Unit 8 AP Psychology
Describe agoraphobia. Hypothesize about why agoraphobia is often one of the most frequently diagnosed types of phobias but may not actually be the most frequent occurring.
- Fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide-open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic - Extreme & irrational fear of experiencing a panic attack in a public situation & being unable to escape or get help - May be frequently diagnosed because someone who has had many panic attacks will avoid places that stimulate panic attacks (outside, elevator) to reduce anxiety thus reinforcing this phobia
Explain why the DSM is often criticized for "casting too wide a net." What are the advantages and disadvantages of this approach?
- They worry that the DSM-5 will extend the pathologizing of everyday life -Critics believe the DSM brings almost any behavior w/in the compass of psychiatry -They believe DSM turns an energetic boy into ADHD. Others respond that depression & hyperactivity are genuine disorders -People criticize the DSM on sometimes being too broad & ability to misdiagnose someone. Labels make people focus on the label rather than the individual
What role do Hollywood movies play in further stigmatizing mental disorders?
- have shown shaky versions of mental health - someone with mental illness in movies are labeled as psychopaths and crazed killers - Present less flattering image of mental health problems
What does the evidence suggest regarding a genetic link to schizophrenia? How can sets of twins be tested to be sure that the differences are not due to environmental factors?
-1 in 10 odds of being diagnosed if parent or twin has it -Children adopted by those w/schizophrenia don't catch it -Environmental factors, such as prenatal viral infections, nutritional deprivation & maternal stress can ¨turn on¨ the genes that predispose schizophrenia
Discuss the prevalence of schizophrenia.
-1 in 100 -Men tend to be struck earlier, more severely & slightly more often
Approximately what percent of the population suffers from OCD? At what age do the symptoms typically appear?
-2-3% -Late teens or twenties
List the symptoms of major depressive disorder.
-5 signs of depression lasts 2 or more weeks -Problems regulating sleep -Problems regulating appetite -Low energy -Low self-esteem -Difficulty concentrating/making decisions -Feelings of hopelessness
Discuss why a fear of spiders may not be a psychological disorder, but routinely dusting books on a shelf might be considered a disorder. What is required for something to be diagnosed as a disorder?
-A fear of spiders won't disrupt your whole day & is only an abnormal behavior -Obsessive cleaning disorders is a maladaptive or dysfunctional behavior because it interferes w/normal everydaylife -Must interfere w/everyday life
What key component needs to be present to differentiate ADHD from normal high energy or rambunctiousness? Why is this distinction important?
-ADHD coexists w/a learning disorder or w/defiant temper-prone behavior key symptoms of ADHD: - extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity - can't keep up/not organized High energy: - focuses on accomplishing goals - Distinction is important because you might be treating someone with ADHD but they don't actually have it (give drugs to someone that doesn't need it)
List the factors that determine whether a person is more likely to suffer from PTSD after a traumatic event.
-Amount of emotional distress during trauma (if high emotional distress then they will have PTSD) -Frequency (more frequent = more adverse long term outcomes) -Sensitive limbic system (increase vulnerability, by flooding the body with stress hormones again and again as images of the traumatic experience erupt into consciousness) -Genes (can be genetically predisposed
What are the behaviors or emotions expressed in cluster A for personality disorders? What is an example of a personality disorder from this cluster?
-Anxiety;such as fearful sensitivity to rejection -Ex:Avoidance personality disorder
List three diagnostic changes that occurred with the release of the DSM-5.
-Aspergers & autism have been combined into Autism spectrum disorder -Mental retardation has become an ¨intellectual disability¨ -New categories include: hoarding disorder & binge-eating disorder
What are the triggers or factors that affect suicide?
-Being depressed -Social suggestions(suicide featured on tv & media)
List and explain the research findings on suicide as it relates to: national differences racial differences gender differences age differences and trends other group differences day of the week differences.
-Britians, Italy's & Spain's suicide rates are little more than half of those of Canada, Australia & the U.S -W/in Europe, people in the most suicide prone country, have been 16 times more likely to themselves than those in the least Whites kill themselves twice as often as blacks -Women are more likely to attempt suicide but males are 4 times more likely to actually end their lives -Men use more lethal methods such as firing a bullet into the head Suicide rates increase in late adulthood -Suicide rates are much higher among the rich, non-religious & those who are single, widowed, or divorced -When facing an unsupportive environment, gay & lesbians are at increased risk of attempted suicide 25% of suicides occur on Wednesdays
Explain the relationship between the likelihood of recovery and the speed of onset of schizophrenia. How does this differ in acute schizophrenia as compared to chronic schizophrenia?
