US History Test 1

New York

(Middle Colony) It was founded by the Dutch for trade and furs and became an English Colony in 1664.

Connecticut

- Corporate colony established 1662 Thomas Hooker led a large group of Puritans to settle in the Connecticut River Valley; they had slight religious disagreements with the leadership of Massachusett (New England Colony) It was founded in 1635 by Thomas Hooker and his followers for political and religious freedom after a disagreement with Massachusetts Bay.

Maryland

-1632 became the first proprietary colony to serve as a refuge for English Catholic Lord Baltimore founded by lord baltimore as refuge for english catholics

Georgia

1733 - Georgia was formed as a buffer between the Carolinas and Spanish-held Florida. It was a military-style colony, but also served as a haven for the poor, criminals, and persecuted Protestants. James Oglethorpe

Townshed Acts

1767, originated by Charles Townshend and passed by the English Parliament shortly after the repeal of the Stamp Act. They were designed to collect revenue from the colonists in America by putting customs duties on imports of glass, lead, paints, paper, and tea. The colonials, spurred on by the writings of John Dickinson, Samuel Adams, and others, protested against the taxes. The Boston merchants again boycotted English goods, the Massachusetts Assembly was dissolved (1768) for sending a circular letter to other colonies explaining the common plight, and British troops sent to enforce these laws and keep peace were involved in unpleasant incidents, notably the Boston Massacre. The boycott decreased British trade, and in 1770 most of the Acts were repealed, but retention of the tea tax caused the Boston Tea Party.

Royal Colony

A Crown colony, also known in the 17th century as royal colony, was a type of colonial administration of the British overseas territories. Crown, or royal, colonies were ruled by a governor appointed by the monarch.

New Netherlands

A Dutch colony in the Hudson River area of New York. Established by the Dutch West India Company in 1623 for its quick-profit fur trade. Its company town, New Amsterdam (New York) on Manhattan (purchased from Indians) was very strict and ruled despotically, but still attracted a cosmopolitan population and represented successful colonization by the Dutch in North America.

Ice Bridge of Asia

First North Americans came across known as the Berongia Ice Bridge

Anne Hutchinson

A New England religious leader and midwife, Anne Hutchinson (1591-1643) was born in England, and later followed Puritan leader John Cotton to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1634. She brought attention to Cotton's spirit-centered theology through biweekly meetings, championing him and her brother-in-law John Wheelwright as true Christian ministers. A ministerial synod cleared Cotton from the charge of heresy, but the radical Hutchinson was punished with banishment by the General Court of Massachusetts and excommunication by the Church of Boston. She was killed in an Indian raid in New York a few years later.

William Dawes

American patriot( leader in Sons of Patriots) who rode with Paul Revere to warn that the British were advancing on Lexington and Concord (1745-1799) Member of the Sons of Liberty. Rode to Lexington with Paul Revere to warn Samuel Adams and John Hancock that the British were coming. Partner of Paul Revere, both rode to Lexington to warn Samuel Adams and John Hancock that the British were coming.

Aztecs

An Indian group living in central Mexico; the Aztecs used military force to dominate nearby tribes; their civilization was at its peak at the time of the Spanish conquest.

Francisco Pizzaro

An explorer, soldier and conquistador, was Born around 1474 in Trujillo, Spain. As a soldier, he served on the 1513 expedition of Vasco Núñez de Balboa, during which he discovered the Pacific Ocean. Desirous of making his own discoveries and his own fortune, Pizarro formed a partnership with Diego de Almagro. They travelled to Peru in 1526 and then returned to get permission to claim the land for Spain. In 1531, their expedition—which included Pizarro's three half-brothers—sailed from Panama. The next fall Pizarro entered the city of Cajamarca and took the Inca leader Atahuapla hostage. Despite having paid a ransom to spare his life, Atahuapla was killed in 1533. Pizarro then conquered Cuzco, another important Inca city, and founded the city of Lima, now the capital of Peru.

Sam Adams

An organizer of Boston's Sons of Liberty, Adams conceived of the Boston Committee of Correspondence and coordinated Boston's resistance to the Tea Act, which climaxed in the famous Tea Party. He represented Massachusetts in the Continental Congress from 1774 through 1781, and was elected to the Massachusetts convention on the ratification of the Constitution in 1787. After serving as John Hancock's lieutenant from 1789 to 1793, Adams took over as governor before retiring in 1797. From 1774 through 1781 Adams represented Massachusetts in the Continental Congress, where his industry, stamina, realism, and commitment made him one of the handful of "workhorses" who served year in and year out on numerous committees. Although Adams's influence in state and national affairs waned during the 1780s, he was elected to the Massachusetts convention on the ratification of the Constitution, which he was ultimately persuaded to support even though it contradicted some Whig principles. But, as in the past, he remained wary of centralized governmental power and never became part of the Federalists, the dominant party in Massachusetts. After serving as John Hancock's lieutenant governor from 1789 to 1793, Adams succeeded to the governorship at Hancock's death. Although he opposed Jay's Treaty with England in 1795, he was thrice reelected before infirmity led him to retire in 1797. Three years later, when Thomas Jefferson was elected to the presidency over his cousin John, Samuel congratulated the Virginian on the triumph of democratic republicanism.

Lexington and Concord

April 8, 1775: Gage leads 700 soldiers to confiscate colonial weapons and arrest Adam, and Hancock; April 19, 1775: 70 armed militia face British at Lexington (shot heard around the world); British retreat to Boston, suffer nearly 300 casualties along the way (concord) "The Shot Heard Round the World"- The first battle of the Revolution in which British general Thomas Gage went after the stockpiled weapons of the colonists in Concord, Massachusetts.

Hernando Cortes

Born in Medellín, Spain, conquistador (c. 1485-1547) first served as a soldier in an expedition of Cuba led by Diego Velázquez in 1511. He ignored orders and traveled to Mexico with about 500 men and 11 ships in 1519, setting his sights on overthrowing ruler Montezuma II in the Aztec capital of Tenochitilán. The Aztecs eventually drove the Spanish from Tenochitilán, but Cortés returned to defeat the natives and take the city in 1521. He spent much of his later years seeking recognition for his achievements and support from the Spanish royal court.

Ponce de Leon

Born into Spanish nobility, Juan Ponce de León (1460-1521) may have accompanied Christopher Columbus on his 1493 voyage to the New World. A decade later, he was serving as governor of the eastern province of Hispaniola when he decided to explore a nearby island, which became Puerto Rico. In pursuit of a rumored fountain of youth located on an island known as Bimini, Ponce de León led an expedition to the coast of what is now Florida in 1513. Thinking it was the island he sought, he sailed back to colonize the region in 1521, but was fatally wounded in an Indian attack soon after his arrival.

Charles Townshed

British chancellor of the Exchequer whose measures for the taxation of the British American colonies intensified the hostilities that eventually led to the American Revolution. The second son of the 3rd Viscount Townshend, he was educated at Cambridge and Leyden. In 1747 he was elected to Parliament. As a member of the Board of Trade from 1749 to 1754, he showed an interest in increasing British powers of taxation and control over the colonies. In 1754 and 1755 he served on the Board of Admiralty. He was secretary at war in 1761-62 and paymaster general from May 1765 to July 1766, when he became chancellor of the Exchequer in the ministry of William Pitt the Elder. Soon Pitt became severely ill, and Townshend assumed effective control of the administration. Townshend proved to be financially brilliant and determined but devoid of sound political judgment. He was renowned as an orator whose speeches to the House of Commons were remembered for their wit and recklessness, most notably the "Champagne Speech" of May 8, 1767. In his last official act before his death, he obtained passage (June-July 1767) of the four resolutions that became known as the Townshend Acts, which threatened American colonial traditions of self-government and imposed revenue duties on a number of items necessary to the colonies. The provision that customs revenue would be used to pay officials caused concern among the colonists because it reduced the dependence of such officials on the colonial assemblies. Townshend estimated that the acts would produce the insignificant sum of £40,000 for the British Treasury. Shrewder observers correctly prophesied that they would lead to the loss of the colonies.

