values dfo the differencet of the ansers and squestions

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curling u aks? just olympic stuff

Curling From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Curling Highest governing body World Curling Federation Nickname(s) Chess On Ice, The Roaring Game First played Approximately late medieval Scotland Registered players 1,200,000 Characteristics Contact No Team members 4 per team (2 in Mixed Doubles) Mixed gender See mixed curling Categorization Precision and accuracy Equipment Curling brooms, stones (rocks), curling shoes Venue Curling sheet Olympic First event in 1924 (Retroactively made official in 2006). Demonstration sport in 1932, 1988 and 1992. Officially added in 1998. Paralympic Officially added in 2006. See Wheelchair curling Purpose-built curling pond at Colzium, Kilsyth, Scotland Curling is a sport in which players slide stones across a sheet of ice towards a target area. It is related to bowls, boule and shuffleboard. Two teams, each of four players, take turns sliding heavy, polished granite stones, also called "rocks", across the ice curling sheet towards the house, a circular target marked on the ice.[1] Each team has eight stones. The purpose is to accumulate the highest score for a game, points being scored for the stones resting closest to the centre of the house at the conclusion of each end, which is completed when both teams have thrown all of their stones. A game may consist of ten or eight ends. The curler can induce a curved path by causing the stone to slowly turn as it slides, and the path of the rock may be further influenced by two sweepers with brooms who accompany it as it slides down the sheet, using the brooms to alter the state of the ice in front of the stone. A great deal of strategy and teamwork goes into choosing the ideal path and placement for each situation, and the skills of the curlers determine how close to the desired result the stone will achieve. This gives the game its nickname of "Chess On Ice".[2][3] Contents [hide] 1 Origins and history 1.1 Olympic curling 2 Equipment 2.1 The curling sheet 2.2 Curling stone 2.3 Curling broom 2.4 Shoes 2.5 Other equipment 3 Gameplay 3.1 Delivery 3.2 Sweeping 3.3 'Burning' a stone 3.4 Types of shots 3.5 Free guard zone 3.6 Hammer 3.7 Strategy 3.8 Conceding a game 3.9 Dispute resolution 4 Scoring 5 Curling culture 5.1 An amateur sport 5.2 Good sportsmanship 5.3 Special needs in curling 6 Terminology 7 In popular culture 8 See also 9 Champions and major championships 10 Notable curling clubs 11 Notes 12 External links Origins and history A curling match at Eglinton Castle, Ayrshire, Scotland in 1860. The Curling House is located to the left of the picture. Curling is thought to have been invented in medieval Scotland, with the first written reference to a contest using stones on ice coming from the records of Paisley Abbey, Renfrewshire, in February 1541. Two paintings (both dated 1565) by Pieter Bruegel the Elder depict Dutch peasants curling—Scotland and the Low Countries had strong trading and cultural links during this period, which is also evident in the history of golf. A Curling House near Stewarton in Ayrshire, Scotland, now converted into a dwelling Evidence that curling existed in Scotland in the early 16th century includes a curling stone inscribed with the date 1511 (uncovered along with another bearing the date 1551) when an old pond was drained at Dunblane, Scotland.[4] Kilsyth Curling Club claims to be the first club in the world, having been formally constituted in 1716; it is still in existence today.[5] Kilsyth also claims the oldest purpose-built curling pond in the world at Colzium, in the form of a low dam creating a shallow pool some 100 × 250 metres in size, though this is now very seldom in condition for curling because of warmer winters.[citation needed] The word curling first appears in print in 1620 in Perth, in the preface and the verses of a poem by Henry Adamson. The game was (and still is, in Scotland and Scottish-settled regions like southern New Zealand) also known as "the roaring game" because of the sound the stones make while traveling over the pebble (droplets of water applied to the playing surface). The verbal noun curling is formed from the Scots (and English) verb curl,[6] which describes the motion of the stone. In the early history of curling, the playing stones (or rocks) were simply flat-bottomed river stones that were sometimes notched or shaped; the thrower, unlike those of today, had little control over the stone, and relied more on luck than on skill and strategy. It is recorded that in Darvel, East Ayrshire, the weavers relaxed by playing curling matches. The stones they used were the heavy stone weights from the weavers' "warp beams," fitted with a detachable handle for the purpose. Many a wife would keep her husband's brass curling stone handle on the mantelpiece, brightly polished until the next time it was needed.[7] Outdoor curling was very popular in Scotland between the 16th and 19th centuries, as the climates provided good ice conditions every winter. Scotland is home to the international governing body for curling, the World Curling Federation, Perth, which originated as a committee of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club, the mother club of curling. Group of people curling on a lake in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada, ca. 1897 Men curling in Ontario, Canada in 1909 Today, the game is most firmly established in Canada, having been taken there by Scottish emigrants. The Royal Montreal Curling Club, the oldest established sports club still active in North America,[8] was established in 1807. The first curling club in the United States began in 1830, and the game was introduced to Switzerland and Sweden before the end of the 19th century, also by Scots. Today, curling is played all over Europe and has spread to Japan, Australia, New Zealand, China, and Korea.[citation needed] The first world curling championship in the sport was limited to men and was known as the "Scotch Cup", held in Falkirk and Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1959. The first world title was won by the Canadian team from Regina, Saskatchewan, skipped by Ernie Richardson. (The skip is the team member who calls the shots; see below.) The first curling club in the United States was organized in 1830 only 30 miles from Detroit, at Orchard Lake, Michigan. Called the Orchard Lake Curling Club, the club used hickory block "stones". The Detroit Curling Club was started in 1840 when Michigan only had a population of 212,000 and had only been in the Union for three years. About this time, an organization called the "Thistle Club" was founded and, curling being a winter sport, was played when the ice was suitable on the Detroit River at the foot of Joseph Campau; on the bay; and at the old Recreation Park. These clubs became the Granite Club, and in 1885, the present Detroit Curling Club was organized. Olympic curling Curling has been an official sport in the Winter Olympic Games since the 1998 Winter Olympics. In February 2002, the International Olympic Committee retroactively decided that the curling competition from the 1924 Winter Olympics (originally called Semaine des Sports d'Hiver, or International Winter Sports Week) would be considered official Olympic events and no longer be considered demonstration events. Thus, the first Olympic medals in curling, which at the time was played outside, were awarded for the 1924 Winter Games, with the gold medal won by Great Britain and Ireland, two silver medals by Sweden, and the bronze by France. A demonstration tournament was also held during the 1932 Winter Olympic Games between four teams from Canada and four teams from the United States, with Canada winning 12 games to 4.[9][10] Equipment The playing area in curling is shown here. Stones must land between the hog line (bottom of photo) and the back line (behind the rings) and may not contact boards or out lines (on the sides) at any time during travel. The curling sheet The playing surface or curling sheet is defined by the World Curling Federation Rules of Curling.[11] The sheet is an area of ice, carefully prepared to be as flat and level as possible, 146 to 150 feet (45 to 46 m) in length by 14.5 to 16.5 feet (4.4 to 5.0 m) in width. A target, the house, is marked at each end of the sheet. The house consists of three concentric rings formed by painting or laying coloured vinyl sheet under the ice and are usually distinguished by colour. These rings are defined by their diameters as the four-foot, eight-foot and 12-foot rings. The rings are merely a visual aid for aiming and judging which stone is closer to the centre; they do not affect scoring but a stone must at least touch the outer ring or it does not score (see Scoring below). Each house is centred on the intersection of the centre line, drawn lengthwise down the centre of the sheet and one of the tee lines, drawn 16 feet (4.9 m) from, and parallel to, each backboard. These lines divide the houses into quarters. The centre of each house, at the intersection of the centre line and the tee line, is known as the button. Two hog lines, are drawn 37 feet (11 m) from, and parallel to, each backboard. The hacks are fixed 12 feet behind each button; a hack gives the thrower something to push against when making the throw. On indoor rinks, there are usually two fixed hacks, rubber-lined holes, one on each side of the centre line, with the inside edge no more than 3 inches (76 mm) from the centre line and the front edge on the hack line. A single moveable hack may also be used. A curling sheet, with dimensions - CL: Centreline • HOL: Hogline • TL: Teeline • BL: Backline • HA: Hackline with Hacks • FGZ: Free Guard Zone The ice may be natural but is usually frozen by a refrigeration plant pumping a brine solution through numerous pipes fixed lengthwise at the bottom of a shallow pan of water. Most curling clubs have an ice maker whose main job is to care for the ice. At the major curling championships, ice maintenance is extremely important. Large events, such as the Brier or other national/international championships, are typically held in an arena that presents a challenge to the ice maker, who must constantly monitor and adjust the ice and air temperatures as well as air humidity levels to ensure a consistent playing surface. It is common for each sheet of ice to have multiple sensors embedded in order to monitor surface temperature, as well as probes set up in the seating area (to monitor humidity) and in the compressor room (to monitor brine supply and return temperatures).The surface of the ice is maintained at a temperature of around 23 °F (−5 °C).[12] A key part of the preparation of the playing surface is the spraying of water droplets onto the ice, which form pebble on freezing. The pebbled ice surface resembles an orange peel, and the stone moves on top of the pebbled ice.[13] As the stone moves over the pebble, any rotation of the stone causes it to curl to the inside or outside; the amount of curl (commonly referred to as the feet of curl) can change during a game as the pebble wears. Due to this, the ice maker must also be aware of the pebble wear, and the ice will typically be scraped and re-pebbled prior to each game.[14] Curling stone The curling stone or rock is made of granite An old-style curling stone The curling stone (also sometimes rock, North America), as defined by the World Curling Federation is a thick stone disc weighing between 38 and 44 pounds (17 and 20 kg) with a handle attached to the top.[11] The maximum allowable circumference is 36 inches (910 mm).[11] The minimum height is 4.5 inches (110 mm).[11] The handle is attached by a bolt running vertically through a hole in the centre of the stone. The handle allows the stone to be gripped and rotated upon release; on properly prepared ice, the stone's path will bend (curl) in the direction the front edge of the stone is turning, especially as the stone slows. The handles are colored to identify the stones by team. Two popular colors in major tournaments are red and yellow. The only part of the stone in contact with the ice is the running surface, a narrow, flat annulus or ring, 0.25 to 0.50 inch (6.3 to 13 mm) wide and about 5 inches (130 mm) in diameter; the sides of the stone bulge convex down to the ring and the inside of the ring is hollowed concave to clear the ice. Traditionally, curling stones were made from two specific types of granite called "Blue Hone" and "Ailsa Craig Common Green", found on Ailsa Craig, an island off the Ayrshire coast in Scotland. Blue Hone has very low water absorption, which prevents the action of freezing and melting water from eroding the stone.[15] Ailsa Craig Common Green granite is a lesser quality granite than Blue Hone. In the past, most curling stones were made from Blue Hone; however, the island is now a wildlife reserve and the quarry has closed. The second location where granite comes from to manufacture curling stones from is in Northern Wales. This granite is called "Trefor" and comes in shades of blue/gray and red/brown. The quarry in Wales that supplies the granite to its exclusive curling stone manufacturing company in Canada, Canada Curling Stone Co., is a full and active quarry and it is not anticipated to ever run out of this granite for making curling stones. Canada Curling Stone Co. has been manufacturing curling stones since 1992. The cost of new Trefor granite curling stones is about C$600 a stone. Kays of Scotland has been making curling stones since 1851 and has the exclusive rights to Ailsa Craig granite, granted by the Marquess of Ailsa, whose family has owned the island since 1560. The last "harvest" of Ailsa Craig granite by Kays took place in 2002. Kays have said that they harvested 1,500 tons, sufficient to fill anticipated orders through at least 2020. Kays has been the exclusive manufacturer of curling stones for all three Olympics where curling has been a medal sport.[16] In competition, an electronic handle known as the eye on the hog may be fitted to detect hog line violations, the game's most frequent cause of controversy. This electronically detects whether the thrower's hand is in contact with the handle as it passes the hog line and indicates a violation by lights at the base of the handle. The eye on the hog eliminates human error and the need for hog line officials. It is mandatory in high-level national and international competition but its cost, around US$650 each, currently puts it beyond the reach of most social curling. Curling broom Curling broom The curling broom, or brush, is used to sweep the ice surface in the path of the stone, (see "sweeping"), and is also often used as a balancing aid during delivery of the stone. In earlier days, brooms were made of corn strands and were similar to household brooms. Brushes were used primarily by elderly curlers as a substitute for corn brooms. Today, brushes have replaced traditional corn brooms at every level of curling, but are universally referred to as brooms. Curling brushes may have fabric, hog hair, or horsehair heads. Modern curling broomsticks are usually hollow tubes made of fiberglass or carbon fiber instead of a solid length of wooden dowel. These hollow tube handles are lighter and stronger than wooden handles, allowing faster sweeping and also enabling more downward force to be applied to the broom head with reduced shaft flex. Shoes Curling shoes, showing a slider sole Curling shoes are similar to ordinary athletic shoes except that they have dissimilar soles; the slider shoe is designed for the off foot (or sliding foot) and the non-sliding shoe for the hack foot: The slider shoe is designed to slide and typically has a Teflon sole. It is worn by the thrower during delivery from the hack and by sweepers or the skip to glide down the ice when sweeping or otherwise traveling down the sheet quickly. Stainless steel was once common for slider soles, and "red brick" sliders with lateral blocks of PVC on the sole are also available. Most shoes have a full-sole sliding surface, but some shoes have a sliding surface covering only the outline of the shoe and other enhancements with the full-sole slider. Some shoes have small disc sliders covering the front and heel portions or only the front portion of the foot, which allow more flexibility in the sliding foot for curlers playing with tuck deliveries.[17] When a player is not throwing, the player's slider shoe can be temporarily rendered non-slippery by using a slip-on gripper. Ordinary athletic shoes may be converted to sliders by using a step-on or slip-on Teflon slider or by applying electrical or gaffer tape directly to the sole or over a piece of cardboard. This arrangement often suits casual or beginning players. The non-sliding shoe, or hack foot shoe, is worn by the thrower on the hack foot during delivery and is designed to grip. It may have a normal athletic shoe sole or a special layer of rubbery material applied to the sole of a thickness to match the sliding shoe. The toe of the hack foot shoe may also have a rubberised coating on the top surface or a flap that hangs over the toe to reduce wear on the top of the shoe as it drags on the ice behind the thrower. Other equipment Other types of equipment include: Curling pants, made to be stretchy to accommodate the curling delivery. A stopwatch to time the stones while sweeping to get a feel of the speed of the stone. Stopwatches can be attached either to clothing or the broom itself. Curling gloves and mittens, to keep the hands warm and improve grip on the broom. Gameplay International competitive games are ten ends, so most of the national championships that send a representative to the World Championships or Olympics also play ten ends. However, there is a movement on the World Curling Tour to make the games only eight ends.[citation needed] Most tournaments on that tour are like the vast majority of recreation games, and are eight ends. An end consists of each player from both teams throwing two stones down the sheet with the players on each side alternating shots, for a total of 16 stones. A game may be conceded if considered unwinnable. If the teams are tied play continues for as many ends as may be required to break the tie. The winner is the team with the highest score after all ends have been completed (see Scoring below). At the 2006 Winter Olympic Games a curler from Team Canada delivers a stone, while his teammates look on, ready to begin sweeping. The curler uses his broom to help keep his balance during delivery. In international competition, each side is given 73 minutes to complete all of its throws. Each team is also allowed two 60-second timeouts per 10-end game. If extra ends are required, each team is allowed 10 minutes of playing time to complete its throws and one added 60-second timeout for each extra end. Delivery The process of sliding a stone down the sheet is known as the delivery. The skip will usually determine the required weight, turn and line of the stone. These will be influenced by the tactics at this point in the game, which may involve taking-out, blocking or tapping another stone. The weight of the stone is its velocity, which depends on the leg drive of the delivery rather than the arm. The turn, handle, or curl is the rotation of the stone, which gives it a curved trajectory. The line is the direction of the throw ignoring the effect of the turn. The skip may communicate the weight, turn, line and other tactics by calling or tapping a broom on the ice. In the case of a takeout, guard or a tap, the skip will indicate the stones involved. Before delivery, the running surface of the stone is wiped clean and the path across the ice swept with the broom if necessary because any dirt on the bottom of a stone or in its path can alter the trajectory and ruin the shot. This is called a pick up or pick. Players must push out of the hack to deliver their stones. The thrower throws from the hack. Another player, usually the skip, is stationed behind the button to determine the tactics, weight, turn and line and the other two may sweep in front of the stone to influence the trajectory (see Sweeping, below). When the skip throws, the third takes his role. The thrower's gripper shoe (with the non-slippery sole) is positioned against one of the hacks; for a right-handed curler the right foot is placed against the left hack and vice-versa for a left-hander. The thrower, now in the hack, lines the body up with shoulders square to the skip's broom at the far end for line. The stone is placed in front of the foot now in the hack. Rising slightly from the hack the thrower pulls the stone back to the toe (some older curlers may actually raise the stone in this backward movement) then lunges smoothly out from the hack pushing the stone ahead while the slider foot is moved in front of the gripper foot, which trails behind. The thrust from this lunge determines the weight and hence the distance the stone will travel. While not compulsory, most curlers deliver the stone while sliding out from the hack. Balance may be assisted by a broom held in the free hand with the back of the broom down so that it slides. The stone is released as the thrower's momentum wanes, or the hog line is approached, at which point the turn is imparted by a slight clockwise or anti-clockwise twist of the handle from around the two or ten o'clock position to the 12 o'clock on release. A typica

