Unit 7 AP Psychology

Flow

"experience" between no work and a lot of work. Flow marks immersion into one's work. People who "flow" in their work are driven less by extrinsic rewards, but more by intrinstic rewards - in between anxiety (too much work) and boredom (too less work)

Type A Personality

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger prone people. These are anger-prone people that become stressed out quickly in most cases. - more susceptible to stress-related diseases

Type B Personality

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people, deal with stress easily and do not get too anxious or worked up

Sexual Cues

much of sexual motivation comes from the brain - what individuals find sexually arousing is dependent on many stimuli, including conditioned stimuli - different cues may arouse you - items you learn to respond to

industrial-organizational psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces - studies how the work environment and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity, how a leader influences other's productivity

Psychoanalytic Perspective

the perspective that stresses the influences of unconscious forces on human behavior

Intrinstic Motivation

when you do something beacuse you enjoy it, and it is personally satisfying - to behavior that is driven by internal rewards such as freedom or achievement, creativity, enjoyment - more likely to work harder like thise

Incentives Theory

- An Incentive is a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. - Positive or negative stimuli that pull us in one way or another to satisfy our needs and/or wants. - A cookie pulls you to do your chores - people are motivated by a drive for incentives and reinforcement. It also proposes that people behave in a way that they believe will result in a reward and avoid actions that may entail punishment - good grades and a prize for good grades at the end of the year can be an incentive for studies to work hard and study - Can be a punishment or reinforcer that motivates to act in a certain way - if you clean the house, you get a new dress, and the dress is the incentive - Value of the incentive is influenced by both biological and cognitive factors - INCENTIVES PULL us into action

How to cope with stress

- Cognitive: changing thought patterns (thinking of stressors as a challenge rather than a threat) -Emotional: knowing you have a support system in place - Behavioural: changing your behavior to minimize the impact of stress over time (time/management) -Physical: changing physical responses and meditating and relaxing.

Psychoanalysis

- Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts' the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.

Cultural Differences with Emotion

- Huge differences across cultures in both the context and the intensity of the emotion - different cultures teach men and women to display different emotions, research shows that not one sex is more expressive than the other - some emotional differences have a biological basis, but many gender differences are based on culture. WOmen tend to be much better at discerning nonverbal emotions than men. - Different cultures teach sexes different display rules, actually most research has not shown one sex to be more emotionally expressive than the other.

Sources of Motivation

- Learning is motivated by biological and physiological factors. Without motivation, action, and learning do not occur. - animals are motivated by basic needs critical to the survival of the organism. For a given organism to survive, it needs food, water, and sleep. - Primary Drives include hunger, thirst, and sleep, and reproduction. Secondary Drives include the desire to obtain a learned reinforcer such as money or social acceptance. - Biological Factors: basic needs such as food, water, temperature regulation(when your temperature is not regulated there is anxiety and a need to cool yourself), sleep, sex - Emotional Factors: panic, fear, anger, love, hatred - Cognitive Factors: perceptions, beliefs, expectations about others - Social Factors: reactions from friends and family

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Humanistic Theory)

- Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-‐level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. - lower needs must be met first, we are all striving for the top level

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

- Seyl's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three stages - alarm, resistance, exhaustion. - three stage pattern of responses triggered by the effort to adapt to any stressor 1. Stage One: This is known as the alarm reaction. Hypothalamus sets flight or fight response into action. It releases neurotransmitters and hormones to deal with the stressful situation. If the stressor persists over a long a time, initially adaptive response can become distressed as it depletes bodies energy and defense resources. 2. Stage Two: This is known as resistance. If the stressor persists but is not so strong that it overwhelms the organism during stage one, the individual begins to rebound during stage 2. the body appears to be gaining an advantage resisting a stressor. Inwardly, it is trying to restore homeostasis yet the body is still working to cope. This only applies to the original stressor 3. Stage Three: This is known as exhaustion. if resistance fails and the stressor continues to challenge the individual symptoms of alarm reappear. this time accompanied by even more powerful autonomic nervous system responses. Anatomic nervous system overcompensates in the body has already used so much energy that if the stressor isn't removed exhaustion and death will occur.

