UNIT 2 TEST

Boston Massacre

A violent confrontation between British troops and a Boston mob on March 5, 1770. Five citizens were killed when the troops fired into the crowd. The incident inflamed anti-British sentiment in Massachusetts.

Tecumseh

Native American Shawnee warrior and chief, who became the primary leader of a large, multi-tribal confederacy in the early 19th century. Born in the Ohio Country (present-day Ohio), and growing up during the American Revolutionary War and the Northwest Indian War, Tecumseh was exposed to warfare and envisioned the establishment of an independent Indian nation east of the Mississippi River under British protection. He worked to recruit additional members to his tribal confederacy from the southern United States.

Crispus Attucks

•American stevedore of African and Native American descent, widely regarded as the first person killed in the Boston massacre and thus the first American killed in the American Revolution.

Phillis Wheatley

•The first published African-American female poet. •George Washington praised her work. •Wheatley was emancipated (set free) shortly after the publication of her book.

XYZ Affair

A diplomatic incident in which American peace commissioners sent to France by President John Adams in 1797 were insulted with bribe demands from their French counterparts, dubbed X, Y, and Z in American news- papers. The incident heightened war fever against France.

Monroe Doctrine

A key foreign policy made by President James Monroe in 1823, it declared the western hemisphere off limits to new European colonization; in return, the United States promised not to meddle in European affairs.

Sugar Act

A revenue-raising act passed by the Parliament of Great Britain on 5 April 1764. The preamble to the act stated: "it is expedient that new provisions and regulations should be established for improving the revenue of this Kingdom ... and ... it is just and necessary that a revenue should be raised ... for defraying the expenses of defending, protecting, and securing the same." The earlier Molasses Act 1733, which had imposed a tax of six pence per gallon of molasses, had never been effectively collected due to colonial evasion. By reducing the rate by half and increasing measures to enforce the tax, the British hoped that the tax would actually be collected.These incidents increased the colonists' concerns about the intent of the British Parliament and helped the growing movement that became the American Revolution.

Second Great Awakening

A series of evangelical Protestant revivals that swept over America in the early nineteenth century.

Hartford Convention

An assembly of New England Federalists who met in Hartford, Connecticut, in December 1814 to protest Madison's foreign pol- icy in the War of 1812, which had undermined commercial interests in the North. They proposed amending the Constitution to prevent future presidents from declaring war without a two-thirds majority in Congress.

Shays Rebellion

Armed insurrection of farmers in western Massachusetts led by Daniel Shays, a veteran of the Continental Army. Intended to prevent state courts from foreclosing on debtors unable to pay their taxes, the rebellion was put down by the state militia. Nationalists used the event to justify the calling of a constitutional convention to strengthen the national government.

Battle of Saratoga

Climax of the Saratoga campaign, giving a decisive victory to the Americans over the British in the American Revolutionary War. British General John Burgoyne led a large invasion army southward from Canada in the Champlain Valley, hoping to meet a similar British force marching northward from New York City and another British force marching eastward from Lake Ontario; the southern and western forces never arrived, and Burgoyne was surrounded by American forces in upstate New York. He fought two small battles to break out which took place 18 days apart on the same ground, 9 miles (14 km) south of Saratoga, New York. They both failed. News of Burgoyne's surrender was instrumental in formally bringing France into the war as an American ally, although it had previously given supplies, ammunition, and guns, notably the de Valliere cannon which played an important role in Saratoga.[9] This battle also resulted in Spain joining France in the war against Britain.

Alien and Sedition Acts

Collective name given to four laws passed in 1798 designed to suppress criticism of the federal government and to curb liber- ties of foreigners living in the United States.

Jay Treaty

Controversial treaty with Britain negotiated by Chief Justice John Jay in 1794 to settle American grievances and avert war. Though the British agreed to surrender forts on U.S. territory, the treaty failed to realize key diplomatic goals and provoked a storm of protest in America.

Coercive (Intolerable ) Acts

Four pieces of legislation passed by Parliament in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party were meant to punish the colonies.