Rhode Island

Founded by Roger Williams, broke away from Massachusetts -formed in 1644 as a combination of Providence, Portsmouth, and other settlements that had sprung up in the are the last state to ratify the Constitution

George Washington

By the late 1760s, Washington had experienced firsthand the effects of rising taxes imposed on American colonists by the British, and came to believe that it was in the best interests of the colonists to declare independence from England. Washington served as a delegate to the First Continental Congress in 1774 in Philadelphia. By the time the Second Continental Congress convened a year later, the American Revolution had begun in earnest, and Washington was named commander in chief of the Continental Army. Washington proved to be a better general than military strategist. His strength lay not in his genius on the battlefield but in his ability to keep the struggling colonial army together. His troops were poorly trained and lacked food, ammunition and other supplies (soldiers sometimes even went without shoes in winter). However, Washington was able to give them the direction and motivation to keep going. Over the course of the grueling eight-year war, the colonial forces won few battles but consistently held their own against the British. In October 1781, with the aid of the French (who allied themselves with the colonists over their rivals the British), the Continental forces were able to capture British troops under General Charles Cornwallis (1738-1805) in Yorktown, Virginia. This action effectively ended the Revolutionary War and Washington was declared a national hero.

Charter Colony

Charter colony is one of the three classes of colonial government established in the 17th century English colonies in North America, the other classes being proprietary colony and royal colony. The colonies of Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts Bay were charter colonies.

John Smith

Colonizer and publicist. During his two years in America, Smith was principally responsible for the survival of England's first permanent colony in the New World. His bold leadership, military experience, and determination brought a measure of discipline to the dissolute colonists; his negotiations with the Indians prevented starvation; and his dispersal of the colony from unhealthy Jamestown lowered mortality. After his return to England, his promotional writings contributed significantly to English efforts for an American empire.

Gen. James Wolfe

Commander of the British army at the capture of Quebec from the French in 1759, a victory that led to British supremacy in Canada. The elder son of Lieutenant General Edward Wolfe, he was commissioned in the Royal Marines in 1741 but transferred almost immediately to the 12th Foot. Wolfe was on active service continuously until the end of the War of the Austrian Succession, fighting against the French at Dettingen (1743) and later at Falkirk and Culloden (1746) during the Jacobite rebellion. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1750 and served as brigadier general under Major General Jeffery Amherst in an expedition against the French at Cape Breton Island (1758). The capture of Louisbourg, a fortress on the island, was largely attributed to Wolfe's daring and determination.

Committees of Correspondence

Committees of Correspondence were the American colonies' first institution for maintaining communication with one another. They were organized in the decade before the Revolution, when the deteriorating relationship with Great Britain made it increasingly important for the colonies to share ideas and information. In 1764, Boston formed the earliest Committee of Correspondence, writing to other colonies to encourage united opposition to Britain's recent stiffening of customs enforcement and prohibition of American paper money. The following year New York formed a similar committee to keep the other colonies notified of its actions in resisting the Stamp Act. This correspondence led to the holding of the Stamp Act Congress in New York City. Nine of the colonies sent representatives, but no permanent intercolonial structure was established. In 1772, a new Boston Committee of Correspondence was organized, this time to communicate with all the towns in the province, as well as with "the World," about the recent announcement that Massachusetts's governor and judges would hereafter be paid by-and hence accountable to-the Crown rather than the colonial legislature. More than half of the province's 260 towns formed committees and replied to Boston's communications.

Elizabeth I

Elizabeth inherited a tattered realm: dissension between Catholics and Protestants tore at the very foundation of society; the royal treasury had been bled dry by Mary and her advisors, Mary's loss of Calais left England with no continental possessions for the first time since the arrival of the Normans in 1066 and many (mainly Catholics) doubted Elizabeth's claim to the throne. Continental affairs added to her problems - France had a strong foothold in Scotland, and Spain, the strongest European nation at the time, posed a threat to the security of the realm. Elizabeth proved most calm and calculating (even though she had a horrendous temper), employing capable and distinguished men to carrying out royal prerogative. Her first order of business was to eliminate religious unrest. Elizabeth lacked the fanaticism of her siblings (Edward VI favored Protestant radicalism, Mary I, conservative Catholicism), which enabled her to devise a compromise that, basically, reinstated Henrician reforms. She was, however, compelled to take a stronger pro-Protestant stance when events demanded it, for two reasons: the machinations of Mary Queen of Scots and persecution of continental Protestants by the two strongholds of Orthodox Catholicism, Spain and France.

Pennsylvania

Founded by William Penn as a Quaker colony 1681- William Penn received a land grant from King Charles II, and used it to form a colony that would provide a haven for Quakers. This colony allowed religious freedom.

Eric the Red

Founder of the first European settlement on Greenland and the father of Leif Eriksson, one of the first Europeans to reach North America. According to the Icelanders' sagas, Erik left his native Norway for western Iceland with his father, Thorvald, who had been exiled for manslaughter. When Erik—who had been nicknamed "Erik the Red" during his youth because of his red hair—was similarly exiled from Iceland about 980, he decided to explore land to the west (Greenland)

Pere Marquette

France 1673 Explored Mackinac Strait, Lake Michigan, Green Bay, Wisconsin River, and Mississippi River to the Aransas River

Francis Drake

Francis Drake participated in some of the earliest English slaving voyages to Africa and earned a reputation for his privateering, or piracy, against Spanish ships and possessions. Sent by Queen Elizabeth II to South America in 1577, he returned home via the Pacific and became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe; the queen rewarded him with a knighthood. In 1588, Drake served as second-in-command during the English victory over the Spanish Armada. The most famous mariner of the Elizabethan Age, he died off the coast of Panama in 1596 and was buried at sea.

Louis Joilet

French Canadian explorer and cartographer who, with Father Jacques Marquette, was the first white man to traverse the Mississippi River from its confluence with the Wisconsin to the mouth of the Arkansas River in Arkansas. Jolliet received a Jesuit education in New France (now in Canada) but left his seminary in 1667 and went to France. The following year he returned to New France to work in the fur trade. In 1672 he was commissioned by the governor of New France to explore the Mississippi, and he was joined by Marquette. On May 17, 1673, the party set out in two birchbark canoes from Michilimackinac (St. Ignace, Mich.) for Green Bay, on Lake Michigan. Continuing up the Fox River in central Wisconsin and down the Wisconsin River, they entered the Mississippi about a month later. Pausing along the way to make notes, to hunt, and to glean scraps of information from Indians, they arrived in July at the Quapaw Indian village (40 miles north of present Arkansas City, Ark.) at the mouth of the Arkansas River. From personal observations and from the friendly Quapaw Indians, they concluded that the Mississippi flowed south into the Gulf of Mexico—not, as they had hoped, into the Pacific Ocean. In July the party returned homeward via the Illinois River and Green Bay. Their journey is described in Marquette's journal, which has survived.

Robert Cavalier, Sieur de LaSalle

French explorer in North America, who led an expedition down the Illinois and Mississippi rivers and claimed all the region watered by the Mississippi and its tributaries for Louis XIV of France, naming the region "Louisiana." A few years later, in a luckless expedition seeking the mouth of the Mississippi, he was murdered by his men.

Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur de Iberville

French-Canadian naval hero and explorer, noted for his exploration and battles on behalf of the French in Hudson Bay and in the territory of Louisiana. The son of prominent Montreal fur trader Charles Le Moyne, Iberville spent his young manhood in raids against English trading posts on Hudson Bay. In 1686 he joined the expedition of Pierre de Troyes to the James Bay region, capturing three forts over which he was made commander. Over the next decade Iberville distinguished himself in numerous actions against the English, notably at Corlaer (now Schenectady, N.Y.; 1690); Pemaquid, Maine (1696); and St. John's, Newfoundland (1696). His most brilliant foray was the Hudson Bay campaign of 1697; this success made him, at age 36, New France's most celebrated hero.

Paul Revere

From the beginning, Revere participated in public affairs. During the French and Indian War, Richard Gridley (who had commanded the artillery at the siege of Louisbourg and was later to direct the American digging-in at Bunker Hill) organized an artillery regiment. Commissioned a second lieutenant, Revere participated during 1756 in the failed expedition against Crown Point. Revere became a Freemason in 1760, and soon joined two more overtly political groups-the Sons of Liberty and the North End Caucus. Through them, he participated in Samuel Adams's gradually accelerating movement toward independence, serving primarily as a courier and an engraver of propaganda pictures, the two best-known examples of which are a "view" of British ships landing troops in 1768 and a wildly inaccurate cartoon depicting the Boston Massacre of 1770. The highlight of his Whig activity came the night of April 18-19, 1775, when on Joseph Warren's orders he crossed the Charles River and rode to Lexington to warn Samuel Adams and John Hancock that British troops were coming through on their way to Concord. Revere got the word to the radical leaders, but a British patrol prevented any further progress. Once hostilities began, Revere once again joined the artillery, serving without note until the disastrous expedition to Castine, Maine. In the aftermath of the American rout there, he faced charges of disobedience and incompetence that, although ultimately refuted, permanently ended his service.