-Chronic:Slow developing process of making recovery doubtful. They often exhibit the persistent & incapacitating negative symptom of social withdrawal
Compare the symptoms of conversion disorder to those of illness anxiety disorder.
-Conversion:Lose sensation, paralysis, blindness, inability to swallow -Illness:No symptoms. Interpreting normal physical sensations into symptoms of disease
Explain the arguments against DID as a genuine disorder.
-Critics question whether DID is just an extension of our normal capacity for personality shifts -Some say that dissociative identities are simply a more extreme version of our capacity to vary the ¨selves¨ we present-like how we act goofy around our friends
In what way does depression serve as a "warning light" for us? What sense can be found in suffering?
-Depression is a psychic hibernation:It slows us down, defuses aggression, helps us let go of unattainable goals & restrains risk taking -To grind temporarily to a halt, can allow us to redirect energy in more promising ways -Mild sadness can improve people's recall, make people more discerning, & help them make complex decisions
Discuss the changes in brain function that occur in major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder.
-Diminished brain activity & less activity in frontal lobe activity during depressive states & is 7% smaller -Hippocampus is vulnerable to stress-related damage -People w/bipolar disorder show decreased axonal white matter or enlarged fluid ventricles
Describe the phenomenon of dissociation and explain how it differs from a dissociative disorder.
-Dissociation refers to -Dissociative disorders is a disorder of the consciousness, in which a person appears to experience a sudden loss of memory or change in identity, often in response to an overwhelming stressful situation
Discuss the disorganized thinking and speaking that are symptoms of schizophrenia.
-Distorted perceptions -Disorganized thinking & speech -Diminished inappropriate emotions & actions -Hallucinations
What are the behaviors or emotions expressed in cluster C for personality disorders? What is an example of a personality disorder from this cluster?
-Dramatic or impulsive behaviors -Ex:Histrionic personality disorder
What are the behaviors or emotions expressed in cluster B for personality disorders? What is an example of a personality disorder from this cluster?
-Eccentric, or odd behaviors such as emotionless disengagement -Ex:Avoidant personality disorder
Discuss the general findings of characteristics of families with a child suffering from an eating disorder.
-Families of bulimia patients have a higher-than usual incidence of childhood obesity & negative self-evaluation -Families of anorexia patients tend to be competitive, high achieving & protective
Describe the symptoms and prevalence of: anorexia nervosa bulimia nervosa binge-eating disorder
-Feel fat, fear being fat, & are obsessed w/losing weight -Exercise excessively -Bing-purge-depression cycle -0.6% of people meet the criteria for this disorder in their lifetime -Overeating is followed by purging(vomiting), fasting or excessive exercise -Binge-purge eaters experience depression & anxiety during & following binges -Bulimia is marked by weight fluctuations w/in or above normal ranges making the condition easy to hide -1% of people meet the criteria for this disorder in their lifetime -People who binge eat followed by remorse-but do not purge, fast, or exercise excessively -2.8% of people develop this disorder in their lifetime
What is the most common phobia? What differentiates a strong fear from a phobia?
-Heights -A phobia is an anxiety disorder in which an irrational fear causes the person to avoid some object, activity, or situation interferes w/ability to function in daily life
Explain the genetic influences on depression.
-Heritability of major depression is 37%, many genes likely work together -Risk of depression increases if you have a parent or sibling w/the disorder -If 1 identical twin is diagnosed w/major depressive disorder, chance are
How does culture influence people's expression of physical complaints?
-In China, when talking about anxiety or depression, they less often explain emotional aspects of the distress & rather explain the physical symptoms of their distress -In Western cultures, people express emotional aspects of distress & explanations of anxiety & depression are more socially acceptable
Discuss the evidence for prenatal viral infections as a cause for schizophrenia.
-Increased risk of developing disorder if mother gets the flu during the prenatal development -Increased risk if people are born in densely populated areas where disease spreads more easily -Viral infections or famine conditions during mother pregnancy -Low weight & oxygen deprivation at birth
Describe the diminished and inappropriate emotions characteristic of schizophrenia. What is meant by "flat affect"?
-Innapropriate emotions:Laughing at death & agitated for no reason -Flat effect:Emotionless state. Difficulty perceiving facial emotions & reading other states of mind
Describe the symptoms of antisocial personality disorder.