Marbury v. Madison

In this 1803 landmark decision, the Supreme Court first asserted the power of judicial review by declaring an act of Congress, the Judiciary Act of 1789, unconstitutional.

Fletcher v. Peck (1810)

Landmark United States Supreme Court decision in which the Supreme Court first ruled a state law unconstitutional. The decision also helped create a growing precedent for the sanctity of legal contracts and hinted that Native Americans did not hold complete title to their own lands (an idea fully realized in Johnson v. M'Intosh).

Land Ordinance of 1787 (Northwest Ordinance)

Legislation that formulated plans for governments in America's northwestern territories, defined a procedure for the territories' admission to the Union as states, and prohibited slavery north of the Ohio River.

Report on Manufactures

Magnum opus, of American founding father and first U.S. Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton. It laid forth economic principles rooted in both the Mercantilist system of Elizabeth I's England and the practices of Jean-Baptiste Colbert of France. The principal ideas of the Report would later be incorporated into the "American System" program by Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky and his Whig Party.

Tenskwatawa ("The Prophet")

Native American religious and political leader of the Shawnee tribe. He was a younger brother of Tecumseh, a leader of the Shawnee. Tenskwatawa denounced the Euro-American settlers, calling them offspring of the Evil Spirit, and led a purification movement that promoted unity among Native Americans, rejected acculturation to the settler way of life, including alcohol, and encouraged his followers to pursue traditional ways. He was called a Prophet.

Whiskey Rebellion

Protests in 1794 by western Pennsylvania farmers resisting payment of a federal tax on whiskey. The uprising was forcibly suppressed when President George Washington called an army of fifteen thousand troops to the area, where they encountered almost no resistance.

Report on Public Credit #1 (Debt)

Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. The report analyzed the financial standing of the United States of America and made recommendations to reorganize the national debt and to establish the public credit. called for full federal payment at face value to holders of government securities ("Redemption") and the national government to assume funding of all state debt ("Assumption"). The political stalemate in Congress that ensued led to the Compromise of 1790, locating the permanent US capital on the Potomac River ("Residency").

Adams-Onis Treaty

Signed by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and Spanish minister Luis de Onís in 1819, this treaty allowed for U.S. annexation of Florida.

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

Statements penned by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison to mobilize opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts, which they argued were unconstitutional. Jefferson's statement (the Kentucky Resolution) suggested that states should have the right to declare null and void congressional acts they deemed unconstitutional. Madison produced a more temperate resolution, but most Americans rejected such an extreme defense of states' rights.

The Federalist Papers

The Federalist (later known as The Federalist Papers) is a collection of 85 articles and essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay under the pseudonym "Publius" to promote the ratification of the United States Constitution.

Declaration of Independence

The United States Declaration of Independence is the statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting at the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on July 4, 1776. The Declaration announced that the Thirteen Colonies then at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain would regard themselves as thirteen independent sovereign states no longer under British rule.

Townshend Duties

The purpose of the Townshend Acts was to raise revenue in the colonies to pay the salaries of governors and judges so that they would remain loyal to Great Britain, to create a more effective means of enforcing compliance with trade regulations, to punish the province of New York for failing to comply with the 1765 Quartering Act, and to establish the precedent that the British Parliament had the right to tax the colonies.[2] The Townshend Acts were met with resistance in the colonies, prompting the occupation of Boston by British troops in 1767, which eventually resulted in the Boston Massacre of 1770. The Townshend Acts placed an indirect tax on glass, lead, paints, paper, and tea. These goods were not produced within the colonies and had to be imported from Britain. This form of generating revenue was Townshend's response to the failure of the Stamp Act, which had served as the first form of direct taxation placed upon the colonies.

Report on Public Credit #2 (Banking)

The second of four influential reports on fiscal and economic policy delivered to Congress by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. The Report, submitted on December 14, 1790, called for the establishment of a central bank, its primary purpose to expand the flow of legal tender by monetizing the national debt through the issuance of federal bank notes. Modeled on the Bank of England, this privately held, but publicly funded institution would also serve to process revenue fees and perform fiscal duties for the federal government. Secretary Hamilton regarded the bank as indispensable to producing a stable and flexible financial system.