Schachter-Singer (Two Factor) Theory

- Singer's theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal. - our physiological and cognitions create emotions. Emotions have 2 factors, physical arousal, and a cognitive label. - the first factor is the physiological response and the second factor is the way in which we cognitively label the experience of arousal. The emotion that we experience, is the result of the label we apply to it. - If we cry at a wedding, that is happy but if we cry at a funeral, that is sadness - If you see a dark man in the alley who is smiling, your heart races increase until you label him as a good guy, which causes you not to be scared and be happy and wave back. - physiological responses are similar across a variety of emotions so you need a cognitive label to identify it.

Trait Theory

- The Trait Theory of Personality uses traits as a means of studying personality. Traits are long standing patterns of behavior that are typically used to identify a person. This approach identifies personality traits and measures individuals on how much of each trait they display. Traits are usually measured on a spectrum. - we have sustaining traits about our personality that can be analyzed and they determine our behavior through our lives Trait - a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-‐report inventories and peer reports.

overjustification effect

- The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task. - The overjustification effect -- getting a reward for doing something that was intrinsically rewarding (it was fun to do all on its own) was now seen as totally different because they were getting rewarded for it. What happened was the kids no longer enjoyed playing with the toys. It became less about fun and more about "work". - our intrinsic motivation may decrease if we receive extrinsic rewards for it. Ex. a person plays the violin for fun but when he is paid for being a concert performer, he will play less for fun and view violin as more of his job.

Stress

- The physiological States cause physical illness. stress is any circumstances that may be real or perceived and threatens one's well-being. When severe stress is spelled it impairs our ability to cope with it. The physical and mental changes that occur in response to a challenging or threatening situation is a reaction. -The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

Set-Point Theory

- The set point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. - Manipulates the two different hypothalamus and alters the body weight, predisposing our bodies to keep our body at the steady weight - To maintain this we adjust our food intake and our basal metabolic rate which is the the body's resting rate of energy expenditure. This drops when less activity is occuring.

What can influence hunger?

- There can be external incentives such as eat because we are trigerred by the presence of food, espicially tasty high calorie foods - Taste Preference: body chemistry and environmental factors influence like if you are in a group outing, you eat because you are supposed to. - many other eating cues like the Tv or movie, stress patterns, social eating, eating by clock

Instincts and Evolutionary; Instinct Theory

- This theory suggests that instincts drive all behaviors. - Instinct is a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned. It is an innate, automatic disposition towards responding in a particular way when confronted with a separate stimulus. DO NOT HAVE TO LEARN THIS U ARE BORN WITH IT. - states that motivation is the result of biological, genetic programming. Thus, all beings within a species are programmed for the same motivations. - the learning of species-specific behavior motivates an organism to do what is necessary to ensure their survival. - For example, animals have an instinctive motivation to react to movement in their environment to protect themselves and their offspring - Like birds building nests is a behavior that is ingrained in their genetic code. Ingrained in the genetic code if it helps species thrive. - This theory is not that right because humans don't have that many instincts. They are born with instincts such as reflexes but they dissipate over the first few months because someone is meeting those needs for them. Human behavior is directed by physiological and psychological forces - all organisms are born with innate biological tendencies that help them survive. - For example, infants have an inborn rooting reflex that helps them seek out a nipple and obtain nourishment, while birds have an innate need to build a nest or migrate during the winter.

Achievement Motivation

- a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard. - stable learned characteristic in which satisfaction is obtained by striving for and attaining a level of excellence; NEED for achievement - can be measured by TAT (thematic apperception test) where people are shown ambiguous pictures and are told to write a story. A standard scoring system is used to determine the amount of achievement imagery in person's stories or their need for motivation - which can be defined as an individual's need to meet realistic goals, receive feedback and experience a sense of accomplishment. For example, employees who are Achievement-Motivated thrive very well in corporations where they receive regular performance evaluations. They feel energized and satisfied with their jobs because goals are set, they are given positive or negative feedback on past behaviors and given some type of rewards if they performed well.

Polygraph

- a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

- a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Personnel Psychology

- a subfield of industrial-organizational psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training appraisal, and development. - principles of selecting and evaluating workers like human resource or hiring companies

Health Psychology

- a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine.