eduardofo study

Eduard Study From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Eduard Study (March 23, 1862 - January 6, 1930) was a German mathematician known for work on invariant theory of ternary forms (1889) and for the study of spherical trigonometry. He is also known for contributions to space geometry, hypercomplex numbers, and criticism of early physical chemistry. Study was born in Coburg in the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. He died in Bonn. Contents [hide] 1 Career 2 Euclidean space group and biquaternions 3 Hypercomplex numbers 4 Ruled surfaces 5 Hermitian form metric 6 Valence theory 7 Cited publications 8 References 9 External links [edit]Career Eduard Study began his university career in Jena, Strasbourg, Leipzig, and Munich. He loved to study biology, especially entomology. He was awarded the doctorate in mathematics at the University of Munich in 1884. Paul Gordan, an expert in invariant theory was at Leipzig, and Study returned there as Privatdozent. In 1888 he moved to Marburg and in 1893 embarked on a speaking tour in the U.S.A. He appeared at the primordial International Congress of Mathematicians in Chicago as part of the World's Columbian Exposition and took part in mathematics at Johns Hopkins University. Back in Germany, in 1894, he was appointed extraordinary professor at Göttingen. Then he gained the rank of full professor in 1897 at Greifswald. In 1904 he was called to the University of Bonn as the position held by Rudolf Lipschitz was vacant. There he settled until retirement in 1927. [edit]Euclidean space group and biquaternions In 1891 Eduard Study published "Of Motions and Translations, in two parts". It treats Euclidean space through the space group. The second part of his article constructs a seven-dimensional space out of "dual biquaternions", that is numbers where a, b, c, and d are dual numbers and {1, i, j, k} multiply as in the quaternion group. He uses these conventions: The multiplication table is found on page 520 of volume 39 (1891) in Mathematische Annalen under the title "Von Bewegungen und Umlegungen, I. und II. Abhandlungen". Eduard Study cites William Kingdon Clifford as an earlier source on these biquaternions. In 1901 Study published Geometrie der Dynamen to highlight the applications of this algebra. Due to Eduard Study's profound and early exploitation of this eight-dimensional associative algebra, it is frequently referred to as Study Biquaternions. Study's achievement is celebrated, for example, in A History of Algebra (1985) by B. L. van der Waerden, who also cites Clifford's earlier note. Since the space group is important in robotics, the Study biquaternions are a technical tool, now sometimes referred to as dual quaternions. For example, Joe Rooney has profiled the use of this algebra by several modelers of mechanics (see external link). [edit]Hypercomplex numbers In 1898 Eduard Study was the author of an article on hypercomplex numbers in the German Encyclopedia of Mathematics. This 34 page effort was expanded to 138 pages in 1908 by Élie Cartan, who surveyed the hypercomplex systems in the French encyclopedia. Cartan acknowledged Eduard Study's essay in his title with the words "after Eduard Study". In the 1993 biography of Cartan by Akivis and Rosenfeld, one reads: [Study] defined the algebra °H of 'semiquaternions' with the units 1, i, ε, η having the properties Semiquaternions are often called 'Study's quaternions'. In 1985 Helmut Karzel and Günter Kist developed "Study's quaternions" as the kinematic algebra corresponding to the group of motions of the Euclidean plane. These quaternions arise in "Kinematic algebras and their geometries" alongside ordinary quaternions and the ring of 2 × 2 real matrices which Karzel and Kist cast as the kinematic algebras of the elliptic plane and hyperbolic plane respectively. See the "Motivation and Historical Review" at page 437 of Rings and Geometry, R. Kaya editor. Thus in the study of classical associative algebras over R there are two special ones: Study's quaternions (4D) and Study's biquaternions (8D). [edit]Ruled surfaces Study's work with dual numbers and line coordinates was noted by Heinrich Guggenheimer in 1963 in his book Differential Geometry (see pages 162-5). He cites and proves the following theorem of Study: The oriented lines in R3 are in one-to-one correspondence with the points of the dual unit sphere in D3. Later he says "A differentiable curve A(u) on the dual unit sphere, depending on a real parameter u, represents a differentiable family of straight lines in R3: a ruled surface. The lines A(u) are the generators or rulings of the surface." Guggenheimer also shows the representation of the Euclidean motions in R3 by orthogonal dual matrices. [edit]Hermitian form metric In 1905 Study wrote "Kürzeste Weg im complexen Gebiet" (Shortest path in complex domains) for Mathematische Annalen (60:321-378). Some of its contents were anticipated by Guido Fubini a year before. The distance Study refers to is a Hermitian form on complex projective space. Since then this metric has been called the Fubini-Study metric. Study was careful in 1905 to distinguish the hyperbolic and elliptic cases in Hermitian geometry. [edit]Valence theory Somewhat surprisingly Eduard Study is known by practitioners of quantum chemistry. Like James Joseph Sylvester, Paul Gordan believed that invariant theory could contribute to the understanding of chemical valence. In 1900 Gordan and his student G. Alexejeff contributed an article on an analogy between the coupling problem for angular momenta and their work on invariant theory to the Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie (v. 35, p. 610). In 2006 Wormer and Paldus summarized Study's role as follows: The analogy, lacking a physical basis at the time, was criticised heavily by the mathematician E. Study and ignored completely by the chemistry community of the 1890's. After the advent of quantum mechanics it became clear, however, that chemical valences arise from electron-spin couplings ... and that electron spin functions are, in fact, binary forms of the type studied by Gordan and Clebsch. [edit]Cited publications Sphärische Trigonometrie, orthogonale Substitutionen, und elliptische Functionen: Eine Analytisch-Geometrische Untersuchung. Leipzig, Germany: Teubner, 1893 Aeltere und neuere Untersuchungen uber Systeme complexer Zahlen, Mathematical Papers Chicago Congress Einleitung in die Theorie der Invarianten (1933). Geometrie der Dynamen (1903), from Historical Math Monographs at Cornell University. Theorie der allgemeinen und höheren komplexen Grossen in Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften, weblink to University of Göttingen. [edit]References Werner Burau (1970) "Eduard Study" in Dictionary of Scientific Biography. M.A. Akivis & B.A. Rosenfeld (1993) Elie Cartan (1869 - 1951), American Mathematical Society, pp. 68-9. Paul E.S. Wormer and Josef Paldus (2006) Angular Momentum Diagrams Advances in Quantum Chemistry, v. 51, pp. 51-124. E.A. Weiss (1930) "E. Study", Sitzungsberichte der Berliner mathematischen Gesellschaft 10:52-77. [edit]External links O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Eduard Study", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. Joe Rooney William Kingdon Clifford, Department of Design and Innovation, the Open University, London. View page ratings Rate this page What's this? Trustworthy Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) Submit ratings Categories: 1862 births | 1930 deaths | 19th-century mathematicians | 20th-century mathematicians | German mathematicians | People from Coburg | University of Bonn faculty Log in / create accountArticleDiscussionReadEditView history Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Toolbox Print/export Languages Deutsch Français Kreyòl ayisyen Nederlands Português This page was last modified on 25 August 2011 at 19:35. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Contact us Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersMobile view

edu

Education From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Educate" redirects here. For the journal published by the Institute of Education, see Educate~. For the stained-glass window at Yale University, see Education (Chittenden Memorial Window). Children in a kindergarten classroom in France Children at an elementary school in Xinjiang, China Girls at a secondary school in Iraq Education (also called learning, teaching or schooling) in the general sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, and values from one generation to another. Etymologically, the word education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō ("a breeding, a bringing up, a rearing) from ēdūcō ("I educate, I train") which is related to the homonym ēdūcō ("I lead forth, I take out; I raise up, I erect") from ē- ("from, out of") and dūcō ("I lead, I conduct").[1] Teachers in educational institutions direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects, including reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. This process is sometimes called schooling when referring to the education of teaching only a certain subject, usually as professors at institutions of higher learning. There is also education in fields for those who want specific vocational skills, such as those required to be a pilot. In addition there is an array of education possible at the informal level, such as in museums and libraries, with the Internet and in life experience. Many non-traditional education options are now available and continue to evolve. One of the most substantial uses in education is the use of technology. Classrooms of the 21st century contain interactive white boards, tablets, mp3 players, laptops, etc. Teachers are encouraged to embed these technological devices in the curriculum in order to enhance students learning and meet the needs of various types of learners. A right to education has been created and recognized by some jurisdictions: Since 1952, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. At world level, the United Nations' International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13. Contents [hide] 1 Systems of formal education 1.1 Preschool education 1.2 Primary education 1.3 Secondary education 1.4 Higher education 1.5 Adult education 1.6 Alternative education 1.7 Indigenous education 2 Process 2.1 Curriculum 2.2 Learning modalities 2.3 Teaching 2.4 Technology 3 Educational theory 4 Economics 5 History 6 Philosophy 7 Psychology 8 Sociology 9 Education in the Developing World 9.1 Internationalization 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Systems of formal education School children line, in Kerala, India Education is the process by which people learn: Instruction refers to the facilitating of learning, by a tutor or teacher. Teaching refers to the actions of an instructor to impart learning to the student. Learning refers to those who are taught, with a view toward preparing them with specific knowledge, skills, or abilities that can be applied upon completion. Preschool education Main article: Preschool education Primary education Main article: Primary education Primary school in open air. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842. Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first 5-7 years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 89% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising.[2] Under the Education for All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools. Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior school. Secondary education Main article: Secondary education Students in a classroom at Samdach Euv High School, Cambodia In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g., university, vocational school for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and Australia primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1-13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train directly in a profession. The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not happen until 1910, caused by the rise in big businesses and technological advances in factories (for instance, the emergence of electrification), that required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created and the curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved to be beneficial for both the employer and the employee, because this improvement in human capital caused employees to become more efficient, which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than employees with just primary educational attainment. In Europe, the grammar school or academy existed from as early as the 16th century; public schools or fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations have an even longer history. Higher education Main article: Higher education The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning. Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees. Higher education includes teaching, research and social services activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Higher education generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. Adult education Main article: Adult education Adult education has become common in many countries. It takes on many forms, ranging from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning and e-learning. A number of career specific courses such as veterinary assisting, medical billing and coding, real estate license, bookkeeping and many more are now available to students through the Internet. Alternative education Main article: Alternative education Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or educational alternative, is a broad term that may be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of education). This may include not only forms of education designed for students with special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability), but also forms of education designed for a general audience and employing alternative educational philosophies and methods. Alternatives of the latter type are often the result of education reform and are rooted in various philosophies that are commonly fundamentally different from those of traditional compulsory education. While some have strong political, scholarly, or philosophical orientations, others are more informal associations of teachers and students dissatisfied with certain aspects of traditional education. These alternatives, which include charter schools, alternative schools, independent schools, homeschooling and autodidacticism vary widely, but often emphasize the value of small class size, close relationships between students and teachers, and a sense of community. Indigenous education Main article: Indigenous education Increasingly, the inclusion of indigenous models of education (methods and content) as an alternative within the scope of formal and non-formal education systems, has come to represent a significant factor contributing to the success of those members of indigenous communities who choose to access these systems, both as students/learners and as teachers/instructors. Process Curriculum School children in Cape Town, South Africa. Main articles: Curriculum and List of academic disciplines An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the university, or via some other such method. Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, social sciences, humanities and applied sciences.[3] Learning modalities There has been work on learning styles over the last two decades. Dunn and Dunn[4] focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli[5] recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner[6] identified individual talents or aptitudes in his Multiple Intelligences theories. Based on the works of Jung, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter[7] focused on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregorc's Type Delineator[8] follows a similar but more simplified approach. School girls in Afganistan It is currently fashionable to divide education into different learning "modes". The learning modalities[9] are probably the most common: Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned. Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information. Kinesthetic: learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities. Although it is claimed that, depending on their preferred learning modality, different teaching techniques have different levels of effectiveness,[10] recent research has argued "there is no adequate evidence base to justify incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational practice."[11] A consequence of this theory is that effective teaching should present a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities so that different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them.[12] Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that learning styles such as VAK are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and therefore restrict learning.[13] Teaching Teacher in a classroom in Madagascar Teachers need to understand a subject enough to convey its essence to students. While traditionally this has involved lecturing on the part of the teacher, new instructional strategies put the teacher more into the role of course designer, discussion facilitator, and coach and the student more into the role of active learner, discovering the subject of the course. In any case, the goal is to establish a sound knowledge base and skill set on which students will be able to build as they are exposed to different life experiences. Good teachers can translate information, good judgment, experience and wisdom into relevant knowledge that a student can understand, retain and pass to others. Studies from the US suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible.[14] With the passing of NCLB in the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers must be highly qualified. Recently, the term 'teaching' has also been applied to other areas that are not seen as traditional academic fields such as rock climbing, where previously 'training' or 'instructing' had been used.[15] Technology Main article: Educational technology Technology is an increasingly influential factor in education. Computers and mobile phones are used in developed countries both to complement established education practices and develop new ways of learning such as online education (a type of distance education). This gives students the opportunity to choose what they are interested in learning. The proliferation of computers also means the increase of programming and blogging. Technology offers powerful learning tools that demand new skills and understandings of students, including Multimedia, and provides new ways to engage students, such as Virtual learning environments. One such tool are virtual manipulatives, which are an "interactive, Web-based visual representation of a dynamic object that presents opportunities for constructing mathematical knowledge" (Moyer, Bolyard, & Spikell, 2002). In short, virtual manipulatives are dynamic visual/pictorial replicas of physical mathematical manipulatives, which have long been used to demonstrate and teach various mathematical concepts. Virtual manipulatives can be easily accessed on the Internet as stand-alone applets, allowing for easy access and use in a variety of educational settings. Emerging research into the effectiveness of virtual manipulatives as a teaching tool have yielded promising results, suggesting comparable, and in many cases superior overall concept-teaching effectiveness compared to standard teaching methods.[citation needed] Technology is being used more not only in administrative duties in education but also in the instruction of students. The use of technologies such as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is capturing the attention of students in the classroom. Technology is also being used in the assessment of students. One example is the Audience Response System (ARS), which allows immediate feedback tests and classroom discussions.[16] Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are a "diverse set of tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information."[17] These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony. There is increasing interest in how computers and the Internet can improve education at all levels, in both formal and non-formal settings.[18] Older ICT technologies, such as radio and television, have for over forty years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the cheapest, most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and developing countries.[19] In addition to classroom application and growth of e-learning opportunities for knowledge attainment, educators involved in student affairs programming have recognized the increasing importance of computer usage with data generation for and about students. Motivation and retention counselors, along with faculty and administrators, can impact the potential academic success of students by provision of technology based experiences in the University setting.[20] The use of computers and the Internet is in its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access. Usually, various technologies are used in combination rather than as the sole delivery mechanism. For example, the Kothmale Community Radio Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer and Internet technologies to facilitate the sharing of information and provide educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka.[21] The Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print-based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years, online programming.[22] Similarly, the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audio conferencing technologies.[23] The term "computer-assisted learning" (CAL) has been increasingly used to describe the use of technology in teaching. Educational theory Main article: Education theory Education theory is the theory of the purpose, application and interpretation of education and learning. Its history begins with classical Greek educationalists and sophists and includes, since the 18th century, pedagogy and andragogy. In the 20th century, "theory" has become an umbrella term for a variety of scholarly approaches to teaching, assessment and education law, most of which are informed by various academic fields, which can be seen in the below sections. Economics Main article: Economics of education Students on their way to school, Hakha, Chin State, Myanmar It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth.[24] Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of "human capital".[25] Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions[26] and the role of cognitive skills.[27] At the individual level, there is a large literature, generally related back to the work of Jacob Mincer,[28] on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital of the individual. This work has motivated a large number of studies, but is also controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling.[29] Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis famously argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production on the other.[30] History This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010) Main article: History of education A depiction of the University of Bologna, Italy The history of education according to Dieter Lenzen, president of the Freie Universität Berlin 1994, "began either millions of years ago or at the end of 1770". Education as a science cannot be separated from the educational traditions that existed before. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially. When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic

mlb

Major League Baseball From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Mlb) "MLB" redirects here. For other uses, see MLB (disambiguation). Major League Baseball Current season or competition: 2011 Major League Baseball season Sport Baseball Founded 1869 Commissioner Bud Selig[1] No. of teams 30[2] Country(ies) United States (29 teams) Canada (1 team) Continent North America Most recent champion(s) San Francisco Giants (6th title) Most titles New York Yankees (27 titles)[3] TV partner(s) Fox TBS ESPN MLB Network Official website MLB.com Major League Baseball (MLB) is the highest level of professional baseball in the United States and Canada, consisting of teams that play in the National League and the American League. The two leagues merged in 2000 into a single MLB organization led by the Commissioner of Baseball after 100 years as separate legal entities.[4] MLB constitutes one of the major professional sports leagues of the United States and Canada. It is composed of 30 teams — 29 in the United States and one in Canada. With the International Baseball Federation, MLB also manages the World Baseball Classic. Contents [hide] 1 MLB organizational structure 1.1 Executives 1.2 Multimedia and production 2 League organization 3 History 3.1 Differing definitions of MLB's founding year 3.2 Founding 3.3 Other Leagues 3.4 Rise 3.5 Dead-ball era 3.6 The World War II era 3.7 Breaking the color barrier 3.8 Expanding west, south and north 3.9 Pitching dominance and rules changes 3.10 Power age 4 MLB uniforms 5 Season structure 5.1 Spring training 5.2 Regular Season 5.3 All-Star Game 5.4 Post-season 6 International play 7 MLB steroid policy 8 Major League Baseball in media 8.1 Blackout policy 8.2 MLB on television 8.3 MLB on radio 8.4 Internet 8.5 International broadcasting 9 Current major league franchises 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links [edit]MLB organizational structure MLB is governed by the Major League Baseball Constitution that has undergone several incarnations since 1876 with the most recent revisions being made in 2005. Under the direction of the Commissioner of Baseball (currently Bud Selig), Major League Baseball hires and maintains the sport's umpiring crews, and negotiates marketing, labor, and television contracts. As is the case for most of the sports leagues in the United States and Canada, the "closed shop" aspect of MLB effectively prevents the yearly promotion and relegation of teams into and out of Major League Baseball because of their performance. Major League Baseball maintains a unique, controlling relationship over the sport, including most aspects of minor league baseball. This is due in large part to a 1922 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Federal Baseball Club v. National League, which held that baseball is not interstate commerce and therefore not subject to federal antitrust law. This ruling has been weakened only slightly in subsequent years.[5][6] [edit]Executives See also: Category:Major League Baseball central office executives The chief executive of MLB is the commissioner. MLB has five executive vice-presidents in charge of the following areas: baseball operations, business, labor relations and human resources, finance, and administration (whose vice-president is MLB's Chief Information Officer).[7] [edit]Multimedia and production The multimedia branch of MLB is New York-based MLB Advanced Media, which oversees MLB.com and each of the thirty teams' websites. Its charter states that MLB Advanced Media holds editorial independence from the League, but it is under the same ownership group and revenue-sharing plan. MLB Productions is a similarly structured wing of the league, focusing on video and traditional broadcast media. [edit]League organization Major League Baseball is divided into the American League (14 teams) and the National League (16 teams). Currently, each league is further subdivided into three divisions - labeled East, Central, and West. The three-division structure dates back to 1994, one season after the National League expanded to 14 teams. From 1969 through 1993 each league consisted of an East and West division. Before 1997, the two leagues met on the field only during the World Series and the All-Star Game: regular-season interleague play was introduced in 1997. In March 1995, two new franchises—the Arizona Diamondbacks and Tampa Bay Devil Rays—were awarded by Major League Baseball, to begin play in 1998. This addition would bring the total number of franchises to 30. In early 1997, Major League Baseball decided to assign one new team to each league: Tampa Bay joined the American League and Arizona joined the National League. The original plan was to have an odd number of teams in each league (15 per league, with 5 in each division). Interleague play, introduced in 1997, would have had to be extended throughout the entire season to allow every team to play every day. It was unclear though if interleague play would continue after the 1998 season, as it had to be approved by the players' union. For this and other reasons, it was decided that both leagues should continue to have an even number of teams; one existing club would have to switch leagues. The Milwaukee Brewers agreed in November 1997 to move from the American League to the National League, thereby making the National League a 16-team league.[8] The two leagues were once totally separate rival corporate entities, but that distinction has all but disappeared. In 1903, the two leagues began to meet in an end-of-year championship series called the World Series. In 1920, the weak National Commission, which had been created to manage relationships between the two leagues, was replaced with the much more powerful Commissioner of Baseball, who had the power to make decisions for all of professional baseball unilaterally. In 2000, the American and National Leagues were dissolved as legal entities, and Major League Baseball became a single league de jure, although it had operated as a de facto single entity for many years. The same rules and regulations are played between the two leagues with one exception: the American League operates under the Designated Hitter Rule, while the National League does not. This difference in rules between leagues is unique to MLB; the other sports leagues of the US including the NFL, NBA, NHL each have all teams playing under the same rules. [edit]History Main article: History of baseball in the United States [edit]Differing definitions of MLB's founding year This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (February 2010) For its founding year, Major League Baseball (the current official organization) uses 1869—the year the first professional team,[9] the Cincinnati Red Stockings, was established—and held official celebrations for its 100th anniversary in 1969 and its 125th anniversary in 1994, both of which were commemorated with league-wide shoulder patches. The modern Chicago Cubs and Atlanta Braves franchises trace their histories back to the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players in the early 1870s. The National League in 1876 is often pointed to as the beginning of Major League Baseball.[who?] [edit]Founding The first attempt at a national major league was the short-lived National Association, which existed from 1871 to 1875. Two current major league franchises, the Atlanta Braves and the Chicago Cubs, can trace their origins to the National Association. Currently, there are two major leagues: the National League (founded in 1876) and the American League (founded in 1901). [edit]Other Leagues Several other defunct leagues are officially considered to be major, and their statistics and records are included with those of the two current major leagues. These include the Union Association (1884), the American Association (1882-1891, not to be confused with later minor leagues of the same name), the Players League (1890) and the Federal League (1914-1915). In the late 1950s, a serious attempt was made to establish a third major league, the Continental League, but that league never played. Several Negro League players have been enshrined in the Baseball Hall of Fame. However, the Negro Leagues are not officially considered major, primarily because the statistical record is incomplete. Japanese professional baseball, divided into the Pacific League and the Central League, are not officially considered major leagues. No Japanese players have been inducted into the Hall of Fame; however, Sadaharu Oh is famous on both sides of the Pacific for holding the all-time unofficial world record for career home runs: 868. [edit]Rise In the 1860s, aided by the Civil War, "New York"-style baseball expanded into a national game and baseball's first governing body, The National Association of Base Ball Players, was formed. The NABBP existed as an amateur league for twelve years. By 1867, more than 400 clubs were members, although most of the strongest clubs remained those based in the northeastern part of the country. In 1870, a schism developed between professional and amateur ballplayers, after the 1869 founding of the first professional baseball team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings. The NABBP split into two groups. The National Association of Professional Base Ball Players was formed in 1871.[10] Some consider it to have been the first major league.[by whom?] Its amateur counterpart disappeared after only a few years. In 1876, the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs—which still exists—was established, after the National Association proved ineffective. The emphasis was now on "clubs" rather than "players". Clubs could now enforce player contracts, preventing players from jumping to higher-paying clubs. For their part, clubs were required to play the full schedule of games, instead of forfeiting scheduled games when the club was no longer in the running for the league championship, which happened frequently under the National Association. A concerted effort was made to curb gambling on games which was leaving the validity of results in doubt. The early years of the National League were tumultuous, with threats from rival leagues and a rebellion by players against the hated "reserve clause", which restricted the free movement of players between clubs. Competitive leagues formed regularly, and also disbanded regularly. The most successful was the American Association (1881-1891), sometimes called the "beer and whiskey league" for its tolerance of the sale of alcoholic beverages to spectators. For several years, the National League and American Association champions met in a postseason championship series—the first attempt at a World Series. The Union Association survived for only one season (1884), as did the Players League (1890).[11][12] Both leagues are considered major leagues by many baseball researchers because of the perceived high caliber of play (for a brief time anyway) and the number of star players featured. However, some researchers have disputed the major-league status of the Union Association, pointing out that franchises came and went and contending that the St. Louis club, which was deliberately "stacked" by the league's president (who owned that club), was the only club that was anywhere close to major-league caliber.[13] National League Baltimore Orioles, 1896 There were dozens of leagues, large and small, at this time. What made the National League "major" was its dominant position in the major cities, particularly New York City. The large cities offered baseball teams national media distribution systems and fan bases that could generate revenues, enabling teams to hire the best players in the country. The resulting bidding war for players led to widespread contract-breaking and legal disputes. One of the most famous involved star second baseman Napoleon Lajoie, who in 1901 went across town in Philadelphia from the National League Phillies to the American League Athletics. Barred by a court injunction from playing baseball in the state of Pennsylvania the following year, Lajoie was traded to the Cleveland team, where he played and managed for many years.[14] The war between the American and National leagues caused shock waves throughout the baseball world. At a meeting at the Leland Hotel in Chicago in 1901, the other baseball leagues negotiated a plan to maintain their independence. On September 5, 1901, Patrick T. Powers, president of the Eastern League, announced the formation of the second National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues, the NAPBL or "NA" for short.[15] Ban Johnson had other designs for the NA. While the NA continues to this day (known as "Minor League Baseball"), he saw it as a tool to end threats from smaller rivals who might some day want to expand in other territories and threaten his league's dominance. After 1902, the three leagues—the NL, the AL, and the NAPBL—signed a new National Agreement. The new agreement tied independent contracts to the reserve-clause national league contracts. Baseball players became a commodity. The agreement also set up a formal classification system for independent minor leagues that regulated the dollar value of contracts, the forerunner of the system refined by Branch Rickey that is still used today.[16] It also gave the NA great power. Many independents walked away from the 1901 meeting. The deal with the NA punished those other indies who had not joined the NA and submitted to the will of the 'majors.' The NA also agreed to the deal to prevent more pilfering of players with little or no compensation for the players' development. Several leagues, seeing the writing on the wall, eventually joined the NA, which grew in size over the next several years. [edit]Dead-ball era Cy Young, 1911 baseball card Main article: Dead-ball era At this time the games tended to be low scoring, dominated by such pitchers as Walter Johnson, Cy Young, Christy Mathewson, Mordecai Brown, and Grover Cleveland Alexander, to the extent that the period 1900-1919 is commonly called the "dead-ball era". The term also accurately describes the condition of the "baseball". A baseball cost three dollars, a hefty sum then, equal to $38.10 today (in inflation-adjusted US dollars). Club owners were therefore reluctant to spend much money on new balls, if not necessary. It was not unusual for a single baseball to last an entire game, by the end of which, the ball would be dark with grass, mud, and tobacco stains, and misshapen from contact with the bat. Balls were replaced only if they were hit into the crowd and lost, and many clubs employed security guards solely to retrieve balls hit into the stands. Home runs were thus rare, and "small ball"—singles, bunts, stolen bases, the hit-and-run play, and other tactics—dominated the strategies of the time.[17] Hitting methods, like the Baltimore Chop, were used to increase the number of infield singles.[18] The foul strike rule was a major rule change that, in just a few years, sent baseball from a high-scoring game to one where scoring runs became a struggle. Prior to this rule, foul balls were not counted as strikes: a batter could foul off any number of pitches with no strikes counted against him; this gave an enormous advantage to the batter. In 1901, the National League adopted the foul strike rule, and the American League followed suit in 1903. [edit]The World War II era On January 14, 1942, Major League Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis wrote a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt regarding the continuation of baseball during the war, called the Green Light Letter. In this letter, the commissioner pleaded for the continuation of baseball in hopes for a start of a new major league season. President Roosevelt responds "I honestly feel that it would be best for the country to keep baseball going. There will be fewer people unemployed and everybody will work longer hours and harder than ever before. And that means that they ought to have a chance for recreation and for taking their minds off their work even more than before."[19] With the approval of President Roosevelt, Major League Baseball began its spring training in 1942 with little repercussions. Although some men were being pulled away from the baseball fields and sent to the battlefield, baseball continued to field teams. [edit]Breaking the color barrier This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2010) Jackie Robinson's number 42 was retired by the Major League Baseball in 1997. In the mid-1940s, Branch Rickey, president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, selected player Jackie Robinson from a list of promising Negro leagues players. After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to "turn the other cheek" to any racial antagonism directed at him, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month. In what was later referred to as "The Noble Experiment", Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s, joining the Dodgers' farm club, the Montreal Royals, for the 1946 season. The following year, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues. On April 15, 1947, Robinson made his major league debut at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, including more than 14,000 black patrons. Black baseball fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning their Negro league teams which they had followed exclusively. Robinson's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspapers and white major league players. Manager Leo Durocher informed his team, "I do not care if the guy is yellow or black... I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded." After a strike threat by some players, National League President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended. Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players, including Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese who said, "You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them." That year, Robinson earned the inaugural Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award (separate National League and American League rookie of the year honors were awarded until 1949).[128] The next year, racial pressure on Robinson eased, as a number of other black players entered the major leagues. Larry Doby and Satchel Paige were signed by the Cleveland Indians, and the Dodgers added three other black players besides Robinson. [edit]Expanding west, south and north Main article: Major League Baseball relocation of 1950s-1960s Dodger Stadium in 2007 For half a century, from 1903 to 1953, the two major leagues consisted of two eight team leagues. The 16 teams were located in just ten cities, all in the northeastern and midwestern United States: New York City had three teams and Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia and St. Louis each had two teams. St. Louis was the southernmost and westernmost city with a major league team. The longest possible road trip, from Boston to St. Louis, took about 24 hours by railroad. The era of expansion and realignment began in 1953 when the National League's Boston Braves became the Milwaukee Braves. In 1954, the St. Louis Browns became the Baltimore Orioles. In 1955, the Philadelphia Athletics became the Kansas City Athletics. These were three of the least successful major league franchises, even though the Braves were usually an above-.500 team, and they and the Browns had each won a league championship during the 1940s. These three moves were not controversial. The next pair of franchise moves is still controversial. Baseball experts consider the Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers' boss Walter O'Malley to be "perhaps the most influential owner of baseball's early expansion era."[20] Before the 1958 Major League Baseball season, he moved the Brooklyn Dodgers to Los Angeles.[21] When O'Malley moved the Dodgers from Brooklyn, the story transcended the world of sport and he found himself on the cover of TIME magazine.[22] The cover art for the issue was created by sports cartoonist Willard Mullin,[23] long noted for his caricature of the "Brooklyn Bum" that personified the team. O'Malley was also influential in persuading the rival New York Giants to move west, to become the San Francisco Giants. The Giants were already suffering from slumping attendance records at their aging ballpark, the Polo Grounds. Had the Dodgers moved out west alone, the St. Louis Cardinals—1,600 mi (2,575 km) away—[24][25] would have been the closest National League team. The joint move would make West Coast road trips economical for visiting teams.[26] O'Malley invited San Francisco Mayor George Christopher to New York to meet w

mlb baseball taken from wikipedia..(online encyclopedia)

nfl football

National Football League From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Nfl) "NFL" redirects here. For other uses, see NFL (disambiguation). For other leagues of the same name, see National Football League (disambiguation). National Football League Current season or competition: 2011 NFL season Sport American Football Founded August 20, 1920, in Canton, Ohio Commissioner Roger Goodell Inaugural season 1920 No. of teams 32 Country(ies) United States Most recent champion(s) Green Bay Packers (13th title) Most titles Green Bay Packers (13 titles) TV partner(s) CBS Fox NBC ESPN NFL Network Official website NFL.com The National Football League (NFL) is the highest level of professional American football in the United States. It was formed by eleven teams in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association, with the league changing its name to the National Football League in 1922. The league currently consists of thirty-two teams from the United States. The league is divided evenly into two conferences — the American Football Conference (AFC) and National Football Conference (NFC), and each conference has four divisions that have four teams each, for a total of 16 teams in each conference. The NFL is an unincorporated 501(c)(6) association,[1][2][3] a federal nonprofit designation,[4] comprising its 32 teams.[5][6] The regular season is a seventeen-week schedule during which each team plays sixteen games and has one bye week. The season currently starts on the Thursday night in the first full week of September (the Thursday after Labor Day) and runs weekly to late December or early January. At the end of each regular season, six teams from each conference (at least one from each division) play in the NFL playoffs, a twelve-team single-elimination tournament that culminates with the championship game, known as the Super Bowl. This game is held at a pre-selected site which is usually a city that hosts an NFL team. The NFL is the most attended domestic sports league in the world by average attendance per game, with 66,960 fans per game in 2010-11.[7] Although not as frequently as the other major professional sports leagues in the United States, the NFL still is not immune to labor disputes, such as the player's strikes of 1982 and 1987, and more recently a lockout in 2011, though the latest did not result in the cancellation of any regular-season games. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Season structure 2.1 Exhibition season 2.2 Regular season 2.3 Playoffs 2.4 Pro Bowl 2.5 Calendar 3 Teams 3.1 Current NFL teams 3.2 Former NFL teams 4 Media 4.1 Television 4.2 Radio 4.3 Internet/new media 5 Player contracts and compensation 5.1 Salaries 5.2 Salary cap 6 NFL Draft 7 Free agency 7.1 General 7.2 Restricted free agent 7.3 Unrestricted free agent 7.4 Free agency changes in 2010 7.5 Franchise tag 8 Banned substances policy 9 Video games 10 Management 10.1 Franchise owners 11 Uniform numbers 12 Awards 12.1 Discontinued awards 13 Cheerleading 14 See also 14.1 Regular seasons 14.2 Postseasons 14.3 Records 14.4 Related football leagues 15 References 15.1 Notes 15.2 Bibliography 16 External links History Main article: History of the National Football League In 1920 representatives of several professional American football leagues and independent teams founded the American Professional Football Conference, soon renamed the National Football League. The first official championship game was held in 1933. By 1958, when that season's NFL championship game became known as "The Greatest Game Ever Played", the NFL was on its way to becoming one of the most popular sports leagues in the United States. In 1965, football supplanted baseball as the most popular televised sport in America.[8] The merger with the American Football League, agreed to in 1966 and completed in 1970, greatly expanded the league and created the Super Bowl, which has become the most-watched annual sporting event in the United States. Season structure Since 2002, the NFL season features the following schedule: a 4-game exhibition season (or preseason) running from early August to early September; a 16-game, 17-week regular season running from September to December or early January; and a 12-team single-elimination playoff beginning in January, culminating in the Super Bowl in early February. Traditionally, American high school football games are played on Friday nights, American college football games are played on Thursday nights and Saturdays, and most NFL games are played on Sunday. Because the NFL season is longer than the college football season, the NFL schedules Saturday games and Saturday playoff games outside the college football season. The ABC Television network added Monday Night Football in 1970, and Thursday night NFL games were added in the 1980s. Exhibition season Main article: National Football League preseason Following mini-camps in the spring and officially recognized training camp in July-August, NFL teams typically play four exhibition games from early August through early September. Each team hosts two games of the four. The exhibition season begins with the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, so those two teams play five exhibition games each. Historically, the American Bowl(s) were played prior to the NFL scheduling regular season games abroad and those teams faced this similar predicament. The games are useful for new players who are not used to playing in front of very large crowds. Management often uses the games to evaluate newly signed players. Veteran starters will generally play only for about a quarter of each game to minimize the risk of injury. Several lawsuits have been brought by fans, against the policy of including exhibition games in season-ticket packages at regular season prices, but none have so far been very successful. Regular season This chart displays an application of the NFL scheduling formula. At the end of the 2008 season, the Browns (in green) finished in fourth place in the AFC North. Thus the Browns in 2009 had to play all the other AFC North teams (in blue) twice; all the AFC West teams (another division within its own conference) once; all the NFC North teams (a division in the other conference) once; and the Bills and the Jaguars, who also finished in fourth place in their respective AFC divisions during that previous season. Main article: National Football League regular season Following the preseason, each of the thirty-two teams embark on a seventeen-week, sixteen-game schedule, with the extra week consisting of a bye to allow teams a rest sometime in the middle of the season (and also to increase television coverage). The regular season currently begins the Thursday evening after Labor Day with a primetime "Kickoff Game" (NBC currently holds broadcast rights for that game). According to the current scheduling structure, the earliest the season could begin is September 4 (as it was in the 2008 season), while the latest would be September 10 (as it was in the 2009 season, due to September 1 falling on a Tuesday). The league uses a scheduling formula to pre-determine which teams plays whom during a given season. Under the current formula since 2002, each of the thirty-two teams' respective 16-game schedule consists for the following:[9][10] Each team plays the other three teams in their division twice: once at home, and once on the road (six games). Each team plays the four teams from another division within its own conference once on a rotating three-year cycle: two at home, and two on the road (four games). Each team plays the four teams from a division in the other conference once on a rotating four-year cycle: two at home, and two on the road (four games). Each team plays once against the other teams in its conference that finished in the same place in their own divisions as themselves the previous season, not counting the division they were already scheduled to play: one at home, one on the road (two games). Although this scheduling formula determines each of the thirty-two teams' respective opponents, the league usually does not release the final regular schedule with specific dates and times until the spring; the NFL needs several months to coordinate the entire season schedule so that, among other reasons, games are worked around various scheduling conflicts, and that it helps maximize TV ratings.[11] The regular season, under the current format, starts no earlier than September 4, and ends no later than January 3, in any given year. Playoffs The NFL Playoffs. Each of the four division winners is seeded 1-4 based on their W-L-T records. The two Wild Card teams (labeled Wild Card 1 and 2) are seeded fifth and sixth (with the better of the two having seed 5) regardless of their records compared to the four division winners. Main article: National Football League playoffs The season concludes with a twelve-team tournament used to determine the teams to play in the Super Bowl. The tournament brackets are made up of six teams from each of the league's two conferences, the American Football Conference (AFC) and the National Football Conference (NFC), following the end of the 16-game regular season: The four division champions from each conference (the team in each division with the best regular season won-lost-tied record), which are seeded one through four based on their regular season won-lost-tied record (tie-breaker rules may apply). Two wild card qualifiers from each conference (those non-division champions with the conference's best record, i.e. the best won-lost-tied percentages, with a series of tie-breaking rules in place in the event that there are teams with the same number of wins and losses[12]), which are seeded five and six. In each conference, the #3 and #6 seeded teams, and the #4 and #5 seeds, face each other during the first round of the playoffs, dubbed the Wild Card Playoffs (the league in recent years has also used the term Wild Card Weekend). The #1 and #2 seeds from each conference receive a bye in the first round, which entitles these teams to automatically advance to the second round, the Divisional Playoff games, to face the winning teams from the first round. In round two, the #1 seeded team always plays the lowest surviving seed in their conference. And in any given playoff game, whoever has the higher seed gets the home field advantage (i.e. the game is held at the higher seed's home field). The two surviving teams from the Divisional Playoff games meet in Conference Championship games, with the winners of those contests going on to face one another in the Super Bowl in a game located at a neutral venue that is usually either indoors or in a warm-weather locale. The designated "home team" alternates year to year between the conferences. In odd-numbered Super Bowls, the NFC team is the designated "home team", with the AFC team serving as the home team for even-numbered games. The NFL is the only one out of the four major professional sports leagues in the United States to use a single-elimination tournament in its playoffs; Major League Baseball, the National Basketball Association and the National Hockey League all use a "best-of" format instead. Pro Bowl The Pro Bowl, the league's all-star game, has been traditionally held on the weekend after the Super Bowl. The game was played at various venues before being held at Aloha Stadium in Honolulu, Hawaii for 30 consecutive seasons from 1980 to 2009. However, the 2010 Pro Bowl was played at Sun Life Stadium, the home stadium of the Miami Dolphins and host site of Super Bowl XLIV, on January 31, the first time ever that the Pro Bowl was played before the championship game. The 2011 and 2012 games will return to Honolulu, though the 2011 game was still played before the Super Bowl. Calendar Though the NFL only plays in the late summer, fall, and early winter, the extended offseason often is an event in itself, with the draft, free agency signings, and the announcement of schedules keeping the NFL in the spotlight even during the spring, when virtually no on-field activity is taking place. A typical calendar of league events is as follows, with the dates listed being those for the 2010 NFL season: February 22 - Pro Football Hall of Fame Game opponents announced. February 24 - March 2—NFL Scouting Combine: Lucas Oil Stadium, Indianapolis, Ind. February 25—Deadline for Clubs to designate Franchise and Transition players. March 5—Veteran Free Agency signing period begins. Trading period begins. March 21-24—NFL Annual Meeting: Dana Point, Calif. Usually accompanied by announcement of scheduling and opponents for first game and opening-weekend night games. Early April: Teams begin voluntary workouts. April 20: 2010 schedule announced. April 22-24 - NFL Draft: New York City. May 24-26—NFL Spring Meeting: Fort Lauderdale, Fla. June 27 - June 30—NFL Rookie Symposium, Palm Beach Gardens, Fla. Mid-July (varies by team, fifteen days before first preseason game)-- Training camps open. August 7 - Pro Football Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony, Canton, Ohio, including Hall of Fame Game. August 12-16—First full Preseason weekend. August 31—Roster cutdown from 80 to maximum of 75 players. September 4—Roster cutdown from 75 to maximum of 53 players. September 9-13 - Kickoff 2010 Weekend (Week 1 of regular season) October 31 - International Series game (Wembley Stadium, London). November - Pro Bowl balloting and flexible scheduling for NBC Sunday Night Football begin. November 25 - Thanksgiving games. January 2, 2011—End of regular season. January 8, 2011 - Playoffs begin. January 23 - AFC Championship Game and NFC Championship Game. January 30 - Pro Bowl. February 6 - Super Bowl. Teams Current NFL teams Bills Dolphins Patriots Jets Ravens Bengals Browns Steelers Texans Colts Titans Broncos Chiefs Raiders Chargers Cowboys Giants Eagles Redskins Bears Lions Packers Vikings Falcons Panthers Saints Buccaneers Jaguars Cardinals Rams 49ers Seahawks The NFL consists of thirty-two clubs. Each club is allowed a maximum of fifty-three players on their roster, but they may only dress forty-five to play each week during the regular season. Reflecting the population distribution of the United States as a whole, most teams are in the eastern half of the country; seventeen teams are in the Eastern Time Zone and nine others in the Central Time Zone. Most major metropolitan areas in the United States have an NFL franchise, although Los Angeles, the second-largest metropolitan area in the country, has not hosted an NFL team since 1994. Further information: History of the National Football League in Los Angeles The Rams and the Raiders called the Los Angeles area home from 1946-1994 and 1982-1994 respectively. On August 9, 2011, the LA City Council approved plans to build Farmers Field which will be home to an NFL team. It is unknown which team will move to the venue.[13] In 2005, some Saints games were played in San Antonio and Baton Rouge because of Hurricane Katrina. Unlike Major League Baseball, Major League Soccer, the National Basketball Association and the National Hockey League, the league has no full-time teams in Canada, although the Buffalo Bills play one game per year in Toronto. Also, there is talk of possibly bringing the NFL to Toronto, the largest city in Canada. The Dallas Cowboys are the highest valued American football franchise, valued at approximately $1.6 billion[14] and one of the most valuable franchises in all of professional sports worldwide, currently second[15] behind English soccer club Manchester United,[14] which has an approximate value of $1.8 billion at current exchange rates.[16] (Incidentally, the majority shareholder in United, Malcolm Glazer, is also the owner of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers.) Since the 2002 season, the teams have been aligned as follows: Division Team City/Area Stadium Founded[17] Joined Head Coach Owner American Football Conference East Buffalo Bills Orchard Park, NY Ralph Wilson Stadium 1 Oct 28, 1959 † 1970 Chan Gailey Ralph Wilson Miami Dolphins Miami Gardens, FL Sun Life Stadium Aug 16 1965 † 1970 Tony Sparano Stephen M. Ross New England Patriots Foxborough, MA Gillette Stadium Nov 22, 1959 † 1970 Bill Belichick Robert Kraft New York Jets E. Rutherford, NJ MetLife Stadium Aug 14, 1959 † 1970 Rex Ryan Woody Johnson North Baltimore Ravens Baltimore, MD M&T Bank Stadium Feb 9, 1996 1996 2 John Harbaugh Steve Bisciotti Cincinnati Bengals Cincinnati, OH Paul Brown Stadium May 23, 1967 † 1970 Marvin Lewis Mike Brown Cleveland Browns Cleveland, OH Cleveland Browns Stadium June 4, 1944 ‡ 1950 2 Pat Shurmur Randy Lerner Pittsburgh Steelers Pittsburgh, PA Heinz Field July 8, 1933 1933 Mike Tomlin Dan Rooney South Houston Texans Houston, TX Reliant Stadium Oct 6, 1999 2002 Gary Kubiak Bob McNair Indianapolis Colts * Indianapolis, IN Lucas Oil Stadium Jan 23, 1953 1953 Jim Caldwell Jim Irsay Jacksonville Jaguars Jacksonville, FL EverBank Field Nov 30, 1993 1995 Jack Del Rio Wayne Weaver Tennessee Titans * Nashville, TN LP Field Aug 14, 1959 † 1970 Mike Munchak Bud Adams West Denver Broncos Denver, CO Sports Authority Field at Mile High Aug 14, 1959 † 1970 John Fox Pat Bowlen Kansas City Chiefs * Kansas City, MO Arrowhead Stadium Aug 14, 1959 † 1970 Todd Haley Clark Hunt et al. Oakland Raiders * Oakland, CA O.co Coliseum Jan 30, 1960 † 1970 Hue Jackson Al Davis San Diego Chargers * San Diego, CA Qualcomm Stadium Aug 14, 1959 † 1970 Norv Turner Alex Spanos National Football Conference East Dallas Cowboys Arlington, TX Cowboys Stadium Jan 28, 1960 1960 Jason Garrett Jerry Jones New York Giants E. Rutherford, NJ MetLife Stadium Aug 1, 1925 1925 Tom Coughlin J. Mara & S. Tisch Philadelphia Eagles Philadelphia, PA Lincoln Financial Field July 8, 1933 1933 Andy Reid Jeffrey Lurie Washington Redskins * Landover, MD FedEx Field July 9, 1932 1932 Mike Shanahan Daniel Snyder North Chicago Bears * Chicago, IL Soldier Field Sep 17, 1920 3 1920 Lovie Smith V. Halas McCaskey Detroit Lions * Detroit, MI Ford Field 1929 1930 Jim Schwartz Bill Ford Green Bay Packers Green Bay, WI Lambeau Field Aug 11, 1919 1921 Mike McCarthy Incorporated Minnesota Vikings Minneapolis, MN Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome Jan 28, 1960 1961 Leslie Frazier Zygi Wilf South Atlanta Falcons Atlanta, GA Georgia Dome June 30, 1965 1966 Mike Smith Arthur Blank Carolina Panthers Charlotte, NC Bank of America Stadium Oct 26, 1993 1995 Ron Rivera Jerry Richardson New Orleans Saints New Orleans, LA Louisiana Superdome Nov 1, 1966 1967 Sean Payton Tom Benson Tampa Bay Buccaneers Tampa, FL Raymond James Stadium April 24, 1974 1976 Raheem Morris Malcolm Glazer West Arizona Cardinals * Glendale, AZ University of Phoenix Stadium 1898 1920 Ken Whisenhunt Bill Bidwill St. Louis Rams * St. Louis, MO Edward Jones Dome 1936 ♠ 1937 Steve Spagnuolo Stan Kroenke San Francisco 49ers San Francisco, CA Candlestick Park June 4, 1944 ‡ 1950 Jim Harbaugh Denise & John York Seattle Seahawks Seattle, WA CenturyLink Field June 4, 1974 1976 Pete Carroll Paul Allen Chart notes An asterisk (*) denotes a franchise move. See the respective team articles for more information. The following symbols correspond to a team having been founded in a different league. † = founded in the AFL; ‡ = founded in the AAFC; ♠ = founded in AFL II The Buffalo Bills play one regular game each year and one preseason game every two years from 2008-2012 at Rogers Centre in Toronto. As the result of a relocation controversy in 1996, the league officially suspended operations of the Cleveland Browns while its players and personnel moved to Baltimore to become a new franchise called the Baltimore Ravens. As per an agreement with the two cities, the Ravens are officially regarded as a new 1996 team while the league's official history and records views the Browns as one continuous franchise that began in 1946, suspended operations from 1996-1998, and resumed play in 1999 with new players. Although the club was originally established in 1919 as the company team of the A. E. Staley food starch company, the Chicago Bears official team and league records instead cite George Halas as the founder after he took over control in 1920.[18] Former NFL teams Further information: Defunct National Football League franchises In its earliest years, the NFL was a very unstable and somewhat informal organization. Many teams entered and left the league annually. However, since the acquisition of the All-America Football Conference in 1950, the NFL has shown remarkable stability. The last NFL team to fold was the Dallas Texans in 1952; its remnants were salvaged to form the expansion Baltimore Colts. Media See also: List of current NFL broadcasters Television For more details on this topic, see NFL on television. Annually, the Super Bowl often ranks as the most watched show of the year in the United States and second most watched sporting event worldwide behind the UEFA Champions League final. Four of Nielsen Media Research's top ten programs are Super Bowls.[19] Networks have purchased a share of the broadcasting rights to the NFL as a means of raising the entire network's profile.[20] The Super Bowl is so popular annually that many companies debut elaborate commercials during the game. The television rights to the NFL are the most lucrative and expensive sports broadcasting commodity in the United States. Under the current television contracts, which began during the 2006 season, regular season games are broadcast on five networks: CBS, Fox, NBC, ESPN, and the NFL Network. Regionally shown games are broadcast on Sundays on CBS and Fox, carrying the AFC and NFC teams res