Second Continental Congress

This meeting took place in Philadelphia in May 1775, in the midst of rapidly unfolding military events. It organized the Continental Army and commissioned George Washington to lead it, then began requisitioning men and supplies for the war effort.

Louisiana Purchase

U.S. acquisition of the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803 for $15 million. The purchase secured American control of the Mississippi River and doubled the size of the nation.

Committees of Correspondence

Vast communication network formed in Massachusetts and other colonies to communicate grievances and provide colonists with evidence of British oppression.

Primogeniture and Entail

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Benjamin Banneker

•A free African American almanac author, surveyor, naturalist, and farmer. Born in Baltimore County, Maryland, to a free African American woman and a former slave, Banneker had little formal education and was largely self-taught. •He is known for being part of a group led by Major Andrew Ellicott that surveyed the original borders of the District of Columbia, the federal capital district of the United States. •Banneker's knowledge of astronomy helped him author a commercially successful series of almanacs. •He corresponded with Thomas Jefferson, drafter of the United States Declaration of Independence, on the topics of slavery and racial equality. •Abolitionists and advocates of racial equality promoted and praised his works.

Ester DeBerdt Reed

•Active in the American Revolutionary War as a civic leader for soldiers' relief, who formed and led the Ladies Association of Philadelphia to provide aid for George Washington's troops during the war.

Thomas Jefferson

•American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. •He was a proponent of democracy, republicanism, and individual rights. •Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System. •With Madison, he anonymously wrote the controversial Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions in 1798-1799, which sought to strengthen states' rights by nullifying the federal Alien and Sedition Acts. •He organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the country's territory. •American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U.S. shipping. •In 1803, Jefferson began a controversial process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory, and he signed the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves in 1807. •Jefferson founded the University of Virginia. •Contradiction between his ownership of the large numbers of slaves that worked his plantations and his famous declaration that "all men are created equal."

Eli Whitney

•American inventor best known for inventing the cotton gin. This was one of the key inventions of the Industrial Revolution and shaped the economy of the Antebellum South. Whitney's invention made upland short cotton into a profitable crop, which strengthened the economic foundation of slavery in the United States.

John Marshall

•American politician and the fourth Chief Justice of the United States from 1801 to 1835. •He reinforced the principle that federal courts are obligated to exercise judicial review, by overturning purported laws, both state and federal, if they violate the United States Constitution. Marbury v. Madison (1803) remains the foundational case for this authority. Thus Marshall cemented the position of the American judiciary as an independent, co-equal, and influential branch of government. •Marshall repeatedly confirmed the supremacy of federal law over state law and supported an expansive reading of the enumerated powers. He most clearly articulated his philosophy in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819). •Throughout his chief justiceship, Marshall applied his federalist philosophy regarding the rule of law to build a stronger federal government over the opposition of the Jeffersonians (and later the Jacksonians), who wanted stronger state governments.

Andrew Jackson

•American soldier and statesman who served as the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837. •Before being elected to the presidency, Jackson gained fame as a general in the United States Army and served in both houses of Congress. •As president, Jackson sought to advance the rights of the "common man" against a "corrupt aristocracy" and to preserve the Union. •He led troops during the Creek War of 1813-1814, winning the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. The subsequent Treaty of Fort Jackson required the Creek surrender of vast lands in present-day Alabama and Georgia. •In the concurrent war against the British, Jackson's victory in 1815 at the Battle of New Orleans made him a national hero. Jackson then led U.S. forces in the First Seminole War, which led to the annexation of Florida from Spain. •He ran for president in 1824, winning a plurality of the popular and electoral vote. As no candidate won an electoral majority, the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams in a contingent election. In reaction to the alleged "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Henry Clay and the ambitious agenda of President Adams, Jackson's supporters founded the Democratic Party. •Jackson ran again in 1828, defeating Adams in a landslide. •Jackson faced the threat of secession by South Carolina over what opponents called the "Tariff of Abominations." The crisis was defused when the tariff was amended, and Jackson threatened the use of military force if South Carolina attempted to secede. •In Congress, Henry Clay led the effort to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson, regarding the Bank as a corrupt institution, vetoed the renewal of its charter. After a lengthy struggle, Jackson and his allies thoroughly dismantled the Bank. •In 1835, Jackson became the only president to completely pay off the national debt, fulfilling a longtime goal. •His presidency marked the beginning of the ascendancy of the party "spoils system" in American politics. •In 1830, Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, which forcibly relocated most members of the Native American tribes in the South to Indian Territory. The relocation process dispossessed the Indians and resulted in widespread death and disease. •Jackson opposed the abolitionist movement, which grew stronger in his second term. •In foreign affairs, Jackson's administration concluded a "most favored nation" treaty with Great Britain, settled claims of damages against France from the Napoleonic Wars, and recognized the Republic of Texas. •In January 1835, he survived the first assassination attempt on a sitting president.