-Lack of conscience of wrong doing -Lies -Steals -Fights -Display unrestrained sexual behavior -Antisocial -Unable to keep a job -Irresponsible -Assaultive or criminal -Aggressive
Discuss the impact genetics and brain structures may have on an
-Little autonomic system arousal -Low anxiety, impulsive -PET scans showed reduced activity in frontal lobe areas(controls impulses) -Lower levels of stress hormones
Describe the findings of brain scans on people with chronic schizophrenia. Which brain structures are impacted or implicated in the disorder?
-Low brain activity in the frontal lobes -Out of synch may disrupt integrated functioning of neural networks
Compare the characteristics of a state of mania to the state of depression.
-Maina:Euphoric, hyperactive, wildly optimistic, over talkative, elated, little need for sleep -Depression:Low self-esteem, feelings of hopelessness, worthlessness & lethargy, bad mood, lack of concentration, lack of energy
Explain how environmental factors influence the development of antisocial personality disorder.
-Maltreatment at a young age -Brain development(premature birth) -Poverty -Gene that altered neurotransmitter balance
Discuss the psychological and environmental factors that may trigger schizophrenia.
-No environmental causes invariably cause schizophrenia
What are the research findings regarding the role neurotransmitters play in depression and mania?
-Norepinephrine(increases & boosts moods) is scarce during depression -Depression is associated w/a decrease in serotonin
How have PET scans been used to determine how the brain of those suffering from schizophrenia differs from those who are not?
-PET scans show that while people are hallucinating, hear a voice, or see something, their brain became active in several areas including the thalamus -PET scans done on people w/paranoia showed increased activity in the amygdala
Discuss the research findings on the stigmatizing power of labels.
-People labeled certain ways are expected to & therefore often perceived as the label -When people expect others to behave certain way, they may act in ways that elicit the very behavior expected
Dissociative identity disorder is often misportrayed in movies and is frequently confused with schizophrenia by the general public. Explain the differences between the two disorders.
-People w/DID have multiple personalities or identities all w/their own way of thinking/behaving -People w/schizophrenia have delusions, hallucinations, exhibit inappropriate emotions, have disorganized thinking & speech
List and contrast positive symptoms with the negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
-Positive:Hallucinations, talk in disorganized & deluded ways & exhibit inappropriate laughter, tears or rage. Presence of inappropriate behaviors -Negative:Toneless voices, expressionless faces or mute & rigid bodies. Absence of appropriate behaviors
How do other researchers support the view that DID is a genuine disorder?
-Researchers find support for the view in distinct brain & bodily states associated w/differing personalities -Psychodynamic & learning perspectives both agree that the symptoms are ways of dealing w/anxiety -This disorder may be a response learned when behaviors are reinforced by anxiety-reduction
In what way is motor behavior impacted by schizophrenia?
-Senseless compulsive acts:Continually rocking & rubbing an arm -Catalonia:Motionless for hours & then become agitated
Define the biopsychosocial model, and discuss how the biopsychosocial model explains psychological disorders.
-States how biological, psychological & social-cultural factors interact to produce disorders -Bio: Evolution, genes, brain structure -Psych: Stress, trauma, learned helplessness, mood perceptions and memories -Social: Roles, expectations
What is meant by rumination? In what ways do negative thoughts and negative moods interact?
-Staying focused on a problem or thinking -Pessimistic thinkers have a higher risk of depression
Discuss how classical conditioning and operant conditioning principles can be used to explain the development of anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD.
-Stimulus generalization occurs & develops fears, reinforcement helps maintain phobias & compulsions as they arise -Ex: When a person is attacked by a dog, they later develop a fear of all dogs -Avoiding or escaping the feared situation reduces anxiety, thus reinforcing the phobic behavior. Feeling anxious or a panic attack, a person may go inside & be reinforced by feeling calmer
What are two ways in which schizophrenia develops?
-Suddenly as a reaction to stress(chronic) -Gradually, emerging from a long history of social inadequacy & poor school performance(acute)
Describe the general characteristics of somatic symptom disorder.
-Symptoms take somatic/bodily form w/out apparent physical cause -Some may not experience vomiting, dizziness, blurred vision, difficulty in swallowing & another may experienced severe, prolonged pain
Explain what happens to an individual in a fugue state.
-The person's conscious awareness dissociates from a form of painful memories, thoughts & feelings -Temporary or permanent loss of identity
Why do people engage in nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)?