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Olympic Games From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Olympics) For the 776 BC to AD 393 Games see Ancient Olympic Games. For the most recent Summer Games in Beijing, see 2008 Summer Olympics. For the most recent Winter Games in Vancouver, see 2010 Winter Olympics. For the next Summer Games in London, see 2012 Summer Olympics. For other uses, see Olympic. Olympic Games Organizations Charter • IOC • NOCs • Symbols Sports • Competitors Medal tables • Medalists • ceremonies Games Ancient Olympic Games Summer Olympic Games Winter Olympic Games Paralympic Games Youth Olympic Games The Olympic Games are a major international event featuring summer and winter sports, in which thousands of athletes participate in a variety of competitions. The Olympic Games have come to be regarded as the world's foremost sports competition.[1] The Games are currently held every two years, with Summer and Winter Olympic Games alternating, although they occur every four years within their respective seasonal games. Since 2008, host cities are contracted to manage both the Olympic and the Paralympic Games,[2] where athletes who have a physical disability compete. The Paralympics are held immediately following their respective Olympic Games. Originally, the ancient Olympic Games were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894. The IOC has since become the governing body of the Olympic Movement, whose structure and actions are defined by the Olympic Charter. The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in several changes to the Olympic Games. Some of these adjustments include the creation of the Winter Games for ice and winter sports, the Paralympic Games for athletes with a physical disability, and the Youth Olympic Games for teenage athletes. The IOC has had to adapt to the varying economic, political, and technological realities of the 20th century. As a result, the Olympics shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allow participation of professional athletes. The growing importance of the mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship and commercialization of the Games. World Wars led to the cancellation of the 1916, 1940, and 1944 Games. Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games. The Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations (IFs), National Olympic Committees (NOCs), and organizing committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Olympic Games. The host city is responsible for organizing and funding a celebration of the Games consistent with the Olympic Charter. The Olympic program, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games, is also determined by the IOC. The celebration of the Games encompasses many rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. There are over 13,000 athletes that compete at the Summer and Winter Olympics in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third place finishers in each event receive gold, silver, and bronze medals, respectively. The Games have grown in scale to the point that nearly every nation is represented. Such growth has created numerous challenges, including boycotts, doping, bribery of officials, and terrorism. Every two years, the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national, and in particular cases, international fame. The Games also constitute a major opportunity for the host city and country to showcase themselves to the world. Contents [hide] 1 Ancient Olympics 2 Modern Games 2.1 Forerunners 2.2 Revival 2.3 1896 Games 2.4 Changes and adaptations 2.4.1 Winter Games 2.4.2 Paralympics 2.4.3 Youth Games 2.5 Recent games 3 International Olympic Committee 3.1 Criticism 4 Commercialization 4.1 Budget 4.2 Effect of television 4.3 Controversy 5 Symbols 6 Ceremonies 6.1 Opening 6.2 Closing 6.3 Medal presentation 7 Sports 7.1 Amateurism and professionalism 8 Controversies 8.1 Boycotts 8.2 Politics 8.3 Use of performance enhancing drugs 8.4 Gender discrimination 8.5 Violence 9 Champions and medalists 10 Host nations and cities 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links [edit]Ancient Olympics Main article: Ancient Olympic Games Stadium in Olympia, Greece The Ancient Olympic Games was a series of competitions held between representatives of several city-states and kingdoms from Ancient Greece, which featured mainly athletic but also combat and chariot racing events. During the Olympic games all struggles against the participating city-states were postponed until the games were finished.[3] The origin of these Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend.[4] One of the most popular myths identifies Heracles and his father Zeus as the progenitors of the Games.[5][6][7] According to legend, it was Heracles who first called the Games "Olympic" and established the custom of holding them every four years.[8] A legend persists that after Heracles completed his twelve labors, he built the Olympic stadium as an honor to Zeus. Following its completion, he walked in a straight line for 200 steps and called this distance a "stadion" (Greek: στάδιον, Latin: stadium, "stage"), which later became a unit of distance. Another myth associates the first Games with the ancient Greek concept of Olympic truce (ἐκεχειρία, ekecheiria).[9] The most widely accepted date for the inception of the Ancient Olympics is 776 BC; this is based on inscriptions, found at Olympia, of the winners of a footrace held every four years starting in 776 BC.[10] The Ancient Games featured running events, a pentathlon (consisting of a jumping event, discus and javelin throws, a foot race and wrestling), boxing, wrestling, and equestrian events.[11][12] Tradition has it that Coroebus, a cook from the city of Elis, was the first Olympic champion.[13] The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, featuring sporting events alongside ritual sacrifices honoring both Zeus (whose famous statue by Phidias stood in his temple at Olympia) and Pelops, divine hero and mythical king of Olympia. Pelops was famous for his chariot race with King Oenomaus of Pisatis.[14] The winners of the events were admired and immortalized in poems and statues.[15] The Games were held every four years, and this period, known as an Olympiad, was used by Greeks as one of their units of time measurement. The Games were part of a cycle known as the Panhellenic Games, which included the Pythian Games, the Nemean Games, and the Isthmian Games.[16] The Olympic Games reached their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece. There is no consensus on when the Games officially ended, the most common-held date is 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I declared that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated.[17] Another date cited is 426 AD, when his successor Theodosius II ordered the destruction of all Greek temples.[18] After the demise of the Olympics, they were not held again until the late 19th century. [edit]Modern Games [edit]Forerunners Further information: Wenlock Olympian Society Annual Games and Zappas Olympics Baron Pierre de Coubertin An English lawyer named Robert Dover created the Cotswold Olimpick Games in 1612. This multi-sport event, which continues to this day, has been acknowledged by the British Olympic Association as a precursor to the Modern Olympic Games.[19] An attempt to emulate the ancient Olympic Games was the L'Olympiade de la République, a national Olympic festival held annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary France.[20] The competition included several disciplines from the ancient Greek Olympics. The 1796 Games also marked the introduction of the metric system into sport.[20] In 1850 an Olympian Class was started by Dr William Penny Brookes at Much Wenlock, in Shropshire, England. In 1859, Dr Brookes changed the name to Wenlock Olympian Games. This annual sports festival continues to this day.[21] The Wenlock Olympian Society was founded by Dr. Brookes on November 15, 1860.[22]:28 Between 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival. Devised by John Hulley and Charles Melly, in cooperation with Dr Brookes, these games were elitist in nature since only Gentlemen could compete.[23][24][25] Some of the Gentlemen brought their coaches with them.[25] The programme for Athens 1896 had similarities to that of the Liverpool Olympics, but that was to be expected since Dr. Brookes had incorporated events from the 1859 Athens Olympics programme at Much Wenlock and had contributed to the programme at Liverpool.[26] In 1865 Hulley, Dr. Brookes and E.G. Ravenstein founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association. Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter.[27] In 1866, a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organized at London's Crystal Palace.[28] [edit]Revival Stamp from first Olympic stamp set Greek interest in reviving the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem "Dialogue of the Dead", published in 1833.[22]:1 Evangelis Zappas, a wealthy Greek-Romanian philanthropist, first wrote to King Otto of Greece, in 1856, offering to fund a permanent revival of the Olympic Games.[22]:14 Zappas sponsored the first Olympic Games in 1859, which was held in an Athens city square. Athletes participated from Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Zappas funded the restoration of the ancient Panathenaic stadium so that it could host all future Olympic Games.[22]:14 The Panathinaiko Stadium hosted Olympics in 1870 and 1875.[22]:2, 13-23, 81 Thirty thousand spectators attended that Games in 1870 though no official attendance records are available for the 1875 Games.[22]:44 In 1890, after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society, Baron Pierre de Coubertin was inspired to found the International Olympic Committee (IOC).[29] Coubertin built on the ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of establishing internationally rotating Olympic Games that would occur every four years.[29] He presented these ideas during the first Olympic Congress of the newly created International Olympic Committee. This meeting was held from June 16 to June 23, 1894, at the Sorbonne University in Paris. On the last day of the Congress, it was decided that the first Olympic Games, to come under the auspices of the IOC, would take place in Athens in 1896.[30] The IOC elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president.[22]:100-105 [edit]1896 Games Main article: 1896 Summer Olympics The opening ceremony in the Panathinaiko Stadium The first Games held under the auspices of the IOC was hosted in the Panathenaic stadium in Athens in 1896. These Games brought together 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events.[31] Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government a trust to fund future Olympic Games. This trust was used to help finance the 1896 Games.[22]:117[32][33] George Averoff contributed generously for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games.[22]:128 The Greek government also provided funding, which was expected to be recouped through the sale of tickets to the Games and from the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set.[22]:128 The Greek officials and public were enthusiastic about the experience of hosting these Games. This feeling was shared by many of the athletes, who even demanded that Athens be the host of the Olympic Games on a permanent basis. The IOC did not approve this request. The committee planned that the modern Olympics would rotate internationally. As such they decided to hold the second Games in Paris.[34] [edit]Changes and adaptations Main article: Summer Olympic Games After the success of the 1896 Games, the Olympics entered a period of stagnation that threatened their survival. The Olympic Games held at the Paris Exposition in 1900 and the World's Fair at St. Louis in 1904 were side-shows. The Games at Paris did not have a stadium, however this was the first time women took part in the games. The St. Louis Games hosted 650 athletes, but 580 were from the United States. The homogeneous nature of these celebrations was a low point for the Olympic Movement.[35] The Games rebounded when the 1906 Intercalated Games (so-called because they were the second Games held within the third Olympiad) were held in Athens. These Games are not officially recognized by the IOC and no Intercalated Games have been held since. These Games, which were hosted at the Panathenaic stadium in Athens, attracted a broad international field of participants, and generated great public interest. This marked the beginning of a rise in both the popularity and the size of the Olympics.[36] [edit]Winter Games Main article: Winter Olympic Games Ice hockey game during the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz The Winter Olympics were created to feature snow and ice sports that were logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games. Figure skating (in 1908 and 1920) and ice hockey (in 1920) were featured as Olympic events at the Summer Olympics. The IOC desired to expand this list of sports to encompass other winter activities. At the 1921 Olympic Congress, in Lausanne, it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games. A winter sports week (it was actually 11 days) was held in 1924 in Chamonix, France; this event became the first Winter Olympic Games.[37] The IOC mandated that the Winter Games be celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart.[38] This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville, France; after that, beginning with the 1994 Games, the Winter Olympics were held on the third year of each Olympiad. [edit]Paralympics Main article: Paralympic Games In 1948, Sir Ludwig Guttmann, determined to promote the rehabilitation of soldiers after World War II, organized a multi-sport event between several hospitals to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics. Guttmann's event, known then as the Stoke Mandeville Games, became an annual sports festival. Over the next twelve years, Guttmann and others continued their efforts to use sports as an avenue to healing. For the 1960 Olympic Games, in Rome, Guttmann brought 400 athletes to compete in the "Parallel Olympics", which became known as the first Paralympics. Since then, the Paralympics have been held in every Olympic year. As of the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, the host city for the Olympics has also played host to the Paralympics.[39] In 2001 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) signed an agreement which guaranteed that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games.[2][40] The agreement came into effect at the Summer Games in Beijing 2008, and the Winter Games in Vancouver 2010. Chairman of the London organising committee, Lord Coe, said about the 2012 Summer Paralympics and Olympics in London, England, that " We want to change public attitudes towards disability, celebrate the excellence of Paralympic sport and to enshrine from the very outset that the two Games are an integrated whole. " [41] [edit]Youth Games Main article: Youth Olympic Games In 2010, the Olympic Games were complemented by the Youth Games, which gives athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 the chance to compete. The Youth Olympic Games were conceived by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th Congress of the IOC.[42][43] The first Summer Youth Games were held in Singapore from 14-26 August 2010, while the inaugural Winter Games will be hosted in Innsbruck, Austria, two years later.[44] These Games will be shorter than the senior Games; the summer version will last twelve days, while the winter version will last nine days.[45] The IOC allows 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to participate at the Summer Youth Games, and 970 athletes and 580 officials at the Winter Youth Games.[46][47] The sports to be contested will coincide with those scheduled for the senior Games, however there will be variations on the sports including mixed NOC and mixed gender teams as well as a reduced number of disciplines and events.[48] [edit]Recent games From 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896, the Games have grown to about 10,500 competitors from 204 countries at the 2008 Summer Olympics.[49] The scope and scale of the Winter Olympics is smaller. For example, Turin hosted 2,508 athletes from 80 countries competing in 84 events, during the 2006 Winter Olympics.[50] During the Games most athletes and officials are housed in the Olympic village. This village is intended to be a self-contained home for all the Olympic participants. It is furnished with cafeterias, health clinics, and locations for religious expression.[51] The IOC allowed the formation of National Olympic Committees representing countries that did not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that other international organizations demand. As a result, colonies and dependencies are permitted to compete at Olympic Games. Examples of this include territories such as Puerto Rico, Bermuda and Hong Kong, all of which compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another country.[52] The current version of the Charter does only allow new National Olympic Committees representing "independent State recognised by the international community". It therefore did not allow the formation of National Olympic Committees for Sint Maarten and Curaçao when they gained the same constitutional status as Aruba in 2010, although it recognized the Aruban Olympic Committee in 1986.[53][54] [edit]International Olympic Committee Main article: International Olympic Committee IOC headquarters in Lausanne The Olympic Movement encompasses a large number of national and international sporting organizations and federations, recognized media partners, as well as athletes, officials, judges, and every other person and institution that agrees to abide by the rules of the Olympic Charter.[55] As the umbrella organization of the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for selecting the host city, overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games, updating and approving the sports program, and negotiating sponsorship and broadcasting rights.[56] The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements: International Federations (IFs) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international level. For example, the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) is the IF for football (soccer), and the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) is the international governing body for volleyball. There are currently 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement, representing each of the Olympic sports.[57] National Olympic Committees (NOCs) represent and regulate the Olympic Movement within each country. For example, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) is the NOC of the United States. There are currently 205 NOCs recognized by the IOC.[49] Organizing Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) constitute the temporary committees responsible for the organization of a specific celebration of the Olympics. OCOGs are dissolved after each Games, once the final report is delivered to the IOC. French and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement. The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country. Every proclamation (such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony) is spoken in these three languages, or the main two depending on whether the host country is an English or French speaking country.[58] [edit]Criticism The IOC has often been criticized for being an intractable organization, with several members on the committee for life. The leadership of IOC presidents Avery Brundage and Juan Antonio Samaranch was especially controversial. Brundage was president for over 20 years, and during his tenure he protected the Olympics from untoward political involvement.[59] He was accused of both racism, for his handling of the apartheid issue with the South African delegation, and anti-Semitism.[60] Under the Samaranch presidency, the office was accused of both nepotism and corruption.[61] Samaranch's ties with the Franco regime in Spain were also a source of criticism.[62] In 1998, it was uncovered that several IOC members had taken bribes from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics, to ensure their votes were cast in favor of the American bid. The IOC pursued an investigation which led to the resignation of four members and expulsion of six others. The scandal set off further reforms that would change the way host cities are selected, to avoid similar cases in the future.[63] A BBC documentary entitled Panorama: Buying the Games, aired in August 2004, investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics.[64] The documentary claimed it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. After