Biofeedback

- a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension - A method of behavior modification that uses principles of operant conditioning to change a maladaptive behavior. With this method, a person is presented with visual or auditory information about some internal, involuntary process. The information is actual feedback about the internal process that the person can use to increase control of the internal process. For example, a person suffering from stress can be hooked up to a biofeedback machine that creates a sound whenever the person starts getting stressed (increased heart rate, blood pressure, etc., would cause the machine to produce the sound). By paying attention to the sounds, the person can use relaxation techniques when there are some internal changes due to the stress - even if they are not yet feeling them, the effects can be identified by the machine and then controlled by the person

Fixation

- according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-‐seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved. - can become fixated at stages. Pleasure-seeking energies become locked in that stage. If traumatic events occur, one can become stuck in that particular stage of psychosexual development. 1. Oral Fixation: Seek excessive oral contact through smoking, drinking, eating, dependence, either on passive or biting 2. Anal Fixation: - Anal retentive: controlled and orderly - Anal expulsive: messy and disorganized

Sexual Orientation

- an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or other sex (heterosexual orientation) - refers to the direction or object of one's sexual interest - Can be due to brain differences (the size of the anterior hypothalamus is smaller and anterior commissure is larger in homosexual men), homosexuality tends to run in families, more common in identical twins rather than fraternal twins, prenatal hormones can influence or affect during the critical period of fetal development which is 2-5 months after conception

Motives in Conflict

- as there are many different motives and many responses possible, sometimes these motives might come into conflict 1. Approach-Approach Conflict: one must choose between 2 equally desirable or attractive options. As the importance of the choice increases, so does the difficulty. Would you go out for dinner or to a party. Choosing between two great colleges 2. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: one has to choose between two unpleasant or unattractive options, difficult to result, and creates intense emotions like whether to vacuum or mow the lawn. Choose between the lesser of the two evils 3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict: there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision you have to make. Only one choice is presented, but it carries both pluses and minuses. Like telling on a friend who cheated or the one college that has your major is also super expensive. 4. Multiple-Approach Avoidance Conflict: There is multiple choices or options present. One has to choose between both attractive and negative aspects of the available alternative (choosing one college out of many in which all have pros and cons)

Hunger Motivation Introduction

- brain provides a large amount of control over feeding behavior. - hypothalamus has been identified as a control over feeding behaviors

Motivation

- defined as a need or desire that serves to energize or direct behavior - includes the influences that account for initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior - why we do what we do

Gordon Allport

- described personality in terms of fundamental traits, or chracteristic patterns of behavior or dispositions to feel or act in a certain way. - there are 3 types of traits 1. Cardinal Trait: characteristic or feature so important that a person is identified by it. Like Scrooge being stingy and cold-hearted. A characteristic that embodies the person's identity. 2. Central Trait: traits that make us pedicatble in most situations. Like she's a flirt or she's shy. General characteristics by which a person might describe you by. 3. Secondary Trait: least important of the 3, but conveys our preferences to items such as music or food. Likes country music or chinese food.

Projection

- disguise threatening impulses by attributing them to others - psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attention attributing them to the others. Ex. If you want to break up with your boyfriend or girlfriend, you accuse them of wanting to break up.

Displacement

- divert sexual or aggressive impulses to a more acceptable person or object - psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet. Ex. Angry at mom, take it out on the family dog

Projective Test

- evaluating personality from an unconsious mind require projective test which reveal the hidden unconsious mind -a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics. These tests lack reliability and validitiy. They may misdiagnose an individual.

Emotions

- experimental and subjective responses to certain internal and external stimuli - has three parts: physiological (body) component such as the excitation of the internal body, a behavioral (action) component such as screaming, or jumping, and a cognitive (mind) component which involves the appraisal of interpretation of the situation. - a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experiments.

