting tribute, which imposed severe hardships on the inhabitants of occupied territories. - The Thirty Years' War ended with the treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, part of the wider Peace of Westphalia.

Rise of absolutism

- the challenges that arose when these monarchs desired power. Common issues emerged regarding religion, and conflict with the nobility for power remained a common issue for absolute monarchs -In terms of religion, the Catholic Church had considerable wealth and power, which would clash with the power and influence of the absolute Monarch. With the rise of monarchs, the king's overreaching grasp on every asset of the state threatens the church. An interesting example would be through Peter The Great (which will be discussed later in this unit). Nobility also was seen as a major threat towards the Absolute Monarchs's rule. - Nobility controls a major sector of a European states' power and distributes them towards other figures. With the monarch taking all the power, it leaves the nobility in a threatened position, fighting for prestige and power in order to keep their family names prevalent

Edict of Nantes

1598 - Document that granted the Huguenots liberty of conscience and worship

Diet and Edict of Worms

Diet= in which Luther appeared to defend his new Protestant religion before Charles V Edict= When Charles V exiled or outlawed Luther from The Holy Roman Empire or any of it's other lands

The Dutch Golden Age

Economic prosperity: The Dutch Golden Age was a time of great economic prosperity for the Netherlands. The country's strategic location and strong navy allowed it to establish a lucrative trade network that stretched across Europe and beyond. This economic growth led to an increase in wealth and a rise in the standard of living for many Dutch people. Cultural flourishing: The Dutch Golden Age was also a time of great cultural flourishing. The country was home to a number of talented artists and writers, and the prosperity of the period allowed for a flourishing arts scene. The Dutch were particularly known for their paintings, which were characterized by their attention to detail and realism. Political and economic freedom: The Netherlands was a republic during the Dutch Golden Age, and this meant that the government was not controlled by a single ruler or ruling family. Instead, the country was divided into a number of independent provinces, each with its own government and laws. This system allowed for a great degree of freedom and democracy, and it contributed to the country's prosperity and cultural flourishing. Scientific and intellectual achievements: The Dutch Golden Age was also marked by a number of scientific and intellectual achievements. The Netherlands was home to a number of important scientists and philosophers, and the country was at the forefront of the scientific revolution that took place during this period. Some of the most notable figures of this period include mathematician and philosopher René Descartes and scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.

Roundheads vs. Cavaliers

Roundheads- A group consisting of Puritans, country land owners, and town-based manufacturers, led by Oliver Cromwell; fought against the Cavaliers during the English Civil War Cavaliers- In the English Civil War (1642-1647), these were the troops loyal to Charles II. Their opponents were the Roundheads, loyal to Parliament and Oliver Cromwell.

Consolidation of Habsburg dominions

The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century and the subsequent Peace of Augsburg left the Holy Roman Empire religiously divided between Protestantism and Catholicism. The Thirty Years' War and the Treaty of Westphalia politically divided the empire into 300 states. The Holy Roman Emperor had no army, revenue, or even central authority, and as a result, Habsburg-ruled-Austria and Hohenzollern-ruled-Prussia became the leading German states within the empire. Poland also experienced a decline in the 18th century. The king was elected by the diet (legislature), made up of nobles who restricted monarchical power, and all political decisions required the unanimous support of all nobles, meaning little was ever accomplished. Poland soon became vulnerable to stronger nations, and throughout the 18th century, it was partitioned by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. After the final partition in 1795, the state of Poland ceased to exist. The Ottoman Empire also experienced a marked decline. After combined Austrian, German, and Polish forces expelled the Ottomans at the Battle of Vienna in 1683, the Ottomans ended their westward expansion, sparking a gradual period of decline. The empire would remain intact until WWI, but it was increasingly regarded as the "sick man of Europe." Internal pressures, despite attempts to modernize, weakened the empire throughout the 19th century. Technological Developments

Treaty of Westphalia

The Treaty of Westphalia, signed in 1648, ended the Thirty Years' War and established the principle of cuius regio, eius religio (whose realm, his religion). This principle allowed each ruler within the Holy Roman Empire to determine the religion of their territory, either Catholicism or Lutheranism. The Treaty of Westphalia marked a significant turning point in European politics and religious conflicts, contributing to the consolidation of nation-states and the recognition of religious diversity.

Difference between peasants in the West and East?

West- Could rise in class if contributed to the state.East- Were bound to the land by serfdom often due to previous family members doings.

Significance of the Balance of Power

goal of maintaining balance of power: prevent one country from gaining too much power = increased emphasis on war = need for governments to exert greater central control within the state - more taxation, larger bureaucracy, professional armies - increasing central control led to internal conflict between nobles and monarchs = leads to differing results across continent