Gen. Braddock

General Edward Braddock was receiving advice from a young George Washington. Washington was suggesting that he disperse his army and fight behind trees as the Indians did. General Braddock was slow to do as the younger officer advised, and he would pay dearly. This was no mere battle they had been lured into. It was an ambush waiting to spring. George Washington's warning came in vain. Arrows and bullets killed many men in Braddock's ranks because they were all confused from the war whoops and yells they heard from the other side of the field. Everyone was scattering. Braddock tried to encourage his men by example and shouting for them to follow. Two hours into the fight, Edward Braddock had lost many officers and men to the enemy's weapons. At last, his only aide was young Washington, who carried Braddock back to camp after he had been mortally wounded in the chest.

Lief Ericson

Leif Eriksson was the son of Erik the Red, founder of the first European settlement on what is now called Greenland. Around A.D. 1000, Eriksson sailed to Norway, where King Olaf I converted him to Christianity. According to one school of thought, Eriksson sailed off course on his way back to Greenland and landed on the North American continent, where he explored a region he called Vinland. He may also have sought out Vinland based on stories of an earlier voyage by an Icelandic trader. After spending the winter in Vinland, Leif sailed back to Greenland, and never returned to North American shores. He is generally believed to be the first European to reach the North American continent, nearly four centuries years before Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492.

Plains of Abraham

General Interest 1759 Britain victorious on the Plains of Abraham Share this: facebook twitter google+ PRINT CITE During the Seven Years War, a worldwide conflict known as the French and Indian War in America, the British under General James Wolfe achieve a dramatic victory when they scale the cliffs over the city of Quebec, defeating the Marquis de Montcalm's French forces on the Plains of Abraham. Wolfe himself was fatally wounded during the battle, but his victory ensured British supremacy in Canada. Montcalm also suffered a mortal wound during the battle. In the early 1750s, French expansion into the Ohio River valley repeatedly brought France into armed conflict with the British colonies. In 1756-the first official year of fighting in the Seven Years War-the British suffered a series of defeats against the French and their broad network of Native American alliances. However, in 1757, British Prime Minister William Pitt (the older) recognized the potential of imperial expansion that would come out of victory against the French and borrowed heavily to fund an expanded war effort. Pitt financed Prussia's struggle against France and her allies in Europe and reimbursed the colonies for the raising of armies in North America.

"Gold, Glory, and God"

Historians use a standard shorthand, "Gold, God, and Glory," to describe the motives generating the overseas exploration, expansion, and conquests that allowed various European countries to rise to world power between 1400 and 1750. "Gold" refers to the search for material gain through acquiring and selling Asian spices, African slaves, American metals, and other resources. As merchants gained influence in late-medieval western Europe, they convinced their governments to establish a direct connection to the lucrative Asian trade, leading to the first European voyages of discovery in the 1400s. "God" refers to the militant crusading and missionary traditions of Christianity, characterized in part by rivalry with Islam and hatred of non-Christian religions. "Glory" alludes to the competition between monarchies. Some kings sought to establish their claims to newly contacted territories so as to strengthen their position in European politics and increase their power at the expense of the landowning nobility. They also embraced the ideology of mercantilism, which held that governments and large private companies should cooperate to increase the state's wealth by increasing the reserves of precious metals. Motivated by these three aims, several western European peoples gained control or influence over widening segments of the globe during the Early Modern Era. By 1914 Europeans dominated much of the world politically and economically.

Jacques Cartier

In 1534, France's King Francis I authorized the navigator Jacques Cartier (1491-1557) to lead a voyage to the New World in order to seek gold and other riches, as well as a new route to Asia. Cartier's three expeditions along the St. Lawrence River would later enable France to lay claim to the lands that would become Canada. Born in Saint-Malo, France, Cartier began sailing as a young man. He gained a reputation as a skilled navigator prior to making his three famous voyages to North America.

Plymouth

In September 1620, during the reign of King James I, around 100 English men and women-many of them members of the English Separatist Church-set sail for the New World aboard the Mayflower, a three-masted merchant ship. The ship landed on the shores of Cape Cod, in present-day Massachusetts, two months later, and in late December anchored at Plymouth Rock, where they would form the first permanent settlement of Europeans in New England. Though more than half the original settlers died during that grueling first winter, the survivors were able to secure peace treaties with neighboring Native American tribes and build a largely self-sufficient economy within five years.

Ferdinand Magellan

In search of fame and fortune, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480-1521) set out from Spain in 1519 with a fleet of five ships to discover a western sea route to the Spice Islands. En route he discovered what is now known as the Strait of Magellan and became the first European to cross the Pacific Ocean. The voyage was long and dangerous, and only one ship returned home three years later. Although it was laden with valuable spices from the East, only 18 of the fleet's original crew of 270 returned with the ship. Magellan himself was killed in battle on the voyage, but his ambitious expedition proved that the globe could be circled by sea and that the world was much larger than had previously been imagined.

Queen Isabella

Isabella I, byname Isabella the Catholic, (born April 22, 1451, Madrigal de las Altas Torres, Castile—died November 26, 1504, Medina del Campo, Spain), queen of Castile (1474-1504) and of Aragon (1479-1504), ruling the two kingdoms jointly from 1479 with her husband, Ferdinand II of Aragon (Ferdinand V of Castile). Their rule effected the permanent union of Spain and the beginning of an overseas empire in the New World, led by Christopher Columbus under Isabella's sponsorship.

Giovanni Verrazano

Italian navigator and explorer for France who was the first European to sight New York and Narragansett bays. After his education in Florence, Verrazzano moved to Dieppe, France, and entered that nation's maritime service. He made several voyages to the Levant, and in 1523 he secured two ships for a voyage backed by the French king to discover a westward passage to Asia. In January 1524 he sailed one of those vessels, La Dauphine, to the New World and reached Cape Fear about the beginning of March. Verrazzano then sailed northward, exploring the eastern coast of North America. He made several discoveries on the voyage, including the sites of present-day New York Harbor, Block Island, and Narragansett Bay, and was the first European explorer to name newly discovered North American sites after persons and places in the Old World.

Glorious Revolution

James II After the accession of James II in 1685, his overt Roman Catholicism alienated the majority of the population. In 1687 he issued a Declaration of Indulgence, suspending the penal laws against dissenters and recusants, and in April 1688 ordered that a second Declaration of Indulgence be read from every pulpit on two successive Sundays. William Sancroft, the archbishop of Canterbury, and six other bishops petitioned him against this and were prosecuted for seditious libel. Their acquittal almost coincided with the birth of a son to James's Roman Catholic queen, Mary of Modena (June). This event promised an indefinite continuance of his policy and brought discontent to a head. Seven eminent Englishmen, including one bishop and six prominent politicians of both Whig and Tory persuasions, wrote inviting William of Orange to come over with an army to redress the nation's grievances. William III: landing at Torbay [Credit: The Print Collector/Heritage-Images]William was both James's nephew and his son-in-law, and, until the birth of James's son, his wife, Mary, was heir apparent. William's chief concern was to check the overgrowth of French power in Europe. Between 1679 and 1684 England's impotence, and the emperor Leopold I's preoccupation with a Turkish advance to Vienna, had allowed Louis XIV to seize Luxembourg, Strasbourg, Casale, and other places vital to the defense of the Spanish Netherlands, the German Rhineland, and northern Italy. By 1688, however, a great European coalition had begun to form to call for a halt to aggressions. Its prospects depended partly upon England. Thus, having been in close touch with the leading English malcontents for more than a year, William accepted their invitation. Landing at Brixham on Tor Bay (November 5), he advanced slowly on London as support fell away from James II. James's daughter Anne and his best general, John Churchill, were among the deserters to William's camp; thereupon James fled to France. William was now asked to carry on the government and summon a Parliament. When this Convention Parliament met (January 22, 1689), it agreed, after some debate, to treat James's flight as an abdication and to offer the Crown, with an accompanying Declaration of Rights, to William and Mary jointly. Both gift and conditions were accepted. Thereupon the convention turned itself into a proper Parliament and large parts of the Declaration into a Bill of Rights. This bill gave the succession to Mary's sister, Anne, in default of issue to Mary; barred Roman Catholics from the throne; abolished the Crown's power to suspend laws; condemned the power of dispensing with laws "as it hath been exercised and used of late"; and declared a standing army illegal in time of peace. The settlement marked a considerable triumph for Whig views. If no Roman Catholic could be king, then no kingship could be unconditional. The adoption of the exclusionist solution lent support to John Locke's contention that government was in the nature of a social contract between the king and his people represented in parliament. The revolution permanently established Parliament as the ruling power of England.

