Unit 5: Non-Experimental Research: Observational, Archival, and Case-Study Research

Distinguish the non-experimental from the experimental approach to psychological research.

An experiment is a kind of investigation in which some variable is manipulated. Research has enough control over the situation to decide which participants receive which condition at wt whic times. Frequently done as follow up to nonexperimental observations. Research cannot assign subjects to groups and can only observe. Data collection procedure often must forfeit some degree of control in return for obtaining the data. Sometimes includes qualitative research - concerns the questions typically asked by the research. Often called correlational research seeks causes of behaviour by looking for correlations among variables. Often first step in starting to answer theoretical questions by empirical methods.

nonreactive research

Another term for naturalistic observations in the social science, emphasizing that the subjects are unaware that they are being studied. As an unobtrusive measure of behaviour, physical traces have the advantage of being a non-reactive measure.

survey

Common type of non-experimental research. Assessing public opinion or individual characteristics by the use of questionnaire and sampling methods.

case study

Common type of non-experimental research. Exploratory study on an existing situation as a means of creating and testing a hypothesis.

observational research

Common type of non-experimental research. Study method in which the research observes and records ongoing behavior but does not attempt to change it.

archival research

Common type of non-experimental research. Study method that examines existing records to obtain data and test hypothesis.

What are the advantages in conducting archival research?

Data may already exist, collecting new data may be wasteful. Ethics or logistics may make it infeasible to conduct an experiment relating the variables of interest.

inter-observer reliability

Extent to which two independent observers agree. By independent observers we mean that one observer must be unaware of how the other observer records the observations. When the behaviours to be observed and recorded are not clearly defined, inter-observer reliability will likely be low. Researchers can increase inter-observer reliability by clarifying definitions with supporting concrete examples, training observers, and through observers practising conducting the observations and discussing any differences between their observations.

archival data

Factual information in existing records. content analysis - Involves evaluating the pictures and language in publicly available texts to evaluate a hypothesis. Main question: WHo says what, to whom, to what extent and with what effect?

Propose a hypothesis that may be tested using physical traces.

Grease prints on display cases in museum. Reading material checked out. My example: Test fingerprints/wear and tear of playground equipment. Analysis popularity.

Describe the ethical problems that participant-observer research poses.

Invasion of privacy. Some researchers contend that participant observation is always unethical because the people observed have not given informed consent to be observed. This is particularly so when the observation is disguised. Others argue that the knowledge gained and the possible alleviation of social problems is likely to outweigh any harm caused by invasion of privacy. Observation techniques - involve recording behavior that may be private in natur

How is naturalistic observation different from the casual observation that most people do?

Involves observing behaviours in a natural setting without any attempt by the observer to intervene or to influence the observation process. A natural setting is where behaviour ordinarily occurs; for example, a playground, a shopping mall, or a bus terminal. Often called unobtrusive research. Also called non-reactive research because people are unaware that they are being observed and, as a result, they do not react to the presence of the observer.

Time sampling

Is to selecting various time intervals, either systematically (e.g., every 15 minutes) or randomly, for their observations. Often, researchers will schedule observation intervals systematically, but will observe at random times within an interval (e.g., at a random time within every one-hour interval).

What are the disadvantages in conducting archival research?

Most archival data collected for nonscientific reasons. Therefore data is not suited for the purposes of the researcher. Mercy of biases that may have occurred in collecting the data. Carried out after that fact, ruling out alternative hypotheses for particular observed correlations is difficult. Stats may vary dependent on data collector. Ex. details of rape. Best judgement if it is a criminal act. 1. Inherent biases may be present in archival data because the data are collected by others for a particular purpose, which means they are not necessarily designed to address the researcher's specific question. 2. Only some records are produced and kept (called selective deposits) and some records are missing and incomplete (called selective survival). 3. The quality of data may not be as good as a researcher anticipates, in that there may be errors in record keeping. 4. Changes may have occurred in the way records are kept or in the definition of categories (e.g., types of crime). 5. Reactivity may have been a problem when the archival record was produced (Shaughnessy et al., 2009). When conducting any research, a researcher needs to identify alternative explanations for the research results and gather additional evidence from independent sources to refute any alternative hypotheses

correlational research

Nonexperimental research that asks questions regarding how people make meaning out of the world.