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research

Research From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the search for knowledge. For the suburb of Melbourne, Australia, see Research, Victoria. For the Wikipedia policy, see Wikipedia:Original research. For information on using Wikipedia for research, see Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2009) Basrelief sculpture "Research holding the torch of knowledge" (1896) by Olin Levi Warner. Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C. Research can be defined as the search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method. The primary purpose for basic research (as opposed to applied research) is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Scientific research relies on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world around us. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines. Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and truth. Historical research is embodied in the historical method. Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past. The phrase my research is also used loosely to describe a person's entire collection of information about a particular subject. Contents [hide] 1 Etymology 2 Definitions 3 Scientific research 4 Historical method 5 Research methods 6 Publishing 7 Research funding 8 Original research 8.1 Different forms 9 Artistic research 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading [edit]Etymology Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), 965-1039, Basra - one of the early figures in the development of scientific method. As per the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, the word research is derived from the Middle French "recerche", which means "to go about seeking", the term itself being derived from the Old French term "recerchier" a compund word from "re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search'.[1] The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.[1] [edit]Definitions Research has been defined in a number of different ways. A broad definition of research is given by Martin Shuttleworth - "In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge."[2] The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail as "a studious inquiry or examination; especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws".[1] [edit]Scientific research Main article: Scientific method Primary scientific research being carried out at the Microscopy Laboratory of the Idaho National Laboratory. Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied: Observations and Formation of the topic Hypothesis Conceptual definitions Operational definition Gathering of data Analysis of data Test, revising of hypothesis Conclusion, reiteration if necessary A common misunderstanding is that by this method a hypothesis could be proven or tested. Generally a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected. However, if the outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only supported by surviving rounds of scientific testing and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as true. A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new will supplant it. [edit]Historical method Main article: Historical method German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886), considered to be one of the founders of modern source-based history. The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various history guidelines commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This includes lower criticism and sensual criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are usually part of most formal historical research:[3] Identification of origin date Evidence of localization Recognition of authorship Analysis of data Identification of integrity Attribution of credibility [edit]Research methods The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure.): Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence The research room at the New York Public Library, an example of secondary research in progress. Research can also fall into two distinct types: Primary research (collection of data that does not exist yet ) Secondary research (summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research) In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the research: Qualitative research (understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior) Quantitative research (systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships) Research is often conducted using the hourglass model Structure of Research.[4] The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. [edit]Publishing Cover of the first issue of Nature, 4 November 1869. Academic publishing describes a system that is necessary in order for academic scholars to peer review the work and make it available for a wider audience. The 'system', which is probably disorganized enough not to merit the title, varies widely by field, and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology, and medicine. Most established academic fields have their own journals and other outlets for publication, though many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields; from the print to the electronic format. Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access. There are two main forms of open access: open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is freely available from the time of publication, and self-archiving, where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available on the web. [edit]Research funding Main article: Research funding Wikiversity has learning materials about Research Look up research in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Most funding for scientific research comes from two major sources: Corporate research and development departments; and government research councils such as the National Institutes of Health in the USA[5] and the Medical Research Council in the UK. These are managed primarily through universities and in some cases through military contractors. Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their research, but also as a source of merit. [edit]Original research Original research is research that is not exclusively based on a summary, review or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. This material is of a primary source character. The purpose of the original research is to produce new knowledge, rather than to present the existing knowledge in a new form (e.g., summarized or classified).[6][7] [edit]Different forms Original research can take a number of forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to. In experimental work, it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject, e.g., in the laboratory or in the field, documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results. In analytical work, there are typically some new (for example) mathematical results produced, or a new way of approaching an existing problem. In some subjects which do not typically carry out experimentation or analysis of this kind, the originality is in the particular way existing understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on the outcome of the work of the researcher.[citation needed] The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals and usually established by means of peer review.[citation needed] Graduate students are commonly required to perform original research as part of a dissertation.[8] [edit]Artistic research The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming more academics-oriented is leading to artistic research being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art as in the case of other disciplines.[9] One of the characteristics of artistic research is that it must accept subjectivity as opposed to the classical scientific methods. As such, it is similar to the social sciences in using qualitative research and intersubjectivity as tools to apply measurement and critical analysis.[citation needed] Artistic research has been defined by Dans och Cirkushögskolan (the University of Dance and Circus), Stockholm in the following manner - "Artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines. It is based on artistic practices, methods and criticality. Through presented documentation, the insights gained shall be placed in a context."[10] [edit]See also Academic conference Advertising research Basic research Business cluster Business information Case study research Conceptual framework Creativity techniques Demonstrative evidence Due diligence Dialectical research Empirical evidence Empirical research European Charter for Researchers Genealogical research Cluster genealogy Internet research Innovation Lab notebook List of countries by research and development spending List of fields of doctoral studies Marketing research National Council of University Research Administrators (NCURA) Research Methods Institute Open research Operations research Participatory action research Pearl growing Phronetic social science Psychological research methods Research and development Social research [edit]References ^ a b c Unattributed. ""Research" in 'Dictionary' tab". Merriam Webster (m-w.com). Encyclopaedia Brittanica. Retrieved 13 August 2011. ^ Shuttleworth, Martyn (2008). "Definition of Research". Experiment Resources. Experiment-Research.com. Retrieved 14 August 2011. ^ Garraghan, Gilbert J. (1946). A Guide to Historical Method. New York: Fordham University Press. p. 168. ISBN 0837171326. ^ Trochim, W.M.K, (2006). Research Methods Knowledge Base. ^ "US Scientific Grant Awards Database". ^ What is Original Research? Original research is considered a primary source. Thomas G. Carpenter Library University of North Florida ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=XlIH4R9Z_k8C&pg=PT75 ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=oFFWt5oyA3oC&pg=PA178&dq=%22original+research%22&lr=&cd=90#v=onepage&q=%22original%20research%22&f=false ^ Lesage, Dieter (Spring 2009). "Who's Afraid of Artistic Research? On measuring artistic research output". Art&Research - A Journal of Ideas, Contexts and Methods 2 (2). ISSN 1752-6338. Retrieved 14 August 2011. ^ Unattributed. "Artistic research at DOCH". Dans och Cirkushögskolan (website). Retrieved 14 August 2011. [edit]Further reading Freshwater, D., Sherwood, G. & Drury, V. (2006) International research collaboration. Issues, benefits and challenges of the global network. Journal of Research in Nursing, 11 (4), pp 9295-303. View page ratings Rate this page What's this? Trustworthy Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) Submit ratings Categories: Research | Research methods Log in / create accountArticleDiscussionReadEditView history Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Toolbox Print/export Languages العربية Aragonés Asturianu Bamanankan বাংলা Bosanski Català Česky Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Furlan Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lingála മലയാളം Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 ‪Norsk (bokmål)‬ ‪Norsk (nynorsk)‬ Occitan Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский සිංහල Simple English کوردی Српски / Srpski Srpskohrvatski / Српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Vèneto Tiếng Việt Winaray ייִדיש 中文 This page was last modified on 4 September 2011 at 21:41. 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tennis tour wiki. request link and i will send

Tennis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the sport. For other uses, see Tennis (disambiguation). Tennis The US Open is a prestigious Grand Slam tournament. Highest governing body International Tennis Federation First played 19th century (U.K.) Characteristics Contact No Team members Single or doubles Categorization Racquet sport Equipment Tennis ball, tennis racquet Olympic 1896-1924, 1988-present Tennis is a sport usually played between two players (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses a racket that is strung to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over a net into the opponent's court. Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society at all ages. The sport can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, including people in wheelchairs. The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England in the late 19th century as "lawn tennis" which has close connections to various field/lawn games as well as to the ancient game of real tennis. Up to then, "tennis" referred to the latter sport: for example, in Disraeli's novel Sybil (1845), Lord Eugene De Vere announces that he will "go down to Hampton Court and play tennis. As it is the Derby [classic horse race], nobody will be there".[1] After its creation, lawn tennis spread throughout the upper-class English-speaking population before spreading around the world.[2] The rules of tennis have not changed much since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that from 1908 to 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times, and the adoption of the tie-break in the 1970s. A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point challenge system, which allows a player to challenge the line (or chair) umpire's call of a point. Players have unlimited opportunities to challenge provided the challenges made are correct. However, once three incorrect challenges are made in a set, they cannot challenge again until the next set. If the set goes to a tie break, players are given one additional opportunity to challenge the call. This electronic review, currently called Hawk-Eye, is available at a limited number of high-level ATP and WTA tournaments. Tennis is enjoyed by millions of recreational players and is also a hugely popular worldwide spectator sport, especially the four Grand Slam tournaments (also referred to as the "Majors"): the Australian Open played on hard courts, the French Open played on red clay courts, Wimbledon played on grass courts, and the US Open played also on hard courts. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Equipment 2.1 Racquets 2.2 Balls 2.3 Miscellaneous 3 Manner of play 3.1 Court 3.1.1 Lines 3.2 Play of a single point 3.3 Scoring 3.4 Rule variations 4 Surface 5 Officials 6 Junior tennis 7 Match play 8 Shots 8.1 Serve 8.2 Grips 8.3 Forehand 8.4 Backhand 8.5 Other shots 9 Tournaments 9.1 Grand Slam tournaments 9.2 Masters 1000 9.3 250 and 500 Series 9.4 Challenger Tour and Futures Tournaments 9.5 Premier events 10 Players 10.1 Grand Slam tournament winners 10.1.1 Male 10.1.2 Female 10.2 Greatest male players 10.3 Greatest female players 11 In popular culture 12 See also 13 References 14 External links [edit]History Main article: History of tennis Augurio Perera's house in Edgbaston, Birmingham, where he and Harry Gem first played the modern game of lawn tennis Most historians believe that tennis originated in France in the 12th century, but the ball was then struck with the palm of the hand. It was not until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and the game began to be called "tennis", from the Old French term Tenez, which can be translated as "hold!", "receive!" or "take!". An interjection used as a call from the server to his opponent.[3] It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors where the ball could be hit off the wall. Henry VIII of England was a big fan of this game, which is now known as real tennis.[4] Between 1859 and 1865 Harry Gem and his friend Augurio Perera developed a game that combined elements of rackets and the Basque ball game pelota, which they played on Perera's croquet lawn in Birmingham, United Kingdom.[5][6] In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world's first tennis club in Leamington Spa.[7] In December 1873, Major Walter Clopton Wingfield designed and patented a similar game — which he called sphairistike (Greek: σφάίρίστική, from ancient Greek meaning "skill at playing at ball"), and was soon known simply as "sticky" — for the amusement of his guests at a garden party on his estate of Nantclwyd, in Llanelidan, Wales.[8] He likely based his game on the evolving sport of outdoor tennis including real tennis. According to some tennis historians, modern tennis terminology also derives from this period, as Wingfield borrowed both the name and much of the French vocabulary of real tennis and applied them to his new game.[citation needed] The first championships at Wimbledon in London were played in 1877.[9] The first Championships culminated a significant debate on how to standardize the rules. Lawn tennis in the U.S., 1887 In America in 1874 Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned from Bermuda where she met Major Wingfield. She laid out a tennis court at the Staten Island Cricket Club in New Brighton Staten Island, New York. The exact location of the club was under what is now the Staten Island Ferry terminal. The first American National tournament in 1880 was played there. An Englishman named O.E Woodhouse won the singles match. There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in NY. On May 21, 1881, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now the United States Tennis Association) was formed to standardize the rules and organize competitions.[10] The U.S. National Men's Singles Championship, now the US Open, was first held in 1881 at Newport, Rhode Island.[11] The U.S. National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887.[12] Tennis was also popular in France, where the French Open dates to 1891.[13] Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open, and the Australian Open (dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis.[9][14] Together these four events are called the Majors or Slams (a term borrowed from bridge rather than baseball).[15] The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the International Lawn Tennis Federation, now known as the International Tennis Federation, have remained largely stable in the ensuing eighty years, the one major change being the addition of the tie-break system designed by James Van Alen.[16] That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the 1924 Games but returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the efforts by the then ITF President Philippe Chatrier, ITF General Secretary David Gray and ITF Vice President Pablo Llorens, and support from IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full medal sport at Seoul in 1988. The Davis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900.[17] The analogous competition for women's national teams, the Fed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF also known as International Tennis Federation.[18] In 1926, promoter C.C. Pyle established the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.[14][19] The most notable of these early professionals were the American Vinnie Richards and the Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen.[14][20] Once a player turned pro he or she could not compete in the major (amateur) tournaments.[14] In 1968, commercial pressures and rumors of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating the open era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis.[21] With the beginning of the open era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its upper/middle-class English-speaking image[22] (although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists).[22][23][24] In 1954, Van Alen founded the International Tennis Hall of Fame, a non-profit museum in Newport, Rhode Island.[25] The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honoring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world. Each year, a grass-court tournament and an induction ceremony honoring new Hall of Fame members are hosted on its grounds. [edit]Equipment Main article: Tennis technology Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners need only a racquet and balls. [edit]Racquets A tennis racket. The components of a tennis racquet include a handle, known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, racquets were of wood and of standard size, and strings were of animal gut. Laminated wood construction yielded more strength in racquets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power. Meanwhile technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet with added durability. Under modern rules of tennis, the racquet must adhere to the following guidelines;[26] The hitting area, composed of the strings, must be flat and generally uniform. The frame of the hitting area may not be more than 29 inches in length and 12.5 inches in width. The entire racquet must be of a fixed shape, size, weight, and weight distribution. There may not be any energy source built into the racquet. The racquet must not provide any kind of communication, instruction or advice to the player during the match. The rules regarding racquets have changed over time, as material and engineering advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches.[27] [edit]Balls A Penn tennis ball. Main article: Tennis ball Tennis balls are of hollow rubber with a felt coating. Traditionally white, the predominant color was gradually changed to Optic Yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for improved visibility. [edit]Miscellaneous Advanced players improve their performance through a number of accoutrements. Vibration dampers may be interlaced in the proximal part of the string array for improved feel. Racket handles may be customized with absorbent or rubber-like materials to improve the players' grip. Players often use sweat bands on their wrists to keep their hands dry as well. Finally, although the game can be played in a variety of shoes, specialized tennis shoes have wide, flat soles for stability and a built-up front structure to avoid excess wear. [edit]Manner of play The dimensions of a tennis court Two players before a serve For individual terms see: Glossary of tennis [edit]Court Main article: Tennis court Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface, usually grass, clay, a hardcourt of concrete and/or asphalt and occasionally carpet (indoor). The court is 78 feet (23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.23 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (10.97 m) for doubles matches.[28] Additional clear space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (91.4 cm) high in the center.[28] The modern tennis court owes its design to Major Walter Clopton Wingfield who, in 1873, patented a court much the same as the current one for his stické tennis (sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with the hourglass shape of his court changed to a rectangle.[29] [edit]Lines The lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line (middle of the court). The short mark in the center of each baseline is referred to as either the hash mark or the center mark. The outermost lines that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines. These are the boundaries used when doubles is being played. The lines to the inside of the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines and are used as boundaries in singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles sideline is called the doubles alley, which is considered playable in doubles play. The line that runs across the center of a player's side of the court is called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where a player legally stands when making a serve.[30] The line dividing the service line in two is called the center line or center service line. The boxes this center line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a player's position, he or she will have to hit the ball into one of these when serving.[31] A ball is out only if none of it has hit the line or the area inside the lines upon its first bounce. All the lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (51 mm) in width. The baseline can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide if so desired.[30] [edit]Play of a single point Main article: Point (tennis) The players (or teams) start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated the server, and the opposing player is the receiver. Service alternates game by game between the two players (or teams.) For each point, the server starts behind their baseline, between the center mark and the sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server will serve, although the receiver must play to the pace of the server. In a legal service, the ball travels past the net (without touching it) and into the diagonally opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is a let or net service, which is void, and the server gets to retake that serve. The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a "foot fault", which occurs when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the center mark[32] before the ball is hit. If the second service is also a fault, the server double faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service. A legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of the player or team hitting the ball before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net, provided that it still falls in the server's court. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel past the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is still considered a legal return. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point. [edit]Scoring Main article: Tennis score A tennis match is determined through the best of 3 or 5 sets. While recreational players may agree to play any number of sets, depending upon time availability or stamina, on the professional circuit, including all four Grand Slam tournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of the Olympic Games, women play 3 set matches, while men play 5 set matches. For men, the first player to win three sets wins the match, and for women, the first player to win two sets wins the match.[33] A set consists of games, and games, in turn, consist of points. A game consists of a sequence of points played with the same player serving. A game is won by the first player to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are described as "love", "fifteen", "thirty", and "forty" respectively (see Tennis score.) If at least three points have been scored by each player, making the player's scores equal at forty apiece, the score is not called out as "forty-forty", but rather as "deuce". If at least three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his opponent, the score of the game is "advantage" for the player in the lead. During informal games, "advantage" can also be called "ad in" when the serving player is ahead, or "ad out" when the receiving player is ahead. The scoreboard of a match between Roddick and Saulnier. The score of a tennis match during play is always read with the serving player's score first. In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., "fifteen-love") after each point. At the end of a game, the chair umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score. A game point occurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40-love, the player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has three consecutive chances to win the game. Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play. A break point occurs if the receiver, not the server, has a chance to win the game with the next point. Break points are of particular importance because serving is generally considered advantageous, with the server being expected to win games in which they are serving. A receiver who has one (score of 30-40), two (score of 15-40) or three (score of love-40) consecutive chances to win the game has break point, double break point or triple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their break point, the game is awarded to the receiver, and the receiver is said to have converted their break point. If the receiver fails to win their break point it is called a failure to convert. Winning break points, and thus the game, is also referred to as breaking serve, as the receiver has disrupted, or broken the natural advantage of the server. If in the following game, the server, who is now the receiver, also wins a break point, it is often referred to as breaking back. A set consists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two games more than the opponent. If one player has won six games and the opponent five, an additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins the set 7-5. If the trailing player wins the game, a tie-break is played. A tie-break, played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7-6. Only in the final sets of matches at the Australian Open, the French Open, Wimbledon, the Olympic Games, Davis Cup, and Fed Cup are tie-breaks not played. In these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one player has a two-game lead. A "love" set means that the loser of the set won zero games. In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set and the overall score. In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the end of the match with the well-known phrase "Game, set, match" followed by the winning person's or team's name. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player's score first, even if the winning player loses set(s) during the match (e.g., "6-2, 4-6, 6-0, 7-5"). [edit]Rule variations See also: Types of tennis match Variations Name Description No ad The first player or doubles team to win four points wins the game, regardless of whether the player or team is ahead by two points. When the game score reaches three points each, the receiver chooses which side of the court (advantage court or deuce court) the service is to be delivered on the seventh and game-deciding point. Pro set Instead of playing multiple sets, players may play one "pro set". A pro set is first to 8 (or 10) games by a margin of two games, instead of first to 6 games. A 12-point tie-break is usually played when the score is 8-8 (or 10-10). These are often played with no-ad scoring. Match tiebreak This is sometimes played instead of a third set. This is played like a regular tieb