John Rolfe

John Rolfe arrived in Jamestown along with 150 other settlers in 1610, as part of a new charter organized by the Virginia Company. He began experimenting with growing tobacco, eventually using seeds grown in the West Indies to develop Virginia's first profitable export. In 1614, Rolfe married the daughter of a local Native American chieftain, Matoaka (better known by her childhood nickname, Pocahontas), who had been taken captive by the English settlers and converted to Christianity. The couple sailed to England with their infant son in 1616; seven months later, Pocahontas died as they prepared to travel home. Rolfe returned to Virginia, remarried and served a prominent role in the economic and political life of the colony until his death in 1622.

Line of Demarcation

Line of Demarcation (1493), papal donation of temporal authority in the Indies to the Spanish crown. Following the successful completion of Christopher Columbus's first voyage to the New World, Pope Alexander VI (a Spaniard) extended to the crown of Castile by a series of bulls (May-September 1493) dominion over all those lands and peoples to the west of a meridian that were not already under the control of another Christian prince. The line ran roughly 100 leagues west of the Azore or Cape Verde Islands. Other western European seafaring nations, especially England and France, questioned the claims: Francis I purportedly asked to be shown the clause in Adam's will excluding the French from a share in the newly discovered lands; the English outright rejected papal authority in the matter; and the Portuguese demanded bilateral discussions with the Spanish to redraw the boundary, which resulted in the Treaty of Tordesillas.

New England Colonies' Characteristics

Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island Made up of the state Connecticut, Rhode Island, Province Plantations, Massachusetts and New Hampshire. Pilgrims established the Plymouth colony. The economy was based on fishing and trading. shipbuilding, lumbering, fishing shipbuilding, fisheries, commerce, lumbering, small-scale manufacturing

Norsemen (Vikings)

Medieval Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian groups who responded to land shortages and climatic conditions in Scandinavia by taking to the sea and establishing communities in various parts of western Europe, Iceland, Greenland, and North America.

Spanish Armada

Off the coast of Gravelines, France, Spain's so-called "Invincible Armada" is defeated by an English naval force under the command of Lord Charles Howard and Sir Francis Drake. After eight hours of furious fighting, a change in wind direction prompted the Spanish to break off from the battle and retreat toward the North Sea. Its hopes of invasion crushed, the remnants of the Spanish Armada began a long and difficult journey back to Spain. In the late 1580s, English raids against Spanish commerce and Queen Elizabeth I's support of the Dutch rebels in the Spanish Netherlands led King Philip II of Spain to plan the conquest of England. Pope Sixtus V gave his blessing to what was called "The Enterprise of England," which he hoped would bring the Protestant isle back into the fold of Rome. A giant Spanish invasion fleet was completed by 1587, but Sir Francis Drake's daring raid on the Armada's supplies in the port of Cadiz delayed the Armada's departure until May 1588.

James Oglethorpe

Oglethorpe went on to be elected to his country's parliament in 1722, serving for more than three decades. He pushed for penal reform and an end to slavery and impressment. He travelled to America in 1733 and founded Savannah, the colony that would become Georgia. Returning to England in the mid-1740s, he died on June 30, 1785.

Jamestown

On May 14, 1607, a group of roughly 100 members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded the first permanent English settlement in North America on the banks of the James River. Famine, disease and conflict with local Native American tribes in the first two years brought Jamestown to the brink of failure before the arrival of a new group of settlers and supplies in 1610. Tobacco became Virginia's first profitable export, and a period of peace followed the marriage of colonist John Rolfe to Pocahontas, the daughter of an Algonquian chief. During the 1620s, Jamestown expanded from the area around the original James Fort into a New Town built to the east; it remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699.

Intolerable Acts

Parliament was utterly fed up with colonial antics. The British could tolerate strongly worded letters or trade boycotts. They could put up with defiant legislatures and harassed customs officials to an extent. But they saw the destruction of 342 chests of tea belonging to the British East India Company as wanton destruction of property by Boston thugs who did not even have the courage to admit responsibility. Someone was going to pay.

Buccaneers

Pirates of the Caribbean who governed themselves and preyed on international shipping

Puritans

Puritanism was a religious reform movement that arose within the Church of England in the late sixteenth century. Under siege from church and crown, it sent an offshoot in the third and fourth decades of the seventeenth century to the northern English colonies in the New World-a migration that laid the foundation for the religious, intellectual, and social order of New England. Puritanism, however, was not only a historically specific phenomenon coincident with the founding of New England; it was also a way of being in the world-a style of response to lived experience-that has reverberated through American life ever since.

Quartering Act

Quartering Act: British warships landing troops in Boston, 1768, engraving by Paul Revere [Credit: Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (neg. no. LC-USZ62-134241)](1765), in American colonial history, the British parliamentary provision (actually an amendment to the annual Mutiny Act) requiring colonial authorities to provide food, drink, quarters, fuel, and transportation to British forces stationed in their towns or villages. Resentment over this practice is reflected in the Third Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which forbids it in peacetime. The Quartering Act was passed primarily in response to greatly increased empire defense costs in America following the French and Indian War and Pontiac's War. Like the Stamp Act of the same year, it also was an assertion of British authority over the colonies, in disregard of the fact that troop financing had been exercised for 150 years by representative provincial assemblies rather than by the Parliament in London. The act was particularly resented in New York, where the largest number of reserves were quartered, and outward defiance led directly to the Suspending Act as part of the Townshend Acts of 1767. After considerable tumult, the Quartering Act was allowed to expire in 1770.

Contract Theory of Government

The theory of an implicit social contract holds that by remaining in the territory controlled by some society, which usually has a government, people give consent to join that society and be governed by its government, if any. This consent is what gives legitimacy to such government.

Holy Land

References to the Holy Land are found in Jewish biblical and rabbinic literature and later in Christian tradition. The area is centered at Jerusalem, and it extends from modern Israel to Egypt, which is associated with Jesus' family in the Gospels, and to Asia Minor, which is associated with the Virgin Mary and Saint John. As the dwelling place of the divine presence, the Holy Land has been the location of pilgrimage sites since the era of the Roman emperor Constantine in the fourth century. It began to take on distinct borders with the resurgence of Christian interest in the holy sites and the development of archaeology during the nineteenth century. The area is also holy to Muslims because it is home to important shrines associated with the prophet Muhammad and the early days of Islam, including Islam's third holiest mosque, in Jerusalem.

Reasons for British Migrations

Religous reasons, political freedom, and to escape debt prison

Ohio River Valley

Since prehistoric times the Ohio River and its tributaries have served as a major conduit for human migration, linking the Atlantic seaboard and Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi valley. Human occupation in the Ohio valley began over sixteen thousand years ago, and the region was home to a series of cultures: Paleo-Indian (before 9500 b.c.e.), Archaic (9500-3000 b.c.e.), late Archaic-early Woodland (3000-200 b.c.e.), middle Woodland (200 b.c.e.-500 c.e.), late Woodland (500-1600 c.e.), and late Prehistoric (c. 1400-1600). The middle Woodland Hopewell culture, centered in southern Ohio and characterized by earthworks, elaborate burial practices, and long-distance trade, is notable, as is the Fort Ancient culture (1400-1600), located in southern Ohio, northern Kentucky, and eastern Indiana. The valley was occupied by a number of protohistoric and historic Native American societies, some indigenous to the river drainage basin and others who migrated westward, displaced by European colonization in the east. The Native American societies included the Iroquois (especially Seneca, Erie [to 1656], and Mingo) in western Pennsylvania; the Delaware and Seneca in southern Pennsylvania and West Virginia; the Delaware, Miami, Ottawa, Shawnee, Seneca, and Wyandot in Ohio; the Miami in Indiana; and the Delaware and Shawnee in northern Kentucky. The Ohio takes it name from the Iroquois language and means "Great River."