-They are less able to tolerate emotional distress -Gain relief from intense negative thoughts through distraction of pain -Ask for help & gain attention -Get others to change their negative behavior(bullying, criticism) -Fit in w/a peer group
Discuss why the sufferer's knowledge that the obsessions are irrational actually adds to the suffering.
-They recognize that their thoughts & actions are abnormal, but cannot do anything about it as only 1/5 people recover -The person knows them to be irrational, but the anxiety-fueled thoughts so haunting, the compulsive rituals so time-consuming that effective functioning becomes impossible
What role does explanatory style play in depression? Give an example.
-Those w/a pessimistic explanatory styles have a major risk for depression than those w/an optimistic explanatory style -More likely to be angry w/a pessimistic explanatory style -Ex:When you fail a test, you can externalize the blame. ¨What an unfair test¨
Discuss the research findings that have helped us to understand antisocial personality disorder.
-Twin & adoptive studies reveal that biological relatives of those w/antisocial/unemotional tendencies are at increased risk for antisocial behavior -Molecular geneticists have identified some specific genes that are more common in those w/antisocial personality disorder
. Explain the impact of genetics and environment on the development of an eating disorder. What factors would make a person vulnerable to an eating disorder?
-Twins are more likely to share the disorder if they are identical rather than fraternal -Women & gay men are more vulnerable to eating disorders as they most idolize thinness & have the greatest body dissatisfaction
Which country is reported to have the greatest prevalence of disorders and which disorders are most frequently reported? What are potential explanations for these results?
-U.S -Any mental disorder (mood disorder is second)
Discuss the cognitive characteristics of someone impacted by major depressive disorder.
-Unmotivated -Recall negative info -Learned helplessness/sense of hopelessness -Self defeating beliefs -Negative attributions -Self-blame
Discuss the uses and misuses of the insanity plea.
-Uses:Saying that one is not responsible for their actions due to a mental issue -Misuses:Can they be held accountable?
Explain how depression is thought to be a vicious cycle.
1)Negative & stressful events are interpreted through 2)a ruminating, pessimistic explanatory style that creates 3) a hopeless depressed mood that 4)causes cognitive/behavioral changes. This in turn, fuels negative experiences such as rejection
Discuss the prevalence of depression in Canada and the United States.
12% of Canadian adults & 17% of US adults experience depression at some point in their life
Describe the characteristics of dissociative identity disorder.
2 or more distinct identities are said to alternately control the person's behavior -Thought to be caused by severe, extreme abuse as a child
What are some reasons refuting the idea that ADHD is a legitimate diagnosis?
Critics believe that being distractible, fidgety & impulsive sounds like a "disorder" caused y a single genetic variation: y chromosome - diagnoses can be inconsistent and subjective
Define the medical model, and discuss how it explains psychological disorders. How has this model changed the way patients are treated?
Describes that psychological disorders have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated most often cured through treatment -Medical perspective gained credibility from recent discoveries that genetically influenced abnormalities in brain structure & biochemistry contribute to disorders
Discuss the diagnostic trend for bipolar disorder.
Drugs prescribed to lessen mood swings
What are some reasons supporting that ADHD is a legitimate diagnosis?
Healthy professionals say that ADHD is a neurobiological disorder - Has associations w/abnormal brain activity patterns
Explain the poverty-pathology link as it relates to the chicken-egg question.
In an experiment, researchers found that children of poverty exhibited more deviant & aggressive behaviors. After 4 years, children whose families had been moved above the poverty line exhibited a 40% decrease in behavior problems, while those still in poverty exhibited no change
Explain what David Rosenhan means by saying a label has "a life and influence of its own."
Labels can cause biased perceptions & create self-fulfilling prophecies
Explain why free-floating anxiety can be disabling.
One cannot identify the cause of the anxiety or what is happening & can therefore not deal w/it or avoid its cause
Explain the role dopamine plays in schizophrenia.
People w/schizophrenia have excess dopamine receptors that intensify brain signals creating positive symptoms such as hallucinations & paranoia
Explain the way in which selective attention is impacted by schizophrenia.
People w/schizophrenia often have disorganized thoughts & cannot block out other stimuli to focus on one set & become easily distracted
Discuss the connection between self-injury and suicide.
People who engage in NSSI are suicide gestures. They engage in NSSI as a desperate but non-life threatening form of communication or when they are feeling overwhelmed
In what ways can labels be beneficial in diagnosing, treating, and curing mental disorders?