Optimum Arousal Theory/Yerkes-Dodson Law

- human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but seek optimum levels of it - the arousal theory states that there is an optimal level of arousal in whch performance on a given task is optimal We perform best when arousal is moderate. Human motivations aims to seek optimum levels of arousal (not be too bored or too stressed) - arousal can be measured by electrical activity in your brain, - arousal is a direct correlate of the nervous system activity *** WHAT is optimal varies task by task. Aim of motivation is a personally preferred level of physiological stimulation (arousal level -activation of ANS) Motivation is a result is that every person has a personal level of physiological stimulation. Escape from boredom (increase arousal) doodle, text, check phone Escape from stress (decrease arousal) motivated to do actions to lower that - The Yerkes-Dodson Law of Arousal, also known as Arousal Theory, states that an organism's performance can be improved if that organism is aroused in some manner. However, if the level of arousal increases too much, performance decreases. Of course, this level is different in everyone. - the law states that tasks of moderate difficulty, not too easy and not too hard, elicit the highest level of performance - high levels of arousal for difficult tasks and low levels of arousal for easy tasks are negative to the body INSTEAD high levels of arousal for easy tasks and low levels of arousal for difficult tasks are preferred

Defense Mechanisms

- in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. - used by the ego to protect itself against anxiety caused by the conflict between the ego and supergo

Sex Motivation

- is an unsual drive, unlike hunger, we don't need it in order to survive - sex can be motivated by biological factors such as sexual maturity, hormomes like testorerone - can be motivated by psychological influences such as exposure to stimulating conditions or sexual fanatasies - can be due to socio-cultural experiences like family and society views, cultural expectations, media

Stressor; Different Types

- is stressful stimulus, everyday events or situations that challenge us. 1. Catastrophic events: Sudden, unexpected potentially life-threatening experiences or traumas 2. Life Changes/Strains: Life circumstances that create demands to wish people just adjust 3. Chronic Stressors: those that continue over a length of a time 4. Daily Stressors: irritations, pressures, and annoyances that might be significant alone but eventually add up

Fear

- learned through conditioning and observation. Associating emotions with specific situations. We can learn it by observing other and watching others display fear in response to certain events or surroundings - biologically predisposed to learn to fear certain things because the fear response helps us survive. Amygdala has a key role for associating emotions with a specific situation. If damaged emotion is not associated with the situation so fear response is diminished

Reaction Formation

- make unacceptable impulses into their opposite acceptable form. - by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are opposite of their anxiety-‐arousing unconscious feelings. Ex. you really dislike your teacher, but instead you say you are my favorite teacher

cognitive dissonance theory (motivation concerns the need to avoid this)

- people are motivated to reduce tension produced by conflicting thoughts or choices - change their attitude to fit their behavioral pattern, as long as they believe they are in control of their choices and actions - theory asserts that people often have two conflicting or inconsistent cognitions which produce a state of tension or discomfort (also known as "dissonance"). People are then motivated to reduce dissonance, often in the easiest manner possible. - when their actions and beliefs are in conflict so they tend to adjust their actions to fit their behavior

Attitude towards "work

- people have different attitude toward work - Job: necessary to make money - Career: opportunity to advance from one positon to another - Calling: fulfilling a socially useful activity, one they are personally driven towards

Subjective Well‐being

- self perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-‐being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

Recent studies by Zajonc and Lazarus

- some emotions are felt before cognitively appraised. A scary sight might travel through the eye to the thalamus, where is it then relayed to the amygdala before being labeled and evaluated by the cortex. - Zajonc agrees that emotional reactions can be quicker than our interpretations of a situation, so we feel before we think - Lazarus argues that while our brain does process a lot unconsciously, even instantly felt emotions require some cognitive appraisal of the situation, otherwise, how do we know what we are responding to. An appraisal may be effortless, and may not be conscious of it, but it is still happening. The event, appraisal for even a second, then emotion

Psychosexual Stages of Development

- the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-‐ seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones. 1. Oral (0-1): pleasure center is the mouth. This is through biting, sucking, and chewing, swallowing. Babies are consumed with eating, they put a lot of things into their mouth as pleasure in the satisfaction 2. Anal (1-3): pleasure focus is bowels/bladder and coping with control. Pleasure obtained by learning to control bodily wastes. Potty-Trained 3. Phallic: pleasure zone is in genitals and cope with incestuous feelings. - Oedipus Complex: according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. A boy's unconscious sexual desire towards his mother. Fear punishment if dad found out. - Electra Complex: the female version of the Oedipus complex. - Identification: cope with threatening feelings by identifying with same-sex parents. Basically, if you can't beat them join them. The process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into developing superegos. (END OF PHALLIC STAGE) 4. Latency(5-12): dormant sexual feelings. The suppression of sexual interests. Play mostly with same-sex peers. 5. Genital (12+): sexual feelings toward others. Adult sexuality. Express sexual interest toward others.