wnba

Women's National Basketball Association From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from WNBA) "WNBA" redirects here. For other uses, see WNBA (disambiguation). Women's National Basketball Association Current season or competition: 2011 WNBA season The WNBA logo, which parallels the NBA logo. Sport Basketball Founded April 24, 1996 President Laurel J. Richie Motto "Expect Great" Inaugural season 1997 No. of teams 12 Country(ies) United States Continent FIBA Americas (Americas) Most recent champion(s) Seattle Storm (2nd) Most titles Houston Comets (4) TV partner(s) ABC ESPN NBA TV Official website www.WNBA.com The Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) is a women's professional basketball league in the United States. It currently is composed of twelve teams. The league was founded on April 24, 1996 as the women's counterpart to the National Basketball Association (NBA). League play started in 1997; the regular season is currently played from June to September with the Finals in October. Many WNBA teams have NBA counterparts and play in the same arena. The Connecticut Sun, Seattle Storm, and Tulsa Shock are the only current teams to play without sharing the market with an NBA team (although the Storm shared a market with the Seattle SuperSonics before that team's relocation). In addition to those three teams, the Chicago Sky is the only other team that does not share an arena with an NBA counterpart. The four aforementioned franchises, along with the Atlanta Dream and the Los Angeles Sparks are all independently owned. This independent ownership is important to the WNBA's growth; at one time, all teams in the league were owned by the NBA. Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 "We Got Next" (1997) 1.2 The Houston Comets dynasty (1997-2000) 1.3 Lisa Leslie and the Los Angeles Sparks (2001-2002) 1.4 Bill Laimbeer leaves his mark on the WNBA (2003-2006) 1.5 Bringing "Paul Ball" to the WNBA (2007-2009) 1.6 Changing of the guard (2010-present) 1.7 Other developments 1.8 International influence 1.9 Milestones 2 Teams 2.1 Former teams 2.2 Potential additions 3 The WNBA Draft 4 Regular season 4.1 WNBA All-Star Game 4.2 Awards 4.2.1 2010 Award Winners 4.3 Olympic-year seasons 5 The WNBA Playoffs 6 The WNBA Finals 7 Players and coaches 8 Rules and regulations 8.1 Court dimensions 9 Business 9.1 WNBA Presidents 9.2 Marquee sponsorships 9.3 Finance 9.4 Salary caps 9.5 Bonuses 9.6 Merchandise 9.7 Attendance 10 Media coverage 10.1 WNBA LiveAccess 10.2 Viewership 11 All-Time franchise history 12 See also 13 References 14 External links [edit]History [edit]"We Got Next" (1997) Officially approved by the NBA Board of Governors on April 24, 1996, the creation of the WNBA was announced at a press conference with Rebecca Lobo, Lisa Leslie and Sheryl Swoopes in attendance. The league began with eight teams: the Charlotte Sting, Cleveland Rockers, Houston Comets and New York Liberty in the Eastern Conference; and the Los Angeles Sparks, Phoenix Mercury, Sacramento Monarchs and Utah Starzz in the Western Conference. While not the first major women's professional basketball league in the United States (a distinction held by the defunct WBL), the WNBA is the only league to receive full backing of the NBA. The WNBA logo, "Logo Woman," paralleled the NBA logo and was selected out of 50 different designs. [edit]The Houston Comets dynasty (1997-2000) Sheryl Swoopes, the first player signed (shown in 2008) On the heels of a much-publicized gold medal run by the 1996 USA Basketball Women's National Team at the 1996 Summer Olympic Games, the WNBA began its first season on June 21, 1997 to little fanfare. The first WNBA game featured the New York Liberty facing the Los Angeles Sparks in Los Angeles. The game was televised nationally in the United States on the NBC television network. At the start of the 1997 season, the WNBA had television deals in place with NBC (NBA rights holder), and the Walt Disney Company and Hearst Corporation joint venture channels, ESPN and Lifetime Television Network, respectively. Penny Toler scored the league's first point. The WNBA centered its marketing campaign, dubbed "We Got Next", around stars Rebecca Lobo, Lisa Leslie and Sheryl Swoopes. In the league's first season, Leslie's Los Angeles Sparks underperformed and Swoopes sat out much of the season due to her pregnancy. The WNBA's true star in 1997 was WNBA MVP Cynthia Cooper, Swoopes' teammate on the Houston Comets. The Comets defeated Lobo's New York Liberty in the first WNBA Championship game. The initial "We Got Next" advertisement ran before each WNBA season until it was replaced with the "We Got Game" campaign. Two teams were added in 1998 (Detroit and Washington) and two more in 1999 (Orlando and Minnesota), bringing the number of teams in the league up to twelve. The 1999 season began with a collective bargaining agreement between players and the league, marking the first collective bargaining agreement to be signed in the history of women's professional sports. In 1999, the league's chief competition, the American Basketball League, folded. Many of the ABL's star players, including several Olympic gold medalists (such as Nikki McCray and Dawn Staley) and a number of standout college performers (including Kate Starbird and Jennifer Rizzotti), then joined the rosters of WNBA teams and, in so doing, enhanced the overall quality of play in the league. When a lockout resulted in an abbreviated NBA season, the WNBA saw faltering TV viewership. On May 23, 2000, the Houston Comets became the first WNBA team to be invited to the White House Rose Garden. This was important to the WNBA's growth because before this invitation, only men's sports teams had traveled to the White House. By the 2000 season, the WNBA had doubled in size. Two teams were added in 1998: the Detroit Shock and the Washington Mystics; another two in 1999 (the Minnesota Lynx and the Orlando Miracle); and four more for the 2000 season (the Indiana Fever, the Seattle Storm, the Miami Sol, and the Portland Fire). At the end of the 2000 season, the Houston Comets won their fourth championship, capturing every title since the league's inception. Led by the "Big Three" of Sheryl Swoopes, Tina Thompson, and four-time Finals MVP Cynthia Cooper, the Comets dominated every team in the league. Under head coach Van Chancellor, the team posted a 98-24 record through their first four seasons (16-3 in the Playoffs). After 2000, Cooper retired from the league and the Comets dynasty came to an end. Lisa Leslie of the Sparks [edit]Lisa Leslie and the Los Angeles Sparks (2001-2002) Going into the 2001 season, Houston faltered without Cooper and fell to fourth place in the conference by the end of the season. It was time for a new team to take home the championship trophy. The top contender was the league's marquee team, the Los Angeles Sparks. The Sparks were predicted to win the earlier championships but the team could never get past the dominating Comets. Led by Lisa Leslie, the most dominating post player at the time, the Sparks posted an outstanding regular season record of 28-4. They advanced to their first ever WNBA Finals and swept the fourth-seeded Charlotte Sting from the Eastern Conference. Looking to repeat in 2002, the Sparks again made a strong run toward the postseason, going 25-7 in the regular season under head coach Michael Cooper, formerly of the Los Angeles Lakers. Again, Leslie dominated opponents throughout the Playoffs, leading the Sparks to a perfect 6-0 record through all three rounds, beating rival New York Liberty in the 2002 Finals. Teams and the league were collectively owned by the NBA until the end of 2002, when the NBA sold WNBA teams either to their NBA counterparts in the same city or to a third party. This led to two teams moving; Utah to San Antonio and Orlando to Connecticut. With the move, the Sun became the first WNBA team to be owned by a third party instead of an NBA franchise. This sale of teams also led to two teams folding, the Miami Sol and Portland Fire, because new owners could not be found. [edit]Bill Laimbeer leaves his mark on the WNBA (2003-2006) After taking over a struggling franchise in 2002, former Detroit Pistons Bad Boy Bill Laimbeer had high hopes for the Detroit Shock in 2003. The team was just 9-23 in 2002, but Laimbeer predicted that the Shock would win the 2003 championship. Things started well for the Shock, who had three all-stars in the 2003 All-Star Game (Swin Cash, Cheryl Ford, and Deanna Nolan). Amazingly, Laimbeer orchestrated a rare worst-to-first turnaround and the Shock finished the season 25-9 in first place in the Eastern Conference. Winning the first two rounds of the Playoffs, the Shock had to face two-time champion Los Angeles Sparks and reigning Finals MVP Lisa Leslie in the 2003 Finals. The Shock beat the Sparks, winning game three on a clutch three-pointer by Deanna Nolan. Bill Laimbeer After the 2003 season, the Cleveland Rockers, one of the league's original eight teams, folded because the owners were unwilling to continue operating the franchise. On October 21, 2004, Val Ackerman, the first WNBA president, announced her resignation, effective February 1, 2005, citing the desire to spend more time with her family. Ackerman later became president of USA Basketball. On February 15, 2005, NBA Commissioner David Stern announced that Donna Orender, who had been serving as the Senior Vice President of the PGA Tour and who had played for several teams in the now-defunct Women's Pro Basketball League, would be Ackerman's successor as of April 2005. The WNBA awarded its first real expansion team to Chicago (later named the Sky) in February 2006. In the off-season, a set of rule changes was approved that made the WNBA more like the NBA. In 2006, the league became the first team-oriented women's professional sports league to exist for ten consecutive seasons. On the occasion of the tenth anniversary, the WNBA released its All-Decade Team, comprising the ten WNBA players deemed to have contributed, through on-court play and off-court activities, the most to women's basketball during the period of the league's existence. After missing out on the Finals in 2004 and 2005, the Shock bounced back in 2006 behind newly acquired Katie Smith. Along with Smith, the Shock still had six remaining members from their 2003 Finals run (Cash, Ford, Holland-Corn, Nolan, Powell, and Riley). Head coach Laimbeer knew how difficult it was to get to the Finals a second time and the Shock were up for the challenge. They finished second in the Eastern Conference, but knocked off first-seeded Connecticut in the second round of the Playoffs. The Shock had to face reigning champion Sacramento Monarchs in a five game series. The Shock won game five on their home floor, again solidifying their power in the league. [edit]Bringing "Paul Ball" to the WNBA (2007-2009) Diana Taurasi of the Mercury In December 2006, the Charlotte Bobcats organization announced it would no longer operate the Charlotte Sting. Soon after, the WNBA announced that the Sting would not operate for 2007. A dispersal draft was held January 8, 2007. Teams selected in inverse order of their 2006 records; Chicago received the first pick and selected Monique Currie. Former Los Angeles Lakers championship coach Paul Westhead was named head coach of the Phoenix Mercury on October 11, 2005, bringing his up-tempo style of play to the WNBA. This fast-paced offense was perfect for his team, especially after the league shortened the shot clock from 30 seconds to 24 seconds in 2006. Much like the early Houston Comets championship teams, the Phoenix Mercury had risen to prominence led by their own "Big Three" of Cappie Pondexter, Diana Taurasi, and Penny Taylor. The Mercury were well-suited for fast offense behind these three players. Phoenix averaged a league-record 88.97 points per game in 2007; teams could not keep up with the new style of play, and the Mercury were propelled into first place in the Western Conference. Facing the reigning champion Detroit Shock, the Mercury imposed their high-scoring offense with hopes of capturing their first title in franchise history. Averaging 93.2 points per game in the Finals series, the Mercury beat Detroit on their home floor in front of 22,076 fans in game five to claim their first ever WNBA title. Candace Parker of the Sparks In October 2007 the WNBA awarded another expansion franchise to Atlanta. Atlanta businessman Ron Terwilliger was the original owner of the new team. Citizens of Atlanta were able to vote for their choices for the new team's nickname and colors. The Dream, as they were named, played their first regular season game on May 17, which was a 67-100 loss to the Connecticut Sun. Paul Westhead resigned from the Mercury after capturing the 2007 title and Penny Taylor opted to stay home to prepare for the 2008 Summer Olympics, causing the Mercury to falter in 2008. The team posted a 16-18 record and became the first team in WNBA history to miss the Playoffs after winning the championship in the previous season. In their place, the Detroit Shock won their third championship under coach Bill Laimbeer, solidifying their place in WNBA history before Laimbeer resigned early in 2009, effectively ending the Shock dynasty. Late in 2008, the WNBA took over ownership of one of the league's original franchises, the Houston Comets. The Comets ceased operations on December 1, 2008 after no owners for the franchise could be found.[1] A dispersal draft took place on December 8, 2008 and with the first pick, Sancho Lyttle was taken by the Atlanta Dream. After an unsatisfying conclusion in 2008, the Mercury looked to bounce back to championship caliber. New head coach Corey Gaines implemented Paul Westhead's style of play, and the Mercury averaged 92.82 points per game throughout the 2009 season. Helped by the return of Penny Taylor, the Mercury once again locked up first place in the Western Conference and advanced to the 2009 Finals. The championship series was a battle of contrasting styles as the Mercury (number one league offense, 92.82 points per game) had to face the Indiana Fever (number three league defense, 73.55 points per game). The series went five games, including arguably one of the most thrilling games in WNBA history in game one of the series (Phoenix won in overtime, 120-116. The Mercury beat the Fever in game five, this time on their home court, to capture their second WNBA championship. Not only did Paul Westhead's system influence his Mercury team, but it created a domino effect throughout the league. Young athletic players were capable of scoring more and playing at a faster pace. As a league, the 2010 average of 80.35 points per game was the best ever, far surpassing the 69.2 average in the league's inaugural season. [edit]Changing of the guard (2010-present) Sylvia Fowles of the Sky On October 20, 2009 the WNBA announced that the Detroit Shock would relocate to Tulsa, Oklahoma; the team is called the Tulsa Shock[2] On November 20, 2009, the WNBA announced that the Sacramento Monarchs had folded due to lack of support from its current owners, the Maloof family, also the owners of the Sacramento Kings. The league announced it would seek new owners to relocate the team to the San Francisco Bay area; however, no ownership was found and a dispersal draft was held on December 14, 2009. The 2010 season saw a tight race in the East, with three teams being tied for first place on the final day of the regular season. Five of the six teams in the East were in first place at some point during the season. The East held a .681 winning percentage over the West, its highest ever. In the 2010 Finals, two new teams represented each conference: the Seattle Storm and the Atlanta Dream. Seattle made their first finals appearance since winning it all in 2004 and Atlanta, coming into the playoffs as a four seed, impressively swept its opponents in the first two rounds to advance to the Finals in only the third year of the team's existence. Logo of the 15th season After the 2010 season, President Orender announced she would be resigning from her position as of December 31. On April 21, 2011, NBA commissioner David Stern announced that former Girl Scouts of the USA Senior Vice President and Chief Marketing Officer Laurel J. Richie would assume duties as President on May 16, 2011. The 2011 season began with strong publicity helped by the rising young stars of the league and the NBA lockout.[3] Many news outlets began covering the league more frequently. NBA TV, the television home of the NBA scheduled over 70 regular season games to be televised (along with a dozen more on ESPN2 and ABC). The new influx of young talent into the league gave many teams something to be excited about. Players like Candace Parker of the Sparks, Maya Moore of the Lynx, Angel McCoughtry of the Dream, Sylvia Fowles of the Sky, Tina Charles of the Sun, and Liz Cambage of the Shock brought a new level of excitement to the game, adding talent to the teams of young veterans such as Diana Taurasi, Seimone Augustus and Cappie Pondexter. The level of play was getting better, as evidenced by higher scoring, better defense, and higher shooting percentages. Fans responded to the new stars in the league; by the All-Star break, nine of the twelve teams in the league had increased attendance over their 2010 averages.[4] The new influx of talented young players showed that the league's longevity gave young girls something to aspire to. Rookies coming into the league had the luxury of growing up watching veterans like Cynthia Cooper, Lisa Leslie and Teresa Weatherspoon. For the first time ever, young girls could now look at the WNBA as an opportunity for basketball to continue after college. [edit]Other developments Liberty Sun Sky Rockers Shock Fever Dream Sting Sol Miracle Mystics Shock Comets Silver Stars Lynx Fire Storm Starzz Monarchs Mercury Sparks The WNBA Players Association threatened to strike in 2003 if a new deal was not worked out between players and the league. The result was a delay in the start of the 2003 preseason. The 2003 WNBA Draft was also delayed and negative publicity was gained from this strike.[5] In 2007, the WNBA and ESPN came to an 8-year television agreement. The agreement would be the first to pay television rights fees to the league's teams. Never before has an agreement promised rights fees to a women's professional league. The agreement runs from 2009-2016 and is worth millions of dollars.[6] During the 2008 regular season, the first ever outdoor professional basketball game in North America was played at Arthur Ashe Stadium in New York between the New York Liberty and the Indiana Fever in front of over 19,000 fans. The Fever won the game 71-55. Prior to the 2009 season, the maximum team roster size was changed from 13 players (11 active and 2 inactive) to 11 players (all active). Any team that falls below nine players able to play due to injury or any other factor outside of the control of the team will, upon request, be granted a roster hardship exception allowing the team to sign an additional player or players so that the team will have nine players able to play in an upcoming game or games. As soon as the injured (or otherwise sidelined) player(s) is able to play, the roster hardship player(s)—not any other player on the roster—must be waived. Before the start of the 2011 season, every team announced a new look for their uniforms. The supplier of the uniforms for the league, Adidas, upgraded all teams to new high-tech designs, much like they did for the NBA prior to the start of their season. The 2011 NBA Lockout began on July 1, 2011. Unlike the previous lockout, which affected the WNBA, president Laurel J. Richie confirmed that this lockout would have no effect on the WNBA. If the NBA season was shortened or canceled, the 2012 WNBA season (including the WNBA teams still owned by NBA owners) would run as planned. [edit]International influence Further information: List of foreign WNBA players A number of international players have played in the WNBA, such as: Svetlana Abrosimova, Russia - won a championship with the Storm in 2010 Elena Baranova, Kyrgyzstan - the first international player in the WNBA (1997). Erika de Souza, Brazil - one-time All-Star (2009) Iziane Castro Marques, Brazil - one-time All-Star (2010) Lauren Jackson Margo Dydek, Poland - tallest woman to play in the WNBA at 7' 2" (2.18 m) Sandrine Gruda, France Lauren Jackson, Australia - two-time champion (2004, 2010), three-time MVP and eight-time All-Star Anete Jēkabsone-Žogota, Latvia Yelena Leuchanka, Belarus Mwadi Mabika, Democratic Republic of the Congo - won championships with the Sparks in 2001 and 2002 Hamchétou Maïga-Ba, Mali - won a championship with the Monarchs in 2005 Evanthia Maltsi, Greece Razija Mujanovic, Yugoslavia Eva Němcová, Czech Republic Ticha Penicheiro, Portugal - won a championship with the Monarchs in 2005 and four-time All-Star Kathrin Ress, Italy Penny Taylor, Australia - two-time champion (2007, 2009) and four-time All-Star Tammy Sutton-Brown, Canada - two-time All-Star Amaya Valdemoro, Spain Ann Wauters, Belgium Sophia Young, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines - four-time All-Star Haixia Zheng, China Note that some of these players, among them Abrosimova, Leuchanka, Maïga-Ba, Penicheiro, Sutton-Brown, and Young, played U.S. college