Professionals use labels to communicate about their cases, to comprehend underlying causes & to discern effective treatment programs
Using Table 65. 2, select two risk factors and two protective factors for mental disorders and discuss how these can either accelerate or protect against the development of a mental illness.
Risk factors - Substance abuse - Child abuse & neglect - Medical illness Protective factors - Exercise - Positive parent-child relationships - Support from family and friends Medical illness can accelerate mental illness and support from family and friends can help you stay away from mental illnesses
Describe and contrast a typical schizophrenic hallucination with a delusion.
Sensory experiences w/out stimulation. They may see, hear, feel & taste or smell things that aren't there False beliefs that are often fragmented, rejected or distorted. ¨I'm Marry Poppins¨
Which category of people is at greater risk for panic disorder? Why?
Smokers because nicotine is a stimulant
Explain what the author means when he says that "suffering can lead to benefit finding."
Tedeschi & Calhoun found that the struggle w/challenging crises such as cancer, often leads to people later to report an increased appreciation for life, more meaningful relationships, increased personal strength, changed priorities, and a richer spiritual life - "suffering can lead to benefit finding" called post-traumatic growth (by Tedeschi & Calhoun) - positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises
Explain what is meant by a predisposition.
Tendency to suffer from a particular condition
What brain structures are activated in someone who suffers from OCD?
The anterior cingulate cortex is hyperactive in people who have OCD as it monitors our actions & checks for errors - fear circuits within amygdala
. Discuss why properly diagnosing symptoms of depression or hyperactivity, for example, is so important to mental health.
They are genuine disorders even, for example, if they are triggered by major life stress such as death when grief doesn't go away
How can suffering from agoraphobia impact someone's life?
They may avoid being outside the home, in a crowd, on a bus or on an elevator, thus impacting everyday life
In what way does the biological perspective help us understand the development of phobias and anxiety? Consider both natural selection and genetics in your response.
Those not fearful of certain stimuli are less likely to survive & certain genes can make you more prone to certain disorders
Discuss how observational learning principles can be used to explain the development of phobias.
We can develop fears based off of observations of others behavior to a stimulus
Discuss the origins and symptoms of PTSD.
a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience ex: veterans have PTSD after fighting in war -Exposure to a traumatic or stressful event -Haunting memories or nightmare -Social withdrawal -Anxiety -Insomnia
Explain how OCD differs from normal obsessions or tendencies toward perfectionism.
a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions) -OCD persistently interferes w/everyday living & causes stress -OCD consists of unwanted repetitive obsessive/thoughts &/or actions/compulsions that causes one distress normal = seeing if door is locked OCD = checking if door is locked 10 times Obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors cross the fine line between normality and disorder when they persistently interfere with everyday living and cause distress
ADHD
a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
Discuss the common symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder.
an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal -Unexplainably & continually tense & uneasy -Apprehensive -State of automatic NS arousal -Unfocused -Jittery -Sleep deprived
Describe the symptoms of phobias. Give an example of two specific phobias.
an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation - Anxiety disorder - Persistent, irrational fear & avoidance of a specific object, activity or situation Ex: Heights, blood, closed spaces, insects, thunder and then hiding
Describe the common symptoms of panic disorder. How does panic disorder differ from generalized anxiety disorder?
an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations. Often followed by worry over a possible next attack - Panic strikes suddenly, Chest pain, Choking, Trembling, Dizziness, Lose sensation, Unpredictable episodes of intense dread, Hot, Can't breathe, Numb, Tingly
How does having social anxiety disorder differ from having a specific phobia?
intense fear of social situations, leading to avoidance of such (social phobia) - Shyness to the extreme - People w/social anxiety will avoid situations altogether, while people w/a specific phobia avoid the stimulus that arouses the fear - Social anxiety has no trigger
Explain what differentiates anxiety from an anxiety disorder.
psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety. ex: generalized anxiety disorder, panic, and phobias -Normal anxiety is not intense & persistent & doesn't prevent you from completing everyday tasks -Anxiety disorder causes significant disruptions in the person's cognitive, behavioral or interpersonal functioning
Explain what clinicians seek to accomplish by classifying a disorder. How does the DSM-5 help clinicians with these diagnoses?
the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders -Classification aims to not only describe behavior but also to predict its future course. imply appropriate treatment & stimulate research into its causes -Physicians use DSM-5s detailed "diagnostic criteria & codes" to guide mental diagnoses & define who is eligible for treatments, including medication