Sexual Response Cycle

- the four stages of responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. - studied sex by directly observing it and recording physiological patterns of people engaging in it 1. Excitement Phase: genitals become enlarged with blood, vagina expands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges 2. Plateau Phase: excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse, blood pressure. The maximum level of arousal 3. Orgasm Phase: contractions all over the body. Increase in breathing, pulse, blood pressure. Release of sexual tension 4. Resolution Phase: engorged genitals release blood. Male goes through the refractory period. Women resolve slower * Refractory Period - a resting period after an orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.

Drive-Reduction Theory

- the idea that a psychological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. - We have needs and we are driven to reduce the imbalance in our body to return to homeostasis (state of regulatory equilibrium) When the balance of the equilibrium shifts, we are motivated to try to right the balance. Motivational drives arise from imbalances in homeostasis. An imbalance in hunger creates a need (food), the brain creates a drive (hunger) to get the person to eat. - The imbalance creates a NEED brain responds by creating a DRIVE, that prompts the organism to take action to satisfy or reduce the drive. - physiological needs put stress on the body and we are motivated to reduce this negative experience. - examples of biological drives include hunger, thirst, sleep, temperature, pain and sex. - A need is a lack or deprivation that is going to energize a drive or an aroused state - If you are tired of working out and you want your water bottle your need is water your drive is thirst Ex. Need (food/water) leads to a Drive (hunger,thirst) and to Drive-Reducing Behaviors (eating and drinking)

Rorschach Inkblot Test

- the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

Motivation to Reproduce/ Biology

- the motivation to reproduce relies on the hypothalamus, which stimulates the pituitary gland, which results in the production of androgen and estrogen. Androgens (male sex hormone) and Estrogens that create sexual desire. 1. Estrogen - a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity. 2. Testosterone - the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

Relative Deprivation

- the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.;you have the perception that you are worse off than these other people you compare yourself to. Having this feeling typically leads to frustration. For example, let's say you have a group of friends you study with (and you tend to compare yourself to them) and on a couple of exams they all do well and you do poorly, even though you all studied the same amount at the same times, etc. You may feel that you are worse off than them because they are doing better than you.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

- the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a certain point, beyond which performances decreases. Moderate arousal leads to the best performance. COMPAres the performance level of a task to the level of arousal. - The Yerkes-Dodson Law of Arousal, also known as Arousal Theory, states that an organism's performance can be improved if that organism is aroused in some manner. However, if the level of arousal increases too much, performance decreases. Of course, this level is different in everyone. - the law states that tasks of moderate difficulty, not too easy and not too hard, elicit the highest level of performance - high levels of arousal for difficult tasks and low levels of arousal for easy tasks are negative to the body INSTEAD high levels of arousal for easy tasks and low levels of arousal for difficult tasks are preferred - Jackie could be extremely stressed and anxious that she is unable to do well because she is so nervous. She may not be able to recall her lines because she has a high arousal, when it should be low so she can perform better. (moderate arousal levels of performance) She can have too low arousal and that causes her to be unmotivated or a high arousal that causes her to forget her lines.

Cannon-Bard Theory

- the theory that an emotion-‐arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological response and (2) the subjective experience of emotion. - emotion-triggering stimulus and body arousal take place - physiological response to an emotion and the experience of emotion occurs simultaneously in response to an emotion-provoking stimulus. - The thalamus produces both physical and emotion simultaneously as it sends messages through the brain and the body. It would send messages to the autonomic nervous system and the cerebral cortex. Messages to the cortex would produce the experience of the emotion, and messages to the ANS would produce physiological responses such as running or heart palpitations. Ex. you have a stimulus of someone random putting a hand on your shoulder, you tense up and start shaking and have the emotion of being startled simultaneously