nhl from wiki

National Hockey League From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Nhl) "NHL" redirects here. For other uses, see NHL (disambiguation). National Hockey League (NHL) Current season or competition: 2011-12 NHL season The NHL Shield Logo Sport Ice hockey Founded November 22, 1917, Montreal, Quebec, Canada Commissioner Gary Bettman Inaugural season 1917-18 No. of teams 30 Country(ies) Canada (7 teams) United States (23 teams) Continent North America Most recent champion(s) Boston Bruins (6th title) Most titles Montreal Canadiens (25 NHL titles, 24 Stanley Cups) [nb 1] TV partner(s) Canada: CBC, NHL Network, RDS, RIS, TSN, TSN2 United States: NBC, NHL Network, Versus Official website NHL.com The National Hockey League (NHL; French: Ligue nationale de hockey—LNH) is an unincorporated not-for-profit association which operates a major professional ice hockey league of 30 franchised member clubs,[1] of which 7 are currently located in Canada and 23 in the United States. Headquartered in New York City, the NHL is widely considered to be the premier professional ice hockey league in the world,[2] and one of the major professional sports leagues of the United States and Canada. The Stanley Cup, the oldest professional sports trophy in North America,[3] is awarded annually to the league playoff champion at the end of each season. The league was organized on November 22, 1917, in Montreal, Canada, during World War I after the suspension of operations of its predecessor organization, the National Hockey Association (NHA), which had been founded in 1909.[4] It started with four teams and, through a series of expansions, contractions, and relocations, the league is now composed of 30 active franchises. After a labour dispute that led to the cancellation of the entire 2004-05 season, the league resumed play under a new collective bargaining agreement that included a salary cap. In 2009, the NHL enjoyed record highs in terms of sponsorships, crowds and television audiences.[5] The NHL draws many highly skilled players from all over the world and currently has players from about 20 different countries.[6] Although Canadians have historically constituted the majority of the players in the NHL, over the past four plus decades the percentages of American and European trained players have increased both because of the NHL's continued expansion from six to thirty clubs since 1967, and the increased availability of highly skilled European players, especially from former Eastern Bloc countries.[7] Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 Early years 1.2 Expansion 1.3 Labour issues 2 Organizational structure 2.1 Executives 3 Game 4 Hockey rink 5 Rules 6 Teams 6.1 List of teams 6.2 Defunct and relocated teams 7 Season structure 8 Trophies and awards 9 Notable active players 10 Origin of players 11 Television and radio 11.1 Canada 11.2 United States 11.3 International 12 Popularity 13 Causes 14 See also 15 Footnotes 16 Citations 17 Further reading 18 External links [edit]History [edit]Early years Main article: History of the National Hockey League We didn't throw [Toronto Blueshirts owner] Eddie Livingstone out. Perish the thought. That would have been illegal and unfair. Also, it wouldn't have been sporting. We just resigned, and wished him a fine future with his National Association franchise. "" —Montreal Wanderers owner Sam Lichtenhein, as told to sports journalist Elmer Ferguson[8] A series of disputes in the National Hockey Association (NHA) with Toronto Blueshirts owner Eddie Livingstone led the other owners, representing the Montreal Canadiens, Montreal Wanderers, Ottawa Senators, and Quebec Bulldogs to meet at the Windsor Hotel in Montreal to talk about the NHA's future.[9] Realizing the league constitution left them unable to force Livingstone out, the four teams voted instead to suspend the NHA, and on November 26, 1917, formed the National Hockey League.[10] While a full member of the new league, the Bulldogs were unable to play, and the remaining owners created a new team in Toronto to compete with the Canadiens, Wanderers and Senators.[11] The first games were played three weeks later on December 19. Joe Malone scored five goals in a 7-4 victory for the Canadiens over the Senators on opening night; he finished the 1917-18 season with 44 goals in 20 games.[12] The league nearly collapsed in January 1918 when the Montreal Arena burned down, causing the Wanderers to cease operations and forcing the Canadiens to hastily find a new arena.[13] The NHL continued on as a three-team league until Quebec returned in 1919.[14] Montreal Canadiens in 1942 Toronto won the first league title, then defeated the Pacific Coast Hockey Association's Vancouver Millionaires to win the 1918 Stanley Cup[15] The Canadiens won the league title in 1919, however their Stanley Cup Final against the Seattle Metropolitans was abandoned with the series tied after several players became ill as a result of the Spanish Flu epidemic that resulted in Montreal defenceman Joe Hall's death.[16] Montreal defeated the Calgary Tigers of the Western Canada Hockey League (WCHL) in 1924 to win their first Stanley Cup in the NHL.[17] The Hamilton Tigers, who had relocated from Quebec in 1920, won the regular season title in 1924-25 but refused to play in the championship series unless they were given a C$200 bonus.[18] The league refused and declared the Canadiens the league champion after they defeated the Toronto St. Patricks in the semi-final. Montreal was then defeated by the Victoria Cougars for the 1925 Stanley Cup. It was the last time a non-NHL team won the trophy,[19] as the Stanley Cup became the de facto NHL championship in 1926 after the WCHL ceased operations.[20] Team picture of the 1932-33 Stanley Cup champion New York Rangers autographed by club manager/coach Lester Patrick The league embarked on rapid expansion in the 1920s, adding the Montreal Maroons and Boston Bruins in 1924. The Bruins were the first American team in the NHL,[21] while the Maroons played in the newly completed Montreal Forum that the Canadiens made famous in later decades.[22] The New York Americans began play in 1925 after purchasing the assets of the Hamilton Tigers, and were joined by the Pittsburgh Pirates.[23] Tex Rickard, owner of Madison Square Garden, was so impressed with the popularity of the Americans that he added the New York Rangers in 1926.[24] The Chicago Black Hawks and Detroit Cougars (later Red Wings) were also added after the league purchased the assets of the defunct WCHL.[25] Conn Smythe purchased the Toronto St. Patricks in 1927, immediately renamed them the Maple Leafs, and built Maple Leaf Gardens in 1931.[26] The Great Depression and the onset of World War II took a toll on the league. The Pirates became the Philadelphia Quakers in 1930, then folded one year later. The Senators likewise became the St. Louis Eagles in 1934, also lasting only one year.[27] The Canadiens were nearly sold and relocated to Cleveland, Ohio in 1936 before a trio of local owners purchased the team and kept them in Montreal.[28] The Maroons did not survive, however, as they suspended operations in 1938.[29] The Americans were suspended in 1942 due to a lack of players, but never revived.[30] The league was reduced to six teams for the 1942-43 NHL season: the Boston Bruins, Chicago Black Hawks, Detroit Red Wings, Montreal Canadiens, New York Rangers and Toronto Maple Leafs. These six teams remained constant for 25 years, a period known as the Original Six. The first NHL All-Star Game was held in 1934 to benefit Ace Bailey, whose career ended on a vicious hit by Eddie Shore.[31] The second was held in 1937 in support of Howie Morenz's family when he died of a coronary embolism after breaking his leg during a game. His teammate Aurel Joliat said that Morenz "died of a broken heart" when he learned he would never play hockey again.[32] Maurice "Rocket" Richard became the first player to score 50 goals, doing so in a 50 game season.[33] Ten years later he was suspended for the 1955 Stanley Cup playoffs for punching a linesman, an incident that led to the Richard Riot.[34] He returned to lead the Canadiens to five consecutive titles between 1956 and 1960, a record no team has matched.[35] Willie O'Ree broke the NHL's colour barrier on January 18, 1958 when he made his debut with the Boston Bruins and became the first black player in league history.[36] [edit]Expansion By the mid 1960s, the desire for a network television contract in the U.S., and concerns that the Western Hockey League was planning to declare itself a major league and challenge for the Stanley Cup, spurred the NHL to undertake its first expansion since the 1920s. The league doubled in size for the 1967-68 season, adding the Los Angeles Kings, Minnesota North Stars, Philadelphia Flyers, Pittsburgh Penguins, California Seals and St. Louis Blues.[37] Canadians were outraged that all six teams were placed in the United States,[38] and the league responded by adding the Vancouver Canucks in 1970 along with the Buffalo Sabres, who are located on the U.S.-Canadian border.[39] Two years later, the emergence of the newly founded World Hockey Association (WHA) led the league to add the New York Islanders and Atlanta Flames to keep the rival league out of those markets.[40] In 1974, the Washington Capitals and Kansas City Scouts were added, bringing the league up to 18 teams.[41] The NHL fought the WHA for players, losing 67 to the new league in its first season of 1972-73,[42] including Bobby Hull, who signed a ten year, $2.5 million contract with the Winnipeg Jets, the largest in hockey history at the time.[43] The NHL attempted to block the defections in court, though a countersuit by the WHA led to a Philadelphia judge ruling the NHL's reserve clause to be illegal, eliminating the elder league's monopoly over the players.[44] Seven years of battling for players and markets financially damaged both leagues, leading to a 1979 merger agreement that saw the WHA cease operations while the NHL absorbed the Jets, Edmonton Oilers, Hartford Whalers and Quebec Nordiques.[45] Wayne Gretzky played one season in the WHA before joining the NHL in 1979-80 with the Oilers.[46] He went on to lead the Oilers to four Stanley Cup championships in 1984, 1985, 1987 and 1988, and set single season records for goals (92 in 1981-82), assists (163 in 1985-86) and points (215 in 1985-86), as well as career records for goals (894), assists (1,963) and points (2,857).[46] He was traded to the Kings in 1988, a deal that dramatically improved the NHL's popularity in the United States, and provided the impetus for the 1990s expansion cycles that saw the addition of the San Jose Sharks, Tampa Bay Lightning, Ottawa Senators, Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, Florida Panthers, Nashville Predators, Atlanta Thrashers, Minnesota Wild and Columbus Blue Jackets.[47] [edit]Labour issues History of the NHL National Hockey League Founding (1917-1942) Original Six (1942-1967) Expansion era (1967-1992) Modern era (1992-present) Ice hockey portal v · d · e There have been three league-wide work stoppages in NHL history, all happening between 1992 and 2005. The first was a strike by the National Hockey League Players Association in April 1992 which lasted for 10 days, but the strike was settled quickly and all affected games were rescheduled.[48] A lockout at the start of the 1994-95 season forced the league to reduce the schedule from 84 games to just 48, with the teams playing only intra-conference games during the reduced season.[48] The resulting collective bargaining agreement was set for renegotiation in 1998 and extended to September 15, 2004.[49] With no new agreement in hand when the existing contract expired on September 15, 2004, league commissioner Gary Bettman announced a lockout of the players union and cessation of operations by the NHL head office.[49] The lockout shut down the league for 310 days, the longest in sports history; the NHL was the first professional sports league to lose an entire season.[49] The league vowed to install what it dubbed "cost certainty" for its teams, but the NHL Players Association countered that the move was little more than a euphemism for a salary cap, which the union initially said it would not accept. A new collective bargaining agreement was ratified in July 2005 with a term of six years with an option of extending the collective bargaining agreement for an additional year at the end of the term, allowing the NHL to resume as of the 2005-06 season.[49] On October 5, 2005, the first post-lockout NHL season took to the ice with 15 games, and consequently all 30 teams. Of those 15 games, 11 were in front of sell-out crowds.[50] The NHL received record attendance in the 2005-06 season. 20,854,169 fans, an average of 16,955 per game, was a 1.2% increase over the previous mark held in the 2001-02 season.[51] Also, the Montreal Canadiens, Calgary Flames, Colorado Avalanche, Minnesota Wild, Tampa Bay Lightning, and the Vancouver Canucks sold out all of their home games;[51][52] all six Canadian teams played to 98% capacity or better at every home game.[51] 24 of the 30 clubs finished even or ahead of their 2003-04 mark. The Pittsburgh Penguins had the highest increase at 33%, mainly because of 18-year-old first overall draft pick Sidney Crosby.[51][53] After losing a season to a labour dispute in 2005, attendance figures for League teams have returned to solid ground; the League's TV audience was slower to rebound because of ESPN's decision to drop the sport from its schedule.[54] The NHL's post-lockout agreement with NBC gave the league a share of revenue from each game's advertising sales, rather than the usual lump sum paid up front for game rights. The NHL is estimated to earn annual revenue of around $2.27 billion.[54] The debut of the Winter Classic, an outdoor regular season NHL game held on New Year's Day 2008, was a major success for the league. The game has since become a permanent staple of the NHL schedule. This, along with the transition to a national "Game of the Week" and an annual "Hockey Day in America" regional coverage, has helped increase the NHL's regular season television viewership, which is now carried by NBC and Versus. These improvements led NBC and Versus to sign a ten-year broadcast deal paying $200 million per year for both cable and broadcast rights; the deal will lead to further increases in television coverage on both outlets. [edit]Organizational structure The NHL Board of Governors is the ruling and governing body of the NHL. In this context, each NHL team is a member of the NHL, and each member appoints a Governor (usually the owner of the club), and two alternates to the Board. The current chairman of the Board is Boston Bruins owner, Jeremy Jacobs. The previous chairman was Harley Hotchkiss, owner of the Calgary Flames. The current vice-chairman of the Board is Tom Hicks, owner of the Dallas Stars. The NHL Board of Governors exists to establish the policies of the NHL, and to uphold its constitution. Some of the responsibilities of the NHL Board of Governors include[55] : review and approve any rule changes to the game hiring and firing of the NHL commissioner review and approve the purchase, sale, or relocation of any member club. review and approve the salary caps for member clubs. review and approve any changes to the structure of the game schedule The Board of Governors meets twice per year, in June and December, with the exact date and place to be fixed by the NHL Commissioner. [edit]Executives The chief executive of the NHL is the commissioner. Some of the principal decision makers who serve under the authority of the NHL commissioner include: Deputy Commissioner & Chief Legal Officer - Bill Daly Executive VP & CFO - Craig Harnett Chief Operating Officer - John Collins Executive VP & Director of Hockey Operations - Colin Campbell NHL Enterprises - Ed Horne [edit]Game Original NHL logo, used until 2005. A version of the logo features it in the shape of a hockey puck. Los Angeles Kings' Mike Weaver battling for the puck against Calgary Flames' Daymond Langkow, December 21, 2005. Main article: Ice hockey Each National Hockey League regulation game is played between two teams and is 60 minutes long. The game is composed of three 20-minute periods with an intermission of either 15½ or 17 minutes (if nationally televised) between periods.[56] Television timeouts are taken at the first stoppage of play after 6, 10, and 14 minutes of elapsed time unless there is a power play or the first stoppage is the result of a goal scored. In these cases, the timeout will occur at the first stoppage after the penalty expires or the next stoppage after the goal, respectively. A new rule was introduced for the 2007-08 season that if the first stoppage of play is an icing, the TV timeout does not occur. This is to prevent players from getting a break despite not being allowed to change. At the end of the 60-minute regulation time, the team with the most goals wins the game. If a game is tied after regulation time, overtime ensues. During the regular season, overtime is a five-minute, four-player on four-player sudden-death period, in which the first team to score a goal wins the game. Until the 2005-06 season, if no team was able to score in the five-minute overtime, the game ended in a tie. Beginning in the 2005-06 season, if the game is still tied at the end of overtime, the game enters a shootout. Three players for each team in turn take a penalty shot. The team with the most goals during the three-round shootout wins the game. If the game is still tied after the three shootout rounds, the shootout continues but becomes sudden death. Whichever team ultimately wins the shootout is awarded a goal in the game score and thus awarded two points in the standings. The losing team in overtime or shootout is awarded only one.[57] Shootout goals and saves are not tracked in hockey statistics; shootout statistics are tracked separately. Shootouts do not occur during the playoffs. In the playoffs, sudden-death 20-minute five-on-five periods are played until one team scores. While in theory a game could continue indefinitely, only four games have reached five overtime periods, two have reached six, and none have gone beyond six.[58] There are no television timeouts during playoff overtime periods; the only break is to clean the loose ice at the first stoppage after the period is halfway finished.[59] [edit]Hockey rink Diagram of an NHL hockey rink: 1. penalty boxes 2. team benches 3. scorekeepers' area. Main article: Hockey rink National Hockey League games are played on a rectangular hockey rink with rounded corners surrounded by walls and plexiglass. It measures 25.91 by 60.92 metres (85 by 200 ft) in the NHL,[60] while international standards call for a rink measuring 29-30 metres by 60-61 metres (95.14-98.43 ft by 196.85-200.13 ft). The center line divides the ice in half,[61] and is used to judge icing violations. There are two blue lines that divide the rink roughly into thirds, which divide the ice into two attacking and one neutral zone.[61] Near the end of both ends of the rink, there is a thin red goal line spanning the width of the ice, which is used to judge goals and icing calls. Starting in the 2005-2006 season, after testing in the American Hockey League, a trapezoidal area behind each goal net has been introduced.[62] The goaltender can only play the puck within that area or in front of the goal line; if the goaltender plays the puck behind the goal line and not in the trapezoidal area, a two minute minor penalty for delay of game is assessed by the referees.[63] [edit]Rules Main articles: National Hockey League rules While the National Hockey League follows the general rules of ice hockey, it differs slightly from those used in international games organized by the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) such as the Olympics. Infractions of the rules can lead to either the stoppage of play in the case of offside and icing calls, or a penalty call for more serious infractions. During the 2004-05 lockout, the league changed some of the rules regarding being offside. First, the league removed the "offside pass" or "two-line pass" rule, which required a stoppage in play if a pass originating from inside a team's defending zone was completed on the offensive side of the center line, unless the puck crossed the line before the player.[64] Furthermore, the league reinstated the "tag-up offside" which allows an attacking player a chance to get back onside by returning to the neutral zone.[64] The changes to the offside rule were among several rule changes intended to increase overall scoring,[64] which had been in decline since the expansion years of the mid-nineties and the increased prevalence of the neutral zone trap. Another rule difference between the NHL and the IIHF rules concerns how icings are called. In the NHL, a linesman stops play due to icing if a defending player (other than the goaltender) touches the puck before an attacking player is able to,[65] in contrast to the IIHF rules where play is stopped the moment the puck crosses the goal line. As a result of the rule changes following the 2004-05 lockout, when a team is guilty of icing the puck they are not allowed to make a line change, or skater substitution of any sort (except for a clearly injured player) before the following faceoff.[65] The NHL and IIHF differ also in penalty rules. The NHL, in addition to the minor an