Cecilius Clavert (Lord Baltimore)

Sir George and his son Cecil were British subjects rewarded with land in the new world. George was a Secretary of State to King James I. He was at first rewarded with a title to land in Newfoundland. He later asked James I's son, Charles I, for title to land north of Virginia that would become Maryland. This land was not signed over until after his death and was given to his son Cecil. The Calverts were Roman Catholic, a religion which most inhabitants of the New World were prejudiced against. Historical Significance: When Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, created the colony of Maryland, he formed it based on the ideas of freedom of religion and separation of church and state. Maryland, in fact, became known as a haven for Roman Catholics in the New World. Cecil governed Maryland for forty-two years.

Walter Raleigh

Sir Walter Raleigh, English adventurer, writer, and favorite courtier of Queen Elizabeth I, is beheaded in London, under a sentence brought against him 15 years earlier for conspiracy against King James I. During Elizabeth's reign, Raleighorganized three major expeditions to America, including the first English settlement in America, in 1587—the ill-fated Roanoke settlement located in present-day North Carolina. Raleigh laterfell out of favor with Elizabeth after she learned of his secret marriage to Bessy Throckmorton, one of her maids-of-honor, and he was imprisoned with his wife in the Tower of London. After buying his freedom, Raleigh married Bessy and distanced himself from the jealous English queen. After Elizabeth died in 1603, Raleigh was implicated as a foe of King James I and imprisoned with a death sentence. The death sentence was later commuted, and in 1616 Raleigh was freed to leadan expedition to the New World, this time to establish a gold mine in the Orinoco River region of South America. However, the expedition was a failure, and when Raleigh returned to England the death sentence of 1603 was invoked against him.

Early Agriculture

Slash and Burn Technique

Society of Friends (Quakers)

Society of Friends, also called Friends Church, byname Quakers, Christian group that arose in mid-17th-century England, dedicated to living in accordance with the "Inward Light," or direct inward apprehension of God, without creeds, clergy, or other ecclesiastical forms. As most powerfully expressed by George Fox (1624-91), Friends felt that their "experimental" discovery of God would lead to the purification of all of Christendom. It did not; but Friends founded one American colony and were dominant for a time in several others, and though their numbers are now comparatively small, they continue to make disproportionate contributions to science, industry, and especially to the Christian effort for social reform. History

Vasco Nunez Balboa

The 16th-century Spanish conquistador and explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519) helped establish the first stable settlement on the South American continent at Darién, on the coast of the Isthmus of Panama. In 1513, while leading an expedition in search of gold, he sighted the Pacific Ocean. Balboa claimed the ocean and all of its shores for Spain, opening the way for later Spanish exploration and conquest along the western coast of South America. Balboa's achievement and ambition posed a threat to Pedro Arias Dávila, the Spanish governor of Darién, who falsely accused him of treason and had him executed in early 1519.

Hernando Desoto

The 16th-century Spanish explorer and conquistador (c. 1496-1542) arrived in the West Indies as a young man and went on to make a fortune in the Central American slave trade. He supplied ships for Francisco Pizarro's southward expedition and ended up accompanying Pizarro in his conquest of Peru in 1532. Seeking greater glory and riches, de Soto embarked on a major expedition in 1538 to conquer Florida for the Spanish crown. He and his men traveled nearly 4,000 miles throughout the region that would become the southeastern United States in search of riches, fighting off Native American attacks along the way. In 1541, de Soto and his men became the first Europeans to encounter the great Mississippi River and cross it; de Soto died early the next year.

Bering Straight

The Bering Strait was last crossed by humans 20,000 years ago during the ice age, when ice formed a bridge between North America and Asia.

Boston Massacre

The Boston Massacre occurred on March 5, 1770. A squad of British soldiers, come to support a sentry who was being pressed by a heckling, snowballing crowd, let loose a volley of shots. Three persons were killed immediately and two died later of their wounds; among the victims was Crispus Attucks, a man of black or Indian parentage. The British officer in charge, Capt. Thomas Preston, was arrested for manslaughter, along with eight of his men; all were later acquitted. The Boston Massacre is remembered as a key event in helping to galvanize the colonial public to the Patriot cause. In an effort to demonstrate the impartiality of colonial courts, two Patriot leaders, John Adams and Josiah Quincy, volunteered to defend Captain Preston and his men. The prosecution produced little evidence, and Preston and six of the soldiers were acquitted; two others were found guilty of manslaughter, branded on the hand, and released. Although many Patriots criticized the verdicts and the anniversary of the Boston Massacre became a patriotic holiday, the removal of troops from Boston and the repeal of all but one of the contested import duties resulted in a lowering of tension in the years following the incident. Nevertheless, Governor Hutchinson's reluctant removal of troops from Boston under threat of insurrection dramatized the impotence of imperial power as it was then constituted when faced with organized local resistance.

Declaratory Act

The Declaratory Act was a measure issued by British Parliament asserting its authority to make laws binding the colonists "in all cases whatsoever" including the right to tax. The Declaratory Act was a reaction of British Parliament to the failure of the as they did not want to give up on the principle of imperial taxation asserting its legal right to tax colonies. When Parliament it concurrently approved the Declaratory Act to justify its repeal. It also declared all resolution issued by the null and void.

John Locke

The English philosopher and political theorist John Locke (1632-1704) laid much of the groundwork for the Enlightenment and made central contributions to the development of liberalism. Trained in medicine, he was a key advocate of the empirical approaches of the Scientific Revolution. In his "Essay Concerning Human Understanding," he advanced a theory of the self as a blank page, with knowledge and identity arising only from accumulated experience. His political theory of government by the consent of the governed as a means to protect "life, liberty and estate" deeply influenced the United States' founding documents. His essays on religious tolerance provided an early model for the separation of church and state. The "Two Treatises of Government" (1690) offered political theories developed and refined by Locke during his years at Shaftesbury's side. Rejecting the divine right of kings, Locke said that societies form governments by mutual (and, in later generations, tacit) agreement. Thus, when a king loses the consent of the governed, a society may remove him—an approach quoted almost verbatim in Thomas Jefferson's 1776 Declaration of Independence. Locke also developed a definition of property as the product of a person's labor that would be foundational for both Adam Smith's capitalism and Karl Marx's socialism.

First Continental Congress

The First Continental Congress convened on September 5, 1774, to protest the Intolerable Acts. The congress endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, voted for a boycott of British imports, and sent a petition to King George III, conceding to Parliament the power of regulation of commerce but stringently objecting to its arbitrary taxation and unfair judicial system. Meeting in Philadelphia of colonial representatives to denounce the Intolerable Acts and to petition the British Parliamen

House of Burgesses

The House of Burgesses was where elected representatives of English colonists first assembled to debate and solve common problems and pass laws in the new colony of Virginia. The House of Burgesses was established in 1619, it was split into two chambers in 1650, creating the House of Burgesses and the Governors Council and eventually disbanded in 1776 when it was succeeded by the Virginia House of Delegates. The House of Burgesses was a bicameral legislature that was a model for congress and the first representative governmental body in America.

Incas

The Inca first appeared in the Andes region during the 12th century A.D. and gradually built a massive kingdom through the military strength of their emperors. Known as Tawantinsuyu, the Inca state spanned the distance of northern Ecuador to central Chile and consisted of 12 million inhabitants from more than 100 different ethnic groups at its peak. Well-devised agricultural and roadway systems, along with a centralized religion and language, helped maintain a cohesive state.

Maya

The Maya Empire, centered in the tropical lowlands of what is now Guatemala, reached the peak of its power and influence around the sixth century A.D. The Maya excelled at agriculture, pottery, hieroglyph writing, calendar-making and mathematics, and left behind an astonishing amount of impressive architecture and symbolic artwork. Most of the great stone cities of the Maya were abandoned by A.D. 900, however, and since the 19th century scholars have debated what might have caused this dramatic decline.The Maya civilization was one of the most dominant indigenous societies of Mesoamerica (a term used to describe Mexico and Central America before the 16th century Spanish conquest). Maya were centered in one geographical block covering all of the Yucatan Peninsula and modern-day Guatemala; Belize and parts of the Mexican states of Tabasco and Chiapas; and the western part of Honduras and El Salvador.