participant observation

Observational research in which the observer participates in a group to record behaviour.

naturalistic observation

Observational research of subjects in their natural environment carried out to disturb the subjects as little as possible.

reactive measures

Occur when the subject knows or suspects that their behavior is under scrutiny. To some degree, the behavior of the subject is in reaction to the observer's presence and hence is distorted from natural. Any measure with the action of altering a response under examination. For instance, if a subject is aware of clinical observation, their reactions may be altered more by the observer than the stimulus itself.

case study

Often include use of observation and archival methodologies. Principle characteristic - examine individual instances or cases of some phenomenon. SOmetimes individual in a psychiatric or neuropsychological case. Narrative case study - a viewpoint expressed by telling and listening to stories that communicate meaning. - exploratory study on an existing situation as a means of creating and testing a hypothesis.

role demand

Participants' expectations of what an experiment requires them to do. Reactivity can be a problem in observation research, particularly in participant observation. People tend to change their behaviours when they are aware of being observed. They often try to use cues (called role demands, discussed in Unit 3) to guess what the researcher is trying to study, and to then act in ways they think the researcher wants them to behave (Orne, 1962). Researchers can reduce the problem of role demands by limiting what the people being observed know about their role or about the hypothesis being tested in the study. Another approach is to adapt the people being observed to the presence of an observer through habituation or desensitization. Keep in mind, however, that researchers must consider the ethical issue of invasion of privacy whenever they observe people without their consent (Shaughnessy et al., 2009).

Situation sampling

Refers to observing behaviour in as many different locations (e.g., in school playground and at home) and under as many different circumstances and conditions as possible.

Event sampling

Refers to recording each event that meets a predetermined definition (e.g., fighting), which tends to happen infrequently.

observer bias

Similar to Experimenter Bias. Expectancies of the observer can lead to biases; that is, systematic errors in observation, called expectancy effects

Why is it necessary to conduct a pilot study?

Tentative, small-scale study done to pretest and modify study design and procedures. Once protocol has been developed you should do a pilot study to find bugs in procedure. Can increase precision of a study. Often takes longer than actual study. Credibility of findings is increased tremendously over a single study.

manifest content

The content of a text or photograph as indicated by measuring the frequency of some objective word, phrase or actions.

latent content

The context of a text or photograph as measured by the appearance of themes as interpreted by the researcher.

unobtrusive measures

The effort that researchers make not to influence or obtrude on, the behaviour being studied.

physical traces

Unobtrusive measure of behaviour that uses physical evidence. physical evidence of past behaviour. Two forms: a. Use traces are the physical evidence that results from use (wear and tear); for example, the bare spots on a lawn indicating a short-cut from one building to another. b. Products are the physical evidence of what is left behind from past behaviour, for example, empty beer bottles left after a party.

Under what conditions is participant-observer research useful?

Useful in studying a small group that is separated from the population as a whole, when little is known about a group or when the group's activities are not generally available to public view. Ex. new religious movements, hoodlums, criminals, nude beach goers.

What is the difference between research method and research procedure?

a. Method is broader term that encompasses all aspects of the study, including the logic of the design and the steps for carrying it out. b. Procedures are steps for carrying it out. What the researcher does in translating the design into action. Aka protocol - list of all the steps that subject goes through in a study.

Describe the different varieties of observational research, and the conditions under which each of these are used in psychological research.

a. Naturalistic observation b. Participant observation Useful in studying a small group that is separated from the population as a whole, when little is known about a group or when the group's activities are not generally available to public view. Ex. new religious movements, hoodlums, criminals, nude beach goers.

Outline the steps in conducting content analysis.

a. The first step is to identify a relevant archival source. b. The second step is to select a representative sample from the source. c. The last step is to code; that is, to define relevant descriptive categories and units of measure.

Describe the methods of sampling behaviour.

a. Time sampling b. Event sampling c. Situation sampling

Common types of non-experimental research.

a. observational research b. archival research c. case study d. survey