John Adams

•American statesman and Founding Father who served as the first Vice President (1789-1797) and second President of the United States (1797-1801). •Leader of the movement for American independence from Great Britain. •Adams collaborated with his cousin, revolutionary leader Samuel Adams •Driven by his devotion to the right to counsel and the presumption of innocence, he defied extreme local anti-British sentiment and provided a successful legal defense of the accused British soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre. •Adams was sent as a delegate from colonial Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence. •He assisted in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, and was its foremost advocate in Congress. •As a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate the peace treaty with Great Britain and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers. •During his single term as president, he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as from the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. •Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts and built up the army and navy in the face of an undeclared naval "Quasi-War" with France. •The major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of public anger and Hamilton's opposition. •Due to his strong posture on defense, Adams is often called the father of the American Navy.

Aaron Burr

•An American politician. He was the third Vice President of the United States, serving during Thomas Jefferson's first term. •Burr served as a Continental Army officer in the American Revolutionary War, after which he became a successful lawyer and politician. •U.S. senator from the State of New York. The highlight of Burr's tenure as president of the Senate was the impeachment trial of Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase. •Burr shot his political rival Alexander Hamilton in a famous duel in 1804. All charges against him were eventually dropped, but Hamilton's death ended Burr's political career.

Elbridge Gerry

•As a Democratic-Republican he served as the fifth Vice President of the United States from March 1813 until his death in November 1814. •Elected to the Second Continental Congress, Gerry signed both the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation. •He was one of three men who attended the Constitutional Convention in 1787 who refused to sign the United States Constitution because it did not then include a Bill of Rights. •After its ratification he was elected to the inaugural United States Congress, where he was actively involved in drafting and passage of the Bill of Rights as an advocate of individual and state liberties.

Thomas Pinckney

•Early American statesman, diplomat, and soldier in both the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812, achieving the rank of major general. He served as Governor of South Carolina and as the U.S. minister to Great Britain. He was also the Federalist candidate for vice president in the 1796 election. •He presided over the state convention which ratified the United States Constitution. •Unable to win concessions regarding the impressment of American sailors as minister to Britain. •He also served as an envoy to Spain and negotiated the Treaty of San Lorenzo, which defined the border between Spain and the United States.

Robert Morris

•Founding Father of the United States •An English-born American merchant who financed the American Revolution, oversaw the striking of the first coins of the United States, and signed the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, and the United States Constitution. Along with Alexander Hamilton and Albert Gallatin, he is widely regarded as one of the founders of the financial system of the United States. •In the aftermath of the French and Indian War (1754-1763), Morris became a prominent opponent of unpopular British policies like the Stamp Act in 1765. •Chosen as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. •He served as chairman of the "Secret Committee of Trade" and as a member of the Committee of Correspondence. •Though reluctant to break with Britain, he ultimately came to support the independence movement and emerged as an important financier of the American Revolutionary War. •From 1781 to 1784, he served as the Superintendent of Finance of the United States, a forerunner to the position of U.S. Secretary of the Treasury. •He successfully proposed numerous policies including the creation of a national bank, but many of his ideas were not enacted. •In 1783, Morris oversaw the creation of the first US coins, the Nova Constellatio patterns, which illustrated his plan for a national decimal coinage; although the plan was not adopted, his coins were examined by both Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, influencing both men in their creation of the decimal monetary system that is used by the United States today. •In 1787, he was elected as a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention, which created a more powerful federal government. •Morris represented Pennsylvania in the Senate from 1789 to 1795, during which time he aligned with the Federalist Party and supported Hamilton's economic policies.