James-Lange Theory

- the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological response to emotion arousing stimuli. - environmental stimuli cause physiological responses and changes. The experience of emotions is a result of a physiological response. - physiological activity precedes the emotional experience - bodily changes ultimately cause you to feel emotions - Stimulus, laying on the couch and you see a bear outside, you have physiological arousal of your heart rate increasing and emotion of being scared

Levels of Achievement Motivation

- those with HIGH acheivement motivation, tend to choose challenging tasks, yet tasks can be complete successfully. They avoid situations in which success would come too easily as well as those were success is unlikely - those with LOW achievement motivation tend to be motivated by a desire to avoid failure. They will choose easy tasks or extremely difficult tasks. They avoid moderate tasks because they are afraid they might fail at something easy

Raymond Cattell

- using statistics (factor analysis which is bringing in a bunch of different studies) identified 16 Personality Factors that he believed made up the building block's of each individual's personality. Everyone has the same 16 chracteristics just in varying degrees

Repression

- we avoid painful thoughts by pushing them and forcing them into the back of our mind, into the unconscious. - the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-‐arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. - Ex. When you witness a murder, you don't remember the details when asked by the police.

Regression

- we retreat to behaving like a child in order to avoid adult issues. Behavior regresses in time. - psychoanalytic defense system in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where psychic energy remains fixated. - Ex. Throwing a temper tantrum when you don't get what you want.

Rationalization

- we try to create logical explanations of our behavir in order to justify it. - defensive mechanism that offers justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions. Ex. want to go to the movies so justify going instead of studying saying you would have failed the test anyway

4 components of the Stress Response System

1. Cognitive Appraisal (identify the threat and determine how you will cope) 2. Physiological Response: body's reactions 3. Subjective Feelings- Emotions 4. Behavior - because of those actions

Parts of the mind

1. Conscious: what you are currently aware of 2. Preconscious: information that is not in consciousness but is retrievable if you need it 3. Unconscious: According to Freud, a reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. Freud asked his patients to say whatever came to their mind (free associatioN) to tap into their unconscious. He believed there were Freudian slips which were slips of the tongue that Freud believed were our true, unconscious thoughts surfacing. This part of the mind is out of awareness but it can still dictate our behaviors. This is the largest part of the mind. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware of. ** Latent Content of Dreams: the symbolic meaning of dreams images. This is what is in your unconscious mind.

Detecting Deception and 4 signs that indicate it

1. Hiding the truth, results in heightened attention (dilated pupils), longer pauses in speech, more constrained movement 2. Hiding one's true feelings causes liar to become physically and behaviorally more aroused, evident in posture shifts, speech errors, nervous gestures, and shrugging 3. Focus on keeping a 'poker' face so pay attention to hand,feet, eyes, smiles, hand gestures 4. If the person is generally telling the truth, they will probably be unable to look you straight in the eye

Biology involved in experiencing emotions

1. Limbic System - Amygdala - Continuously on alert for threats contributing to fight or flight response. It serves as the conductor of the orchestra of our emotional experiences. It can communicate with the hypothalamus, a brain structure that controls the physiological aspects of emotion, such as sweating and racing heart rate. It also communicates with the prefrontal cortex located at the front of the brain which controls approach and avoidance behaviors, the behavioral aspects of emotion. the amygdala plays an especially key role in the identification and expression of fear and aggression. 2. Reticular Formation - Elements in amygdala to monitor upcoming information. If a threat is detected it sets responses into motion that arouse the body into action 3. Cerebral Cortex - Prince events and Associates them with memories and feelings. The right specializes in negative emotions and the left specializes in positive emotions. 4. Prefrontal Cortex - this is critical for emotional experience and it is also important in temperament and decision-making. It is associated with a reduction in emotional feelings especially fear and anxiety and is often activated by methods of emotion regulation and stress relief. It also plays a role in executive functions, higher-order thinking processes, such as planning, organizing, inhibiting behavior, and decision-making. damage to this area male leads to inappropriateness and impulsivity, and trouble with initiation. 5. Autonomic Nervous System - The sympathetic nervous system becomes active when one is startled or experiences unpleasant emotions such as anger. the parasympathetic nervous system dominates in pleasant emotions. 6. Hormones - Serotonin which is related to feelings of depression, you can have epinephrine or norepinephrine which are produced in fear and anger and dopamine with pleasure and reward