Vasco da Gama

The Portuguese nobleman, sailed from Lisbon in 1497 on a mission to reach India and open a sea route from Europe to the East. After sailing down the western coast of Africa and rounding the Cape of Good Hope, his expedition made numerous stops in Africa before reaching the trading post of Calicut, India, in May 1498. Da Gama received a hero's welcome back in Portugal, and was sent on a second expedition to India in 1502, during which he brutally clashed with Muslim traders in the region. Two decades later, da Gama again returned to India, this time as Portuguese viceroy; he died there of an illness in late 1524.

Boston Tea Party

This famed act of American colonial defiance served as a protest against taxation. Seeking to boost the troubled East India Company, British Parliament adjusted import duties with the passage of the Tea Act in 1773. While consignees in Charleston, New York, and Philadelphia rejected tea shipments, merchants in Boston refused to concede to Patriot pressure. On the night of December 16, 1773, Samuel Adams and the Sons of Liberty boarded three ships in the Boston harbor and threw 342 chests of tea overboard. This resulted in the passage of the punitive Coercive Acts in 1774 and pushed the two sides closer to war.

Prince Henry the Navigator

The Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) launched the first great European voyages of exploration. He sought new lands and sources of revenue for his kingdom and dynasty and searched for eastern Christian allies against Islam. Born at Oporto on March 4, 1394, Henry was the third son of John I of Portugal and Philippa of Lancaster. He grew to maturity at a time when John I was bringing to a close a confused period of civil strife and war with Castile and securing Portugal's independence. The conflicts of this period had left the nobility decimated and impoverished and the monarchy's revenues greatly depreciated. Thus the ruling families began to look abroad for new worlds of wealth, land, and honors to conquer. John and his sons became involved in a threefold movement of Portuguese expansion, comprising the campaign to conquer Moorish North Africa; the movement to explore and conquer the Atlantic island groups to the west and south; and the exploring, trading, and slaving expeditions down the West African coast. These ventures were united not by geographical curiosity but by Henry's overreaching desire to continue abroad the traditional Portuguese crusade against Moors and Berbers in the peninsula itself. He hoped also to catch Islam in a gigantic pincers movement by joining forces with the mythical "Indies" Christian kingdom of Prester John, the wealthy and powerful priest-king of medieval legend. The Prester's domains had been variously located in present-day India and in East Africa (Ethiopia).

Separatists

The Separatists, or Independents, were English Protestants who occupied the extreme wing of Puritanism. The Separatists were severely critical of the Church of England and wanted to either destroy it or separate from it. Their chief complaint was that too many elements of the Roman Catholic Church had been retained, such as the ecclesiastical courts, clerical vestments, altars and the practice of kneeling. The Separatists were also critical of the lax standards of public behavior, citing widespread drunkenness and the failure of many to keep the Sabbath properly. Referring to themselves as the Saints, the Separatists believed that they had been elected by God for salvation (see Calvinism) and feared spiritual contamination if they worshiped with those outside of their congregations, often referred to as the Strangers. In 1608, a community of English separatists decided to escape persecution by moving to Holland, an area long known for its toleration. Dutch society was so welcoming that the Pilgrims, as they had come to be known, eventually feared that they were losing control over their children. In 1620, they set out for a more remote location that would allow them to protect their community. This effort resulted in the founding of Plymouth Colony. Other contemporary religious dissenters, the Puritans, believed that the Church of England was badly in need of reform, but could be salvaged.

Treaty of Paris 1763

The Seven Years' War ended with the signing of the treaties of Hubertusburg and Paris in February 1763. In the Treaty of Paris, France lost all claims to Canada and gave Louisiana to Spain, while Britain received Spanish Florida, Upper Canada, and various French holdings overseas.

Tea Act

The Tea Act of 1773 was one of several measures imposed on the American colonists by the heavily indebted British government in the decade leading up to the American Revolutionary War (1775-83). The act's main purpose was not to raise revenue from the colonies but to bail out the floundering East India Company, a key actor in the British economy. The British government granted the company a monopoly on the importation and sale of tea in the colonies. The colonists had never accepted the constitutionality of the duty on tea, and the Tea Act rekindled their opposition to it. Their resistance culminated in the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773, in which colonists boarded East India Company ships and dumped their loads of tea overboard. Parliament responded with a series of harsh measures intended to stifle colonial resistance to British rule; two years later the war began.

Christopher Columbus

The explorer Christopher Columbus made four trips across the Atlantic Ocean from Spain: in 1492, 1493, 1498 and 1502. He was determined to find a direct water route west from Europe to Asia, but he never did. Instead, he accidentally stumbled upon the Americas. Though he did not really "discover" the New World-millions of people already lived there-his journeys marked the beginning of centuries of trans-Atlantic conquest and colonization. He landed on Puerto Rico

Paleo-Indians

The first group of migrates from Asia to the Western Hemisphere, presumed to have begun arriving before thirty thousand years ago.

Crusades

The first of the Crusades began in 1095, when armies of Christians from Western Europe responded to Pope Urban II's plea to go to war against Muslim forces in the Holy Land. After the First Crusade achieved its goal with the capture of Jerusalem in 1099, the invading Christians set up several Latin Christian states, even as Muslims in the region vowed to wage holy war (jihad) to regain control over the region. Deteriorating relations between the Crusaders and their Christian allies in the Byzantine Empire culminated in the sack of Constantinople in 1204 during the Third Crusade. Near the end of the 13th century, the rising Mamluk dynasty in Egypt provided the final reckoning for the Crusaders, toppling the coastal stronghold of Acre and driving the European invaders out of Palestine and Syria in 1291.

London Company

The goal of the Virginia Company was clear enough: establish a permanent colony in America that would make a profit for the Company. The company, chartered by King James I in April, 1606, was comprised of two divisions. The Plymouth Company would establish a short-lived colony at the mouth of the Kennebec River near what is now Phippsburg, Maine. The London Company would establish Jamestown in Virginia, England's first permanent settlement in the New World. There were two ways to become a member of the London Company. If you had money to buy shares in the Company but were inclined to remain safe and snug in England, you could invest as an "Adventurer." If you really were adventurous and didn't mind travelling to the new colony, you could become a member of the Company as a "Planter." Planters were required to work for the Company for a set number of years. In exchange for this work -- or, more precisely, servitude -- the company provided housing, clothing, and food. At the end of the servitude the planter would be granted a piece of land and be free of obligations to the company. In addition, the planter would be entitled to a share of the profits made by the company. (The company also recruited indentured servants, who would work for a set number of years, typically seven, in exchange for passage to the colony.) Sounds like a good deal, doesn't it? It really wasn't. The lives of these colonists were difficult and unpleasant, to say the least. The planters were really servants of the company. They had no real freedom and were kept by force in the company. They had no choice but to accept any changes that the Governor or company decided to make, including an extension of their contracts. (Three-year contracts were sometimes extended to ten years.) Any letters sent to or received from England were destroyed if they contained any disparaging remarks about the company. Relatively minor offences could result in severe punishments. According to some colonists' accounts, there were continual whippings, as well as punishments such as hanging, shooting, breaking on the wheel, and even being burnt alive. The Virginia Company was dissolved in 1624. Virginia then became a royal colony.

Indentured Servants

The growth of tobacco, rice, and indigo and the plantation economy created a tremendous need for labor in Southern English America. Without the aid of modern machinery, human sweat and blood was necessary for the planting, cultivation, and harvesting of these cash crops. While slaves existed in the English colonies throughout the 1600s, indentured servitude was the method of choice employed by many planters before the 1680s. This system provided incentives for both the master and servant to increase the working population of the Chesapeake colonies. Virginia and Maryland operated under what was known as the "HEADRIGHT SYSTEM." The leaders of each colony knew that labor was essential for economic survival, so they provided incentives for planters to import workers. For each laborer brought across the Atlantic, the master was rewarded with 50 acres of land. This system was used by wealthy plantation aristocrats to increase their land holdings dramatically. In addition, of course, they received the services of the workers for the duration of the indenture. This system seemed to benefit the servant as well. Each INDENTURED SERVANT would have their fare across the Atlantic paid in full by their master. A contract was written that stipulated the length of service — typically five years. The servant would be supplied room and board while working in the master's fields. Upon completion of the contract, the servant would receive "freedom dues," a pre-arranged termination bonus. This might include land, money, a gun, clothes or food. On the surface it seemed like a terrific way for the luckless English poor to make their way to prosperity in a new land. Beneath the surface, this was not often the case.