John Jay

•Founding Father of the United States, second Governor of New York, and the first Chief Justice of the United States. Important leader of the Federalist Party after the ratification of the United States Constitution in 1788. •He became a lawyer and joined the New York Committee of Correspondence, organizing opposition to British policies in the time preceding the American Revolution. •Jay was elected to the Second Continental Congress, and served as President of the Congress. •Following the end of the war, Jay served as Secretary of Foreign Affairs, directing United States foreign policy under the Articles of Confederation government. He also served as the first Secretary of State on an interim basis. •A proponent of strong, centralized government, Jay worked to ratify the United States Constitution in New York in 1788. •He was a co-author of The Federalist Papers along with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison •Jay negotiated the highly controversial Jay Treaty with Britain. •Long an opponent of slavery, he helped enact a law that provided for the gradual emancipation of slaves, and the institution of slavery was abolished in New York in Jay's lifetime.

Alexander Hamilton

•Founding Father of the United States. •He was an influential interpreter and promoter of the U.S. Constitution, as well as the founder of the nation's financial system, the Federalist Party, the United States Coast Guard, and The New York Post newspaper. •As the first Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton was the main author of the economic policies of George Washington's administration. •He took the lead in the Federal government's funding of the states' debts, as well as establishing a national bank, a system of tariffs, and friendly trade relations with Britain. •His vision included a strong central government led by a vigorous executive branch, a strong commercial economy, a national bank and support for manufacturing, and a strong military. •Thomas Jefferson was his leading opponent, arguing for agrarianism and smaller government. •After the war, he was elected as a representative from New York to the Congress of the Confederation. He resigned to practice law and founded the Bank of New York. •Hamilton was a leader in seeking to replace the weak national government, and he led the Annapolis Convention (1786) which spurred Congress to call a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. •He helped ratify the Constitution by writing 51 of the 85 installments of The Federalist Papers. •He was a nationalist who emphasized strong central government and successfully argued that the implied powers of the Constitution provided the legal authority to fund the national debt, assume states' debts, and create the government-backed Bank of the United States. •These programs were funded primarily by a tariff on imports, and later also by a controversial whiskey tax. •He mobilized a nationwide network of friends of the government, especially bankers and businessmen, which became the Federalist Party. •A major issue in the emergence of the American two-party system was the Jay Treaty, largely designed by Hamilton in 1794. It established friendly trade relations with Britain, to the chagrin of France and supporters of the French Revolution. •Hamilton played a central role in the Federalist party, which dominated national and state politics until it lost the election of 1800 to Jefferson's Democratic-Republican Party. •He called for mobilization against the French First Republic in 1798-99 under President John Adams, and became Commanding General of the previously disbanded U.S. Army, which he reconstituted, modernized, and readied for war. The army did not see combat in the Quasi-War, and Hamilton was outraged by Adams' diplomatic success in resolving the crisis with France. •His opposition to Adams' re-election helped cause the Federalist party defeat in 1800. •Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the presidency in the electoral college in 1801, and Hamilton helped to defeat Burr, whom he found unprincipled, and to elect Jefferson despite philosophical differences. •Hamilton continued his legal and business activities in New York City, and was active in ending the legality of the international slave trade. •Vice President Burr ran for governor of New York State in 1804, and Hamilton campaigned against him as unworthy. Taking offense, Burr challenged him to a duel in which Burr shot and mortally wounded Hamilton. He died the next day on July 12, 1804.