Factors that trigger hunger

1. Stomach Contractions: sends signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger 2. Body Chemistry: the body is pretty good at maintaining blood glucose levels. Hormone insulin produced by the pancreas decreases glucose in the blood, lowering blood glucose levels. Levels of glucose are monitored by receptors in the cell. Glucose is the primary fuel of the brain and most other organs. Glucose if the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. - to restore the glucostatic balance, a person needs to eat something - hypothalamus has cells that detect glucose levels. - People with diabetes have greatly elevated blood glucose levels. The body can either fail to take insulin such as in Type 1 or use the insulin in a different way like Type 2 diabetes. 3. Hypothalamus: area controlling feeding. There are the lateral and ventromedial. If damaged, the lateral hypothalamus, the animal stops eating, often starving to death. If the ventromedial hypothalamus is lesioned, the animal eats constantly.

How are emotions processed?

1. Unconsciously- they are linked to the implicit memory and unintentional memories we might not realize we have. - Fast-response system that relies on deep brain circuitry that operates automatically. It acts as an early defense that produces emotions to help us get out of dangerous situations, we usually learn emotional responses through classical conditioning 2. Consciously - linked to explicit memory - It generates emotions at a slower rate, yet delivers more complete information to Consciousness. It relies heavily on the cerebral cortex. Attaches emotional reactions

Different types of hypothalamus

1. Ventromedial Hypothalamus (Depresses hunger stimulation, will send messages to the brain to eat less and exercise more) 2. Lateral Hypothalamus (brings on hunger, sends message to the brain to eat more and excercise less)

Carl Jung

1875-1961; Field: neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; Contributions: unconsious had two parts: 1. Personal Unconsious 2. Collective Unconscious:Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of a memory traces from out species' history. was an inherited collection of knowledge and images that every human being has at birth. - Archetypes: universal, symbolic images that appear in myths, art, stories and dreams. Like hero and superman. all humans share this, which express underlying fears or ideas we all experience. For example, water is considered an archetype (in literature, dreams, etc.) for birth, creation, resurection, fertility and growth, and more.

Problem-Focused Coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. (your car keeps breaking down you address the problem and buy a new car)

Three aspects of Personality

Id - Unconsciously strives to satisfy sexual and aggressive drives. contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. To id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. (DEVIL) I WANT IT AND I WANT IT NOW I DON'T CARE ABOUT YOU. Ego - Practical Decision for reality. The largely conscious, "executive" part of the personality, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of id, superego, and reality. The ego operates the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. Superego - represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations. (ANGEL, morally good)

Paul Ekman; Emotional Face Universals

Identified seven basic emotions: fear, anger, disgust, suprise, happiness, and sadness, and contempty (something is beneath you). These findings suggest that emotions and how they are expressed are innate parts of human experience - believed that peopel speak and understand pretty much the same "facial language" around the world

Stress and the health effects

Stressor can affect one's health and resources including the immune system. the human immune system which evolved to respond to short-term stressors may react to chronic stressors by breaking down and turning on itself. when dealing with chronic stressors there is no physical enemies in battle the bodily response becomes maladaptive and the body becomes more vulnerable to infection and injury.

Theories of Emotion

James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-Singer

Karen Horney

Neo-Freudian; offered feminist critique of Freud's theory. Believes childhood anxiety is caused by a sense of helplessness. Children were trying to overcome a sense of helplessness. - balanced out male dominance in Freud's theory. Women have weak superegos and suffer from penis envy which is women see the power tha men have and think what does he have that I do not have, they envy the other's power.

Happiness

People who are happy perceive the world as being safer. They are able to make decisions easily, are more cooperative, rate job applicants more favorably, and live healthier, energized, and more satisfied lives.