Church of England (Anglicans)

The name "Anglican" means "of England", but the Anglican church exists worldwide. It began in the sixth century in England, when Pope Gregory the Great sent St. Augustine to Britain to bring a more disciplined Apostolic succession to the Celtic Christians. The Anglican Church evolved as part of the Roman church, but the Celtic influence was folded back into the Roman portion of the church in many ways, perhaps most notably by Charlemagne's tutor Aidan. The Anglican church was spread worldwide first by English colonization and then by English-speaking missionaries. The Anglican church, although it has apostolic succession, is separate from the Roman church. The history of Christianity has produced numerous notable separations. In 1054 came the first major split from Roman administration of the church, when the Eastern Orthodox church and the Roman split apart. The conflict of authority in England between church and state certainly dates back to the arrival of Augustine, and has simmered for many centuries. The murder of Thomas a Becket was one of the more famous episodes of this conflict. The Magna Carta, signed by King John in 1215, contains 63 points; the very first point is a declaration that the English church is independent of its government..

Roger WIlliams

The political and religious leader Roger Williams (c. 1603-1683) is best remembered for founding the state of Rhode Island and advocating separation of church and state in Colonial America. His views on religious freedom and tolerance, coupled with his disapproval of the practice of confiscating land from Native Americans, earned him the wrath of his church and banishment from the colony. Williams and his followers settled on Narragansett Bay, where they purchased land from the Narragansett Indians and established a new colony governed by the principles of religious liberty and separation of church and state. Rhode Island became a haven for Baptists, Quakers, Jews and other religious minorities. Nearly a century after his death, Williams' notion of a "wall of separation" between church and state inspired the founders of the United States, who incorporated it into the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights.

Stamp Act Congress

The resolutions provided the tenor for the proclamations of the Stamp Act Congress, an extralegal convention composed of delegates from nine colonies that met in October 1765. The Stamp Act Congress wrote petitions to the king affirming both their loyalty and the conviction that only the colonial assemblies had the constitutional authority to tax the colonists. While the Congress and the colonial assemblies passed resolutions and issued petitions against the Stamp Act, the colonists took matters into their own hands. The most famous popular resistance took place in Boston, where opponents of the Stamp Act, calling themselves the Sons of Liberty, enlisted the rabble of Boston in opposition to the new law. This mob paraded through the streets with an effigy of Andrew Oliver, Boston's stamp distributor, which they hanged from the Liberty Tree and beheaded before ransacking Oliver's home. Oliver agreed to resign his commission as stamp distributor. Similar events transpired in other colonial towns, as crowds mobbed the stamp distributors and threatened their physical well-being and their property. By the beginning of 1766, most of the stamp distributors had resigned their commissions, many of them under duress. Mobs in seaport towns turned away ships carrying the stamp papers from England without allowing them to discharge their cargoes. Determined colonial resistance made it impossible for the British government to bring the Stamp Act into effect. In 1766, Parliament repealed it.

The Carolinas

The southern part of Carolina served first as support for the British West Indies. Soon the slave economy of the sugar islands reached the shores of Carolina. The cultivation of rice in the plantation system quickly became profitable, and planters in the hundreds and slaves in the tens of thousands soon inhabited Carolina. At the heart of the colony was the merchant port of Charles Town, later to be known as CHARLESTON. African slaves became a majority of the population before the middle of the eighteenth century. South Carolina even experimented with Indian slavery, enslaving those captured in the aftermath of battle.

Triangular System of Trade

The term "triangular trade" is used to characterize much of the Atlantic trading system from the 16th to early 19th centuries, in which three main commodity-types were traded in three key Atlantic geographic regions: labor, crops, and manufactured goods . A classic example would be the trade of sugar (often in its liquid form, molasses) from the Caribbean to Europe or New England, where it was distilled into rum. The profits from the sale of sugar were used to purchase manufactured goods, which were then shipped to West Africa, where they were bartered for slaves. The slaves were then brought to the Caribbean to be sold to sugar planters. The profits from the sale of the slaves were then used to buy more sugar, which was shipped to Europe, etc. This particular triangular trip took anywhere from five to 12 weeks, and often resulted in massive fatalities of enslaved Africans on the Middle Passage voyage .

Thomas Hooker

Thomas Hooker was born into a Puritan family in Leicestershire County, England. He was educated at Cambridge and quickly developed into a highly talented preacher. He acquired a position in Chelmsford, a town noted for its taverns and boisterous citizens, but Hooker's preaching was credited for bringing order. Hooker eventually ran into trouble with religious authorities over theological matters and was forced to flee to Holland. In 1633, Hooker and several dozen of his followers sailed to Massachusetts. Again Hooker ran into trouble for his religious views. John Cotton, one of Massachusetts' leading clergymen, held the position that only church members who owned property could have the vote. Hooker advanced a more democratic view, favoring the vote for all men, regardless of any religious or property qualification. Hooker lost favor in the Bay Colony and relocated to Connecticut in 1636, where he was instrumental in the development of Hartford. Hooker continued to voice democratic principles and aided in the adoption of the Fundamental Orders in 1638, sometimes regarded (with some exaggeration) as the first written constitution. The franchise was given to adult males who had been accepted by a majority vote of their individual townships; this was democratic by the standards of the 17th century, but may not appear that way to modern observers.

John Cabot

Though the exact details of his life and expeditions are the subject of debate, John Cabot (or Giovanni Caboto, as he was known in Italian) may have developed the idea of sailing westward to reach the riches of Asia while working for a Venetian merchant. By the late 1490s, he was living in England, and gained a commission from King Henry VII to make an expedition across the northern Atlantic. He sailed from Bristol in May 1497 and made landfall in late June. The exact site of Cabot's landing has not been definitively established; it may have been located in Newfoundland, Cape Breton Island or southern Labrador. After returning to England to report his success, Cabot departed on a second expedition in mid-1498, but is thought to have perished in a shipwreck en route.

Act of Toleration

Toleration Act, (May 24, 1689), act of Parliament granting freedom of worship to Nonconformists. It was one of a series of measures that firmly established the Glorious Revolution (1688-89) in England. The Toleration Act demonstrated that the idea of a "comprehensive" Church of England had been abandoned and that hope lay only in toleration of division. It allowed Nonconformists their own places of worship and their own teachers and preachers, subject to acceptance of certain oaths of allegiance. Social and political disabilities remained, however, and Nonconformists were still denied political office (as were Roman Catholics). That led to the practice of "occasional conformity," but in 1711 the Occasional Conformity Act imposed fines on anyone who, after receiving Anglican communion, was found worshiping at Nonconformist meetinghouses. A bill by Henry Saint John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, to prevent the growth of schism by forcing all those who taught or kept schools to take an oath of allegiance to the Church of England was frustrated by Queen Anne's death, on August 1, 1714, the day when it was to take effect. Had the bill become law, it would have destroyed the intellectual and educational power of dissent, which had made an important contribution to education by the foundation of "dissenting academies." Between 1663 and 1688, more than 20 academies had been founded; more than 30 more were started during 1690-1750. Established for the training of Nonconformist ministers to whom the universities were closed, the academies became centres of learning, offering a more-liberal education than the universities then provided, including business, science, and sociology as well as theology and the classics.The act did not apply to Roman Catholics and Unitarians.

Proclamation of 1763

Was issued October 7, 1763, by King George III following Great Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America after the end of the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War, which forbade all settlement past a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains. After the conclusion of the French and Indian War in America, the British Empire began to tighten control over its rather autonomous colonies. This royal proclamation, which closed down colonial expansion westward, was the first measure to affect all thirteen colonies. In response to a revolt of Native Americans led by Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, King George III declared all lands west of the Appalachian Divide off-limits to colonial settlers. The edict forbade private citizens and colonial governments alike to buy land from or make any agreements with natives; the empire would conduct all official relations. Furthermore, only licensed traders would be allowed to travel west or deal with Indians. Theoretically protecting colonists from Indian rampages, the measure was also intended to shield Native Americans from increasingly frequent attacks by white settlers.