James Monroe

•Founding Father who served as the fifth President of the United States from 1817 to 1825. •Served as a delegate in the Continental Congress. •As an anti-federalist delegate to the Virginia convention that considered ratification of the United States Constitution, Monroe opposed ratification, claiming it gave too much power to the central government. •In 1790 was elected to the Senate of the first United States Congress, where he joined the Democratic-Republicans. •Helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. •During the War of 1812, Monroe served in critical roles as Secretary of State and the Secretary of War under President James Madison. •Facing little opposition from the fractured Federalist Party, Monroe was easily elected president in 1816, winning over eighty percent of the electoral vote and becoming the last president during the First Party System era of American politics. •As president, he sought to ease partisan tensions, embarking on a tour of the country that was well received. •Monroe sought to appease the antagonisms and bridge the divisions that had marked American political life since the War of 1812, quietly using his influence as president to encourage compromises and endorsing a consensual form of American nationalism. •With the ratification of the Treaty of 1818 under the successful diplomacy of his Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, the United States extended its reach from the Atlantic to the Pacific by acquiring harbor and fishing rights in the Pacific Northwest; the United States and Britain jointly occupied the Oregon Country. •In addition to the acquisition of Florida, the 1819 Adams-Onís Treaty secured the westernmost section of the southern border of the United States along the 42nd Parallel to the Pacific Ocean and represented America's first determined attempt at creating an "American global empire". •As nationalism surged, partisan acrimony subsided. This swell of national purpose and political harmony subsided somewhat when the Panic of 1819 struck and a dispute over the admission of Missouri roiled the country in 1820. Nonetheless, Monroe won near-unanimous reelection. •Monroe supported the founding of colonies in Africa for freed slaves that would eventually form the nation of Liberia, whose capital, Monrovia, is named in his honor. •In 1823, he announced the United States' opposition to any European intervention in the recently independent countries of the Americas with the Monroe Doctrine, which became a landmark in American foreign policy. •His presidency concluded the first period of American presidential history before the beginning of Jacksonian democracy and the Second Party System era.

Abigail Adams

•The closest advisor and wife of John Adams, as well as the mother of John Quincy Adams. •She is remembered for the many letters she wrote to her husband while he stayed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, during the Continental Congresses. •John frequently sought the advice of Abigail on many matters, and their letters are filled with intellectual discussions on government and politics. •Her letters also serve as eyewitness accounts of the American Revolutionary War home front.

James Madison

•Founding Father who served as the fourth President of the United States from 1809 to 1817. He is hailed as the "Father of the Constitution" for his pivotal role in drafting and promoting the United States Constitution and the Bill of Rights. •After the ratification of the Constitution in 1788, Madison won election to the United States House of Representatives. •While simultaneously serving as a close adviser to President George Washington, Madison emerged as one of the most prominent members of the 1st Congress, helping to pass several bills establishing the new government. •For his role in drafting the first ten amendments to the Constitution during the 1st Congress, Madison is known as the "Father of the Bill of Rights." •Though he had played a major role in the enactment of a new constitution that created a stronger federal government, Madison opposed the centralization of power sought by Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton during Washington's presidency. •To oppose Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson and Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party, which became one of the nation's two first major political parties alongside Hamilton's Federalist Party. •After Jefferson won the 1800 presidential election, Madison served as Jefferson's Secretary of State from 1801 to 1809. In this role, Madison supervised the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the nation's size. •Madison succeeded Jefferson with a victory in the 1808 presidential election, and he won re-election in 1812. •After the failure of diplomatic protests and a trade embargo against the United Kingdom, he led the U.S. into the War of 1812. The war was an administrative morass, as the United States had neither a strong army nor a robust financial system. •As a result, Madison came to support a stronger national government and military, as well as the national bank, which he had long opposed.