Binge Eating Disorder

Recurrent Binge eating without any type of purging like in bulimia. *** Cultures who put more emphasis on appearance have more eating disorders

flight or fight response

The flight-or-fight response is a response that occurs when an organism confronted with a threatening situation prepares to fight or flee. This response is controlled by the sympathetic system. This response includes rising heart and respiration rates, constriction of blood vessels, increase in the levels of glucose in your body, and "goose bumps" on your skin. - The physiological States cause physical illness. stress is any circumstances that may be real or perceived and threatens one's well-being. When severe stress is spelled it impairs our ability to cope with it. The physical and mental changes that occur in response to a challenging or threatening situation is a reaction.

Theories of Motivation

These explain the link between neurophysiology and motivated behavior.

two dimensions of emotion

Valence (positive or negative) or arousal (high or low) - continioum of emotion

Subliminaton

We expend energy on prosocial activites in order to avoid undesirable activities - Ex. you like to hit things so you take up boxing as a hobby

Denial

We refuse to perceive reality in order to protect ourselves from it. Ex. We get a rejection letter from a college, but we still tell everyone we are going to it.

Anger

a strong feeling of displeasure, many different things can make us angry and might lead to chronic hostility which has health effects.

Homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. - A key concept in the operation of homeostasis is a negative feedback loop. When we are running out of something like fuel, a metabolic signal is generated to tell us to eat food. When the supply is replenished a signal is issued to stop eating. It is trying to maintain the setpoint

Opponent-Process Theory of Motivation

a theory of motivation that says that we start off at a motivational baseline, at which we are not motivated to act, then we encounter a stimulus that feels good, such as a drug or even a positive social interaction, the pleasurable feelings we experience causes us to have motivation to seek the stimulus again. Our brains over time, revert back to the state of emotional neutrality over time. - we are motivated to seek stimuli that make us feel emotion, after which an opposing motivational force brings us back to the drection of a baseline. - after repeated exposure to a stimulus, its emotional effects begin to wear off. - this process overcompensates, producing withdrawal. - For drugs, we need larger amous of the former positive stimuli to maintain a baseline state (addiction)

Bulimia Nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-‐calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting or excessive exercise.

Anorexia Nervosa

an eating disorder in which a normal‐weight person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet still feeling fat, continues to starve. - goes below average weight

Personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. - Freud believed that personality formed during life's first few years. During these stages, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on pleasure sensitive body areas called erogenous zones.

Emotion-Focused Coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction ( if you break up with your bf, you seek support from family and friends)

Alfred Adler

believed in childhood tensions, hoewver these tensions were social in nature, not sexual 1. Inferiority Complex: a child struggles with inferiority complex during growth and strives for superiority and power. Inferiority Complex is a term used to describe people who compensate for feelings of inferiority (feeling like they're less than other people, not as good as others, worthless, etc.) by acting ways that make them appear superior. They do this because controlling others may help them feel less personally inadequate.

Extrinstic Motivation

desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment - when you do something because you want a concrete, tangible reward.

Non-Freudians

differed from Freud, believed not all motives are based on sex and aggression and that conscience awareness played a role. Psychoanalytic became psychodynamic

Leptin

hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used - is released in response to a buildup of fat cells when enough energy has been consumed. This signal is then interupted by the satiety center in the hypothalamus, working as a saftey valve to decrease the feeling of hunger

Free Association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

Izard's 10 basic emotions

joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt

Expressing Emotion

knowing how and when to express emotions with different people and in multiple contexts

adaption-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience. - our tendency to judge various stimuli as relative to those we have previously experienced it - For instance, you may live on a small amount of money, say, $1,000 per month. You may think "if I had more money I would always be able to pay all my bills and still buy other things." Then you get a big raise and you start making $3,000 per month. At first this would be a very exciting new experience. After a while, however, when all the new income has been allotted to pay some bill, you might again start to think, "if I had more money.... " You had a new situation, you adapted to it, and it became your normal. - is the tendency people have to quickly adapt to a new situation, until that situation becomes the norm. - Whatever change we experienced soon became the new normal

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood.

Catharis Hypothesis

releasing aggressive energy relieves aggressive urger, temporarily calming - through action or fantasy

Sexual Scripts

socially learned programs of sexual interpretation and responsiveness - derived from individual cultures, media is often uninfluential and can lead to unrealistic ideas