The Lost Colony of Roanoke

Where Walter Raleigh stumbles upon the Roanoke to find food to save England from Hunger there he finds the potatoes that was in 1585

William Penn

William Penn was born in London, England, on October 14, 1644. The son of an admiral and landowner, he was educated in theology and the law. In his twenties he converted to the Quaker religion and was jailed several times for his resistance to the Church of England. In 1681, he received a royal charter to form a new colony in America, to be named Pennsylvania; he envisioned this territory as a peaceful refuge for members of all religious beliefs. He died in England on July 30, 1718.

Williamsburg

Williamsburg was the thriving capital of Virginia when the dream of American freedom and independence was taking shape and the colony was a rich and powerful land stretching west to the Mississippi River and north to the Great Lakes. For 81 formative years, from 1699 to 1780, Williamsburg was the political, cultural, and educational center of what was then the largest, most populous, and most influential of the American colonies. It was here that the fundamental concepts of our republic — responsible leadership, a sense of public service, self-government, and individual liberty — were nurtured under the leadership of patriots such as George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, George Mason, and Peyton Randolph. Near the end of the Revolutionary War and through the influence of Thomas Jefferson, the seat of government of Virginia was moved up the peninsula to the safer and more centrally located city of Richmond. For nearly a century and a half afterward, Williamsburg was a simple, quiet college town, home of the College of William and Mary.

Second Treatise on Government

a work written by John Locke before the Glorious Revolution that was read as justification for it. Locke described the relationship of a king and his people as a bilateral contract. If the king broke the contract, the people, by whom Locke meant the privileged and the powerful, had the right to depose him. The Glorious Revolution established a framework of government by and for the governemed that seemed to bear ou the arguments of this book

Stamp Act

an act of the British Parliament in 1756 that exacted revenue from the American colonies by imposing a stamp duty on newspapers and legal and commercial documents. Colonial opposition led to the act's repeal in 1766 and helped encourage the revolutionary movement against the British Crown.

General Thomas Gage

british general who knew that the colonists were preparing at lexington and concord, but he couldn't do anything. he was told to arrest sam adams and john hancock, so he sent 1000 soldiers to concord to surprise them. but patriots in boston, paul revere and william dawes rode out to warn everyone. When the british arrived, they were fired upon and the revolution had begun.

Duke of York

brother to King Charles II and founder of New York took New Netherlands from the Dutch at the command of the King of England - Charles II gave the entire area between Connecticut and Maryland to his brother. This created a problem with the Dutch who occupied this area. In 1664 English forces capture New Amsterdam without a fight and the rest of the Dutch settlements soon followed. He gave New jersey to Lord Berkely and Sir George Carteret. England renames New Netherlands and gives it to this person and names it New York. The city of New Amsterdam is renamed New York. This man realizes that the colony New York is too big to control. He decides to brake off three counties. He makes the colony New Jersey

Mercantilism

economic theory and practice common in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century that promoted governmental regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers. It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Its 17th-century publicists—most notably Thomas Mun in England, Jean-Baptiste Colbert in France, and Antonio Serra in Italy—never, however, used the term themselves; it was given currency by the Scottish economist Adam Smith in his Wealth of Nations (1776). Mercantilism contained many interlocking principles. Precious metals, such as gold and silver, were deemed indispensable to a nation's wealth. If a nation did not possess mines or have access to them, precious metals should be obtained by trade. It was believed that trade balances must be "favourable," meaning an excess of exports over imports. Colonial possessions should serve as markets for exports and as suppliers of raw materials to the mother country. Manufacturing was forbidden in colonies, and all commerce between colony and mother country was held to be a monopoly of the mother country.

Sons of Liberty

was an organization of American colonists that was created in the Thirteen American Colonies. The secret society was formed to protect the rights of the colonists and to fight taxation by the British government. They played a major role in most colonies in battling the Stamp Act in 1765.

Loius de Montcalm

general who served as commander in chief of French forces in Canada (1756-59) during the Seven Years' War, a worldwide struggle between Great Britain and France for colonial possessions. Montcalm joined the army as an ensign at age nine. His first war experience came in 1733 against the Austrians in the War of the Polish Succession (1733-38). In the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48) he distinguished himself during the defense of Prague (1742), and he was made colonel of his regiment at Auxerre in 1743. He again distinguished himself at the Battle of Piacenza (1746), where he received five sabre wounds and was taken prisoner. He was later exchanged. In 1747 he was raised to the rank of brigadier, with command of a cavalry regiment by the end of the war. Montcalm had inherited his father's titles and property in 1735. He now spent a few years with his family at Candiac. In 1756 he was placed in command of the French regular troops in North America, with the rank of major general; but his commission did not include authority over the greater part of military resources in Canada. He clashed with the governor general of the colony, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, and their animosity handicapped efficient military operations. Montcalm had early success as tactical commander against the British. In 1756 he forced the surrender of the British post at Oswego, thus restoring to France undisputed control of Lake Ontario. In 1757 he turned southward and captured Ft. William Henry, with its 2,500-man garrison; the victory was marred, however, by the slaughter of many English prisoners by the Native American allies of the French.

Southern Colonies' Characteristics

had longest growing season, most slaves, grew many cash crops, main crops were tobacco and rice, most fertile soil, best climate for crops, was the wealthiest Traditional Protestant; royal government and royal colonies; plantation and slave labor based economy; flat and fertile land, warm climate, harbors and ports

St. Lawrence River

is a large hydrographic system in east-central North America, crossing the interior of the continent and providing the primary drainage of the Great Lakes Basin. The "Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway System" extends approximately 2,500 miles (4,000 kilometers). Beginning at the North River in the U.S. state of Minnesota (which flows into Lake Superior), the system finally flows into the Atlantic Ocean via Cabot Strait in the extreme east of Canada. The St. Lawrence Seaway portion of the System extends from Montreal to mid-Lake Erie. The System traverses the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario and forms part of the international Canada-United States border between Ontario, Canada, and New York state. It is of vital geographic, hydrologic, and economic importance to both countries. A major trade artery since long before the U.S. or Canada achieved nationhood, today from its ports, a multi-modal transportation network fans out across the continent. The 15 major and 50 regional ports of the system link to 40 provincial and interstate highways and nearly 30 rail lines, creating a vital transportation route connecting goods and consumers throughout North America.

Massachusetts Bay Company

one of the original English settlements in present-day Massachusetts, settled in 1630 by a group of about 1,000 Puritan refugees from England under Gov. John Winthrop and Deputy Gov. Thomas Dudley. In 1629 the Massachusetts Bay Company had obtained from King Charles I a charter empowering the company to trade and colonize in New England between the Charles and Merrimack rivers. The grant was similar to that of the Virginia Company in 1609, the patentees being joint proprietors with rights of ownership and government. The intention of the crown was evidently to create merely a commercial company with what, in modern parlance, would be called stockholders, officers, and directors. By a shrewd and legally questionable move, however, the patentees decided to transfer the management and the charter itself to Massachusetts. By this move, they not only paved the way for local management, but they established the assumption that the charter for a commercial company was in reality a political constitution for a new government with only indefinable dependence upon the imperial one in England. Among the communities that the Puritans established were Boston, Charlestown, Dorchester, Medford, Watertown, Roxbury, and Lynn.

Salutary Neglect

was Britain's unofficial policy, initiated by prime minister Robert Walpole , to relax the enforcement of strict regulations, particularly trade laws, imposed on the American colonies late in the seventeenth and early in the eighteenth centuries.

John Adams

was a leader of the American Revolution, and served as the second U.S. president from 1797 to 1801. The Massachusetts-born, Harvard-educated Adams began his career as a lawyer. Intelligent, patriotic, opinionated and blunt, Adams became a critic of Great Britain's authority in colonial America and viewed the British imposition of high taxes and tariffs as a tool of oppression. During the 1770s, he was a delegate to the Continental Congress. In the 1780s, Adams served as a diplomat in Europe and helped negotiate the Treaty of Paris (1783), which officially ended the American Revolutionary War (1775-83). From 1789 to 1797, Adams was America's first vice president. He then served a term as the nation's second president. He was defeated for another term by Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826).

Proprietary Colony

was a type of British colony mostly in North America and the Caribbean in the 17th century. In the British Empire, all land belonged to the king, and it was his prerogative to divide.

Mayflower Compact

was the first governing document of Plymouth Colony. It was written by separatist Congregationalists who called themselves "Saints". Later they were referred to as Pilgrims or Pilgrim Fathers. They were fleeing from religious persecution by King James of England.

1588

year in which the English navy defeated the Armada, thus making French and English colonization of North America much easier