Samuel Adams

•Founding Fathers of the United States. He was a politician in colonial Massachusetts, a leader of the movement that became the American Revolution, and one of the architects of the principles of American republicanism that shaped the political culture of the United States. He was a second cousin to his fellow Founding Father, President John Adams. •Part of a movement opposed to the British Parliament's efforts to tax the British American colonies without their consent. His 1768 Massachusetts Circular Letter calling for colonial non-cooperation prompted the occupation of Boston by British soldiers, eventually resulting in the Boston Massacre of 1770. •Adams and his colleagues devised a committee of correspondence system in 1772 to help coordinate resistance to what he saw as the British government's attempts to violate the British Constitution at the expense of the colonies, which linked like-minded Patriots throughout the Thirteen Colonies. •Continued resistance to British policy resulted in the 1773 Boston Tea Party and the coming of the American Revolution. •Parliament passed the Coercive Acts in 1774, at which time Adams attended the Continental Congress in Philadelphia which was convened to coordinate a colonial response. •He helped guide Congress towards issuing the Continental Association in 1774 and the Declaration of Independence in 1776, and he helped draft the Articles of Confederation and the Massachusetts Constitution. •Adams returned to Massachusetts after the American Revolution, where he served in the state senate and was eventually elected governor.

William Marbury

•Highly successful American businessman and one of the "Midnight Judges" appointed by United States President John Adams the day before he left office. He was the plaintiff in the landmark 1803 Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison.

Meriwether Lewis/William Clark

•Known for the Lewis and Clark Expedition •Their mission was to explore the territory of the Louisiana Purchase, establish trade with, and sovereignty over the natives near the Missouri River, and claim the Pacific Northwest and Oregon Country for the United States before European nations. They also collected scientific data, and information on indigenous nations

Richard Allen

•Minister, educator, writer, and one of America's most active and influential black leaders. •In 1794 he founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), the first independent black denomination in the United States. He opened his first AME church in 1794 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. •Elected the first bishop of the AME Church in 1816, Allen focused on organizing a denomination where free blacks could worship without racial oppression and where slaves could find a measure of dignity. He worked to upgrade the social status of the black community, organizing Sabbath schools to teach literacy and promoting national organizations to develop political strategies.

Henry Clay

•Represented Kentucky in both the United States Senate and House of Representatives. •Created the Whig Party •A leading war hawk, Speaker Clay helped lead Congress into declaring the War of 1812 against Britain. In 1814, Clay helped negotiate the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. •After the war, Clay developed his American System, which called for an increase in tariffs to foster industry in the United States and the use of federal funding to build infrastructure. •He helped launch a strong national bank and defended it against attacks from President Andrew Jackson. •Jackson opposed federally subsidized internal improvements and a national bank because he thought them a threat to states' rights, and as president he used his veto power to defeat many of Clay's proposals. •In 1832, Clay ran for president as a candidate of the National Republican Party, losing to Jackson. Following the election, the National Republicans united with other opponents of Jackson to form the Whig Party, which remained one of the two major American political parties at the time of Clay's death. •In 1844, Clay won the Whig Party's presidential nomination. Clay's opposition to the annexation of Texas, partly over fears that annexing Texas would inflame the slavery issue, hurt his campaign, and Democrat James K. Polk won the election. •Clay later opposed the Mexican-American War, which resulted in part from the Texas annexation. •Clay returned to the Senate for a final term, where he helped broker a compromise over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession. •Known as "The Great Compromiser," Clay brokered important agreements during the Nullification Crisis and on the slavery issue. •As part of the "Great Triumvirate" or "Immortal Trio," along with his colleagues Daniel Webster and John C. Calhoun, he was instrumental in formulating the Missouri Compromise of 1820, the Compromise Tariff of 1833, and the Compromise of 1850 to ease sectional tensions.

George Washington

•Served from 1789 to 1797 as the first President of the United States •"Father of His Country" •He was commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and presided over the 1787 Constitutional Convention. As a leading Patriot, he was among the nation's Founding Fathers. •He joined the Virginia militia at age 20, fought in the French and Indian War, and rose to the rank of colonel. •The Second Continental Congress made him commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in 1775. •Washington's strategy, field command, and development of the army combined with a French alliance to defeat the British, who surrendered after the Siege of Yorktown. •Lead the Constitutional Convention in 1787 which devised the new Federal government. •Elected as President by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. •Adopted Hamilton's plans to pay federal and state debts, create a national bank, establish the seat of government, and implement a tax system. •When the French Revolution plunged Europe into war, Washington assumed a policy of neutrality to protect American ships—although the Jay Treaty of 1795 created an alliance with Great Britain.