pga

Professional Golfers' Association of America From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Not to be confused with PGA Tour. For the major championship sometimes referred to by this name, see PGA Championship. This article is written like an advertisement. Please help rewrite this article from a neutral point of view. For blatant advertising that would require a fundamental rewrite to become encyclopedic, use {{db-spam}} to mark for speedy deletion. (April 2011) Professional Golfers' Association of America Sport Golf Founded April 10, 1916 Commissioner Joe Steranka Director Allen Wronowski Motto Experts in the game and business of golf Inaugural season 1916 Country(ies) United States Founder Rodman Wanamaker Official website PGA.com Founded in 1916, the Professional Golfers' Association of America (PGA of America) is headquartered in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, and is made up of more than 28,000 men and women golf professional members. As "the experts in the game and business of golf," the PGA of America's undertaking has been to establish and elevate the standards of the profession and to grow interest and participation in the game of golf. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Mission 3 PGA Professionals 4 Championships 5 Growth of the Game 6 PGA Foundation 7 PGA Golf Properties 8 See also 9 References 10 External links [edit]History On January 17, 1916, department store manager Rodman Wanamaker hosted a luncheon for a group of New York-area golf professionals and well-known amateur golfers at the Taplow Club in New York City. The purpose of the assembly was to converse on the subject of forming a national association that would promote interest in golf, as well as to help elevate the vocation of golf professionals. Subsequent meetings were held over the next two months, and on April 10, 1916, The PGA of America was created via the 35 charter members signing the constitution and by-laws.[1] [edit]Mission The mission of The PGA of America is to promote enjoyment and involvement in golf among the general public, as well as to contribute to the game's growth by producing services to golf Professionals and the industry. The PGA seeks to accomplish this mission by enhancing the skills of the PGA Professionals and expanding playing opportunities for the general public, employers and manufactures. Through these efforts, The PGA elevates the standards of the PGA Professional's vocation, enhances the economic well-being of the individuals PGA member, stimulates interest in the game of golf and promotes the overall vitality of the game. [edit]PGA Professionals Today's PGA Professionals endure rigorous training, instruction, certification, and over 800 hours of education. The PGA professional is not only a talented teacher and player, but also an expert tournament director, merchandiser, Rules administrator, businessperson, and community leader. To be elected to membership in The PGA, aspirant golf professionals (apprentices) and students must go through three levels of education courses, written exams, simulation testing, seminars, and pass the PGA Playing Ability Test. These men and women have the option to pursue the PGA Education through self-study, by the use of accredited PGA Golf Management Universities, or through an accelerated PGA Golf Management Program. [edit]Championships The PGA conducts a number of major events including the PGA Championship, Senior PGA Championship, PGA Grand Slam of Golf, and the biennial Ryder Cup. The PGA also conducts more than 30 tournaments for its members and apprentices, including the PGA Professional National Championship, PGA Cup, and the TaylorMade-adidas Golf PGA Assistant Professional Championship, among others. [edit]Growth of the Game In 2003, The PGA of America created the Player Development Department within the Association in an endeavor to reach out to new, past and sporadic adult golfers. This is accomplished through the growth, promotion and support of instructional programs and events at PGA member facilities that support adults and families to play golf and have fun doing so. Included in these programs is Play Golf America, instigated in 2004 with the help of the Allied Associations (LPGA, National Golf Course Owners Association, PGA Tour, USGA, and others involved in the annual Golf 20/20 Conference). [edit]PGA Foundation The PGA Foundation serves as the PGA of America's philanthropic arm, as it is a charitable, educational, and research organization that was founded in 1954. The Foundation distributes funds to golf instruction and community golf programs, research and education, minority golf programs and junior golf tournaments and events. [edit]PGA Golf Properties The PGA of America has acquired, created, and developed various facilities, including: PGA Golf Club (Port St. Lucie, Florida) — 54 holes of public-access resort golf designed by Tom Fazio and Pete Dye in PGA Village, which is ranked among the "75 Best Golf Resorts in North America" by Golf Digest (No. 51). PGA Center for Golf Learning and Performance (Port St. Lucie, Florida) — 35-acre (140,000 m2) golf park featuring a lighted driving range, short game practice area, the latest in golf technology and fitness, and a three-hole teaching course. Ranked among the Top 100 Golf Ranges in America from 1999 to 2011 by Golf Range Magazine. PGA Museum of Golf (Port St. Lucie, Florida) — Museum traces the story of The PGA of America, holds golf's four major Championship trophies, the oldest-known written mention of golf for the Articles of Parliament in the 15th Century; Walter Hagen's birth certificate; Donald Ross' 1900s-era workbench, the PGA Golf Professional Hall of Fame, and is home to the Probst Library, one of the foremost collections of golf periodicals in the world. Open to the public with complimentary admission. PGA Education Center (Port St. Lucie, Florida) — Provides dynamic, cost-efficient education programs to serve both PGA members and apprentices. PGA Country Club (Port St. Lucie, Florida) — 18 holes of private golf designed by Jim Fazio Sr. Valhalla Golf Club (Louisville, Kentucky) — Designed by Jack Nicklaus. Site of the 2008 Ryder Cup; 2004 and 2011 Senior PGA Championships; 2002 PGA Professional National Championship; and 1996, 2000 and 2014 PGA Championships. Ranked No. 95 among "America's 100 Greatest Golf Courses" by Golf Digest.[2] PGA Village The Bahamas(Cat Island) — Future home to a new PGA Village. [edit]See also LPGA [edit]References ^ History of The PGA of America, PGA of America website ^ America's 100 Greatest Golf Courses/2009-10 [1] - PGA of America History Media Guide [2]- PGA Village Fact Sheet [3] - PGA of America Fact Sheet [4]- PGA of America History at PGA.com [5]-PGA History [edit]External links PGA of America - official site PGA Village - official site of PGA Village PGAs of Africa and Middle East - official site USGTF of America - official site LPGA of America - official site PGTAA of America - official site United States Golf Association - official site The R&A - official site PGA Tour - official site PGA European Tour - official site View page ratings Rate this page What's this? Trustworthy Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) Submit ratings Categories: Golf associations | Golf in the United States | 1916 establishments in the United States Log in / create accountArticleDiscussionReadEditView history Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Toolbox Print/export Languages Asturianu Deutsch Español Français 한국어 日本語 ‪Norsk (bokmål)‬ Svenska This page was last modified on 21 August 2011 at 02:11. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Contact us Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersMobile view Professional Golfers' Association of America From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Not to be confused with PGA Tour. For the major championship sometimes referred to by this name, see PGA Championship. This article is written like an advertisement. Please help rewrite this article from a neutral point of view. For blatant advertising that would require a fundamental rewrite to become encyclopedic, use {{db-spam}} to mark for speedy deletion. (April 2011) Professional Golfers' Association of America Sport Golf Founded April 10, 1916 Commissioner Joe Steranka Director Allen Wronowski Motto Experts in the game and business of golf Inaugural season 1916 Country(ies) United States Founder Rodman Wanamaker Official website PGA.com Founded in 1916, the Professional Golfers' Association of America (PGA of America) is headquartered in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, and is made up of more than 28,000 men and women golf professional members. As "the experts in the game and business of golf," the PGA of America's undertaking has been to establish and elevate the standards of the profession and to grow interest and participation in the game of golf. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Mission 3 PGA Professionals 4 Championships 5 Growth of the Game 6 PGA Foundation 7 PGA Golf Properties 8 See also 9 References 10 External links [edit]History On January 17, 1916, department store manager Rodman Wanamaker hosted a luncheon for a group of New York-area golf professionals and well-known amateur golfers at the Taplow Club in New York City. The purpose of the assembly was to converse on the subject of forming a national association that would promote interest in golf, as well as to help elevate the vocation of golf professionals. Subsequent meetings were held over the next two months, and on April 10, 1916, The PGA of America was created via the 35 charter members signing the constitution and by-laws.[1] [edit]Mission The mission of The PGA of America is to promote enjoyment and involvement in golf among the general public, as well as to contribute to the game's growth by producing services to golf Professionals and the industry. The PGA seeks to accomplish this mission by enhancing the skills of the PGA Professionals and expanding playing opportunities for the general public, employers and manufactures. Through these efforts, The PGA elevates the standards of the PGA Professional's vocation, enhances the economic well-being of the individuals PGA member, stimulates interest in the game of golf and promotes the overall vitality of the game. [edit]PGA Professionals Today's PGA Professionals endure rigorous training, instruction, certification, and over 800 hours of education. The PGA professional is not only a talented teacher and player, but also an expert tournament director, merchandiser, Rules administrator, businessperson, and community leader. To be elected to membership in The PGA, aspirant golf professionals (apprentices) and students must go through three levels of education courses, written exams, simulation testing, seminars, and pass the PGA Playing Ability Test. These men and women have the option to pursue the PGA Education through self-study, by the use of accredited PGA Golf Management Universities, or through an accelerated PGA Golf Management Program. [edit]Championships The PGA conducts a number of major events including the PGA Championship, Senior PGA Championship, PGA Grand Slam of Golf, and the biennial Ryder Cup. The PGA also conducts more than 30 tournaments for its members and apprentices, including the PGA Professional National Championship, PGA Cup, and the TaylorMade-adidas Golf PGA Assistant Professional Championship, among others. [edit]Growth of the Game In 2003, The PGA of America created the Player Development Department within the Association in an endeavor to reach out to new, past and sporadic adult golfers. This is accomplished through the growth, promotion and support of instructional programs and events at PGA member facilities that support adults and families to play golf and have fun doing so. Included in these programs is Play Golf America, instigated in 2004 with the help of the Allied Associations (LPGA, National Golf Course Owners Association, PGA Tour, USGA, and others involved in the annual Golf 20/20 Conference). [edit]PGA Foundation The PGA Foundation serves as the PGA of America's philanthropic arm, as it is a charitable, educational, and research organization that was founded in 1954. The Foundation distributes funds to golf instruction and community golf programs, research and education, minority golf programs and junior golf tournaments and events. [edit]PGA Golf Properties The PGA of America has acquired, created, and developed various facilities, including: PGA Golf Club (Port St. Lucie, Florida) — 54 holes of public-access resort golf designed by Tom Fazio and Pete Dye in PGA Village, which is ranked among the "75 Best Golf Resorts in North America" by Golf Digest (No. 51). PGA Center for Golf Learning and Performance (Port St. Lucie, Florida) — 35-acre (140,000 m2) golf park featuring a lighted driving range, short game practice area, the latest in golf technology and fitness, and a three-hole teaching course. Ranked among the Top 100 Golf Ranges in America from 1999 to 2011 by Golf Range Magazine. PGA Museum of Golf (Port St. Lucie, Florida) — Museum traces the story of The PGA of America, holds golf's four major Championship trophies, the oldest-known written mention of golf for the Articles of Parliament in the 15th Century; Walter Hagen's birth certificate; Donald Ross' 1900s-era workbench, the PGA Golf Professional Hall of Fame, and is home to the Probst Library, one of the foremost collections of golf periodicals in the world. Open to the public with complimentary admission. PGA Education Center (Port St. Lucie, Florida) — Provides dynamic, cost-efficient education programs to serve both PGA members and apprentices. PGA Country Club (Port St. Lucie, Florida) — 18 holes of private golf designed by Jim Fazio Sr. Valhalla Golf Club (Louisville, Kentucky) — Designed by Jack Nicklaus. Site of the 2008 Ryder Cup; 2004 and 2011 Senior PGA Championships; 2002 PGA Professional National Championship; and 1996, 2000 and 2014 PGA Championships. Ranked No. 95 among "America's 100 Greatest Golf Courses" by Golf Digest.[2] PGA Village The Bahamas(Cat Island) — Future home to a new PGA Village. [edit]See also LPGA [edit]References ^ History of The PGA of America, PGA of America website ^ America's 100 Greatest Golf Courses/2009-10 [1] - PGA of America History Media Guide [2]- PGA Village Fact Sheet [3] - PGA of America Fact Sheet [4]- PGA of America History at PGA.com [5]-PGA History [edit]External links PGA of America - official site PGA Village - official site of PGA Village PGAs of Africa and Middle East - official site USGTF of America - official site LPGA of America - official site PGTAA of America - official site United States Golf Association - official site The R&A - official site PGA Tour - official site PGA European Tour - official site View page ratings Rate this page What's this? Trustworthy Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) Submit ratings Categories: Golf associations | Golf in the United States | 1916 establishments in the United States Log in / create accountArticleDiscussionReadEditView history Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Toolbox Print/export Languages Asturianu Deutsch Español Français 한국어 日本語 ‪Norsk (bokmål)‬ Svenska This page was last modified on 21 August 2011 at 02:11. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Contact us Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersMobile view Professional Golfers' Association of America From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Not to be confused with PGA Tour. For the major championship sometimes referred to by this name, see PGA Championship. This article is written like an advertisement. Please help rewrite this article from a neutral point of view. For blatant advertising that would require a fundamental rewrite to become encyclopedic, use {{db-spam}} to mark for speedy deletion. (April 2011) Professional Golfers' Association of America Sport Golf Founded April 10, 1916 Commissioner Joe Steranka Director Allen Wronowski Motto Experts in the game and business of golf Inaugural season 1916 Country(ies) United States Founder Rodman Wanamaker Official website PGA.com Founded in 1916, the Professional Golfers' Association of America (PGA of America) is headquartered in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, and is made up of more than 28,000 men and women golf professional members. As "the experts in the game and business of golf," the PGA of America's undertaking has been to establish and elevate the standards of the profession and to grow interest and participation in the game of golf. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Mission 3 PGA Professionals 4 Championships 5 Growth of the Game 6 PGA Foundation 7 PGA Golf Properties 8 See also 9 References 10 External links [edit]History On January 17, 1916, department store manager Rodman Wanamaker hosted a luncheon for a group of New York-area golf professionals and well-known amateur golfers at the Taplow Club in New York City. The purpose of the assembly was to converse on the subject of forming a national association that would promote interest in golf, as well as to help elevate the vocation of golf professionals. Subsequent meetings were held over the next two months, and on April 10, 1916, The PGA of America was created via the 35 charter members signing the constitution and by-laws.[1] [edit]Mission The mission of The PGA of America is to promote enjoyment and involvement in golf among the general public, as well as to contribute to the game's growth by producing services to golf Professionals and the industry. The PGA seeks to accomplish this mission by enhancing the skills of the PGA Professionals and expanding playing opportunities for the general public, employers and manufactures. Through these efforts, The PGA elevates the standards of the PGA Professional's vocation, enhances the economic well-being of the individuals PGA member, stimulates interest in the game of golf and promotes the overall vitality of the game. [edit]PGA Professionals Today's PGA Professionals endure rigorous training, instruction, certification, and over 800 hours of education. The PGA professional is not only a talented teacher and player, but also an expert tournament director, merchandiser, Rules administrator, businessperson, and community leader. To be elected to membership in The PGA, aspirant golf professionals (apprentices) and students must go through three levels of education courses, written exams, simulation testing, seminars, and pass the PGA Playing Ability Test. These men and women have the option to pursue the PGA Education through self-study, by the use of accredited PGA Golf Management Universities, or through an accelerated PGA Golf Management Program. [edit]Championships The PGA conducts a number of major events including the PGA Championship, Senior PGA Championship, PGA Grand Slam of Golf, and the biennial Ryder Cup. The PGA also conducts more than 30 tournaments for its members and apprentices, including the PGA Professional National Championship, PGA Cup, and the TaylorMade-adidas Golf PGA Assistant Professional Championship, among others. [edit]Growth of the Game In 2003, The PGA of America created the Player Development Department within the Association in an endeavor to reach out to new, past and sporadic adult golfers. This is accomplished through the growth, promotion and support of instructional programs and events at PGA member facilities that support adults and families to play golf and have fun doing so. Included in these programs is Play Golf America, instigated in 2004 with the help of the Allied Associations (LPGA, National Golf Course Owners Association, PGA Tour, USGA, and others involved in the annual Golf 20/20 Conference). [edit]PGA Foundation The PGA Foundation serves as the PGA of America's philanthropic arm, as it is a charitable, educational, and research organization that was founded in 1954. The Foundation distributes funds to golf instruction and community golf programs, research and education, minority golf programs and junior golf tournaments and events. [edit]PGA Golf Properties The PGA of America has acquired, created, and developed various facilities, including: PGA Golf Club (Port St. Lucie, Florida) — 54 holes of public-access resort golf designed by Tom Fazio and Pete Dye in PGA Village, which is ranked among the "75 Best Golf Resorts in North America" by Golf Digest (No. 51). PGA Center for Golf Learning and Performance (Port St. Lucie, Florida) — 35-acre (140,000 m2) golf park featuring a lighted driving range, short game practice area, the latest in golf technology and fitness, and a three-hole teaching course. Ranked among the Top 100 Golf Ranges in America from 1999 to 2011 by Golf Range Magazine. PGA Museum of Golf (Port St. Lucie, Florida) — Museum t

study the arts

In art, a study is a drawing, sketch or painting done in preparation for a finished piece, or as visual notes. A study can have more impact than a more-elaborately planned work, due to the fresh insights the artist is gaining while exploring his/her subject. The excitement of discovery can give a study vitality. Even when layers of the work show changes the artist made as more was understood, the viewer shares more of the artist's sense of discovery. Written notes alongside visual images add to the import of the piece as they allow the viewer to share the artist's process of getting to know the subject. Unfortunately notepaper lacks the quality needed to ensure the study's longevity. Studies inspired some of the first 20th century conceptual art, where the creative process itself becomes the subject of the piece. Since the process is what is all-important in studies and conceptual art, the viewer may be left with no material object of art. Studies can be traced back even as long ago as the Italian Renaissance, from which art historians have maintained some of Michelangelo's studies. One in particular, his study for the Libyan Sibyl which can now be viewed on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, is quite ironic. Though he used a male model on which to base his study, the finished painting was of a woman. Details such as that one only help to delve deeper into the thought processes and techniques of many artists. A preparatory study and the corresponding final work Head of Minerva, Elihu Vedder, 1896. Preparatory study. Oil on canvas, 125 × 80 cm Detail from Minerva of Peace, Elihu Vedder, 1896, mosaic. Visitor's Gallery, Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C. View page ratings Rate this page What's this? Trustworthy Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) Submit ratings Categories: Drawing

study room

A study is a room in a house which is used for paperwork, computer work, or reading. Historically, the study of a house was reserved for use as the private office and reading room of a family father as the formal head of a household, but today studies are generally either used to operate a home business or else open to the whole family. Unused cellar space is often converted into a study.[1] A typical study might contain a desk, chair, computer, a desk lamp or two, and bookshelves. A spare bedroom is often utilized as a study, but many modern homes have a room specifically designated as a study. Such rooms are usually located in a convenient area on the main floor of the house and may be referred to as a den, home office, or library. The study developed from the closet or cabinet of the Renaissance onwards. The advent of electronic communication and computer technology has widened the appeal of dedicated home working areas, with nearly 20% of all working adults in the United States reporting that they undertake at least some work from home as part of their primary employment.[2]

wrld champships

Champion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from World champions) For other uses, see Champion (disambiguation). This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (Consider using more specific clean up instructions.) Please improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (May 2010) Martial arts winners A champion (from the late Latin campio) is the victor in a challenge, contest or competition. There can be a territorial pyramid of championships, e.g. local, regional / provincial, state, national, continental and world championships, and even further (artificial) divisions at one or more of these levels, as in soccer. Their champions can be accordingly styled, e.g. national champion, world champion. In certain disciplines, there are specific titles for champions, either descriptive, as the baspehlivan in Turkish oil wrestling, yokozuna in Japanese sumo wrestling; or copied from real life, such as the koenig and kaiser ('king' and 'emperor') in traditional archery competitions (not just national, also at lower levels) in the Low Countries. In a broader sense, nearly any sort of competition can be considered a championship, and the victor of it a champion. Thus, there are championships for many non-sporting competitions such as spelling bees or wargames. In this context, it is used as an noun. An example would be, "Bianca is a CHAMPION". It is also possible to champion a cause. In an ideological sense, encompassing religion, a champion may be an evangelist, a visionary advocate who clears the field for the triumph of the idea. Or the champion may merely make a strong case for a new corporate division to a resistant board of directors. Such a champion may take on responsibility for publicizing the project and garnering funding. Such a champion is beyond a simple promoter. Here it is used as a verb. An example is, "The fundraiser championed rights for everyone". A national champion is a large company that is dominant in its field and favored by the government of the country in which it is based in the belief that it will be in that country's interests if the company is successful in foreign markets. The practice is controversial, and not widely believed by economists to be beneficial, but has long been a policy of France and other countries. The original meaning of the word partakes of both these senses: in the Feudal Era, knights were expected to be champions of both prowess in combat and of causes, the latter most commonly being either patriotic, romantic or religious in nature. This reaches its most literal in a trial by combat, in which each combatant champions the cause of one side of the trial. A "King's Champion" is appointed for ceremonial purposes at the coronation of an English Monarch, to defeat any challenger to the monarch's right to be crowned. World Champion is a title used to denote a winner of a World championship in a particular sport, discipline or game. Normally, the person who wins title is thought of as being the best in the world at that particular skill at the time when they win the title. [edit]See also World championship Championship [edit]References This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) View page ratings Rate this page What's this? Trustworthy Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) Submit ratings Categories: Terms used in multiple sports Log in / create accountArticleDiscussionReadEditView history Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Toolbox Print/export Languages Български Deutsch Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Ido Bahasa Indonesia Қазақша Nederlands Română Русский Svenska Українська 吴语粵語中文 This page was last modified on 24 August 2011 at 11:57. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Contact us Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersMobile view Champion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from World champions) For other uses, see Champion (disambiguation). This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (Consider using more specific clean up instructions.) Please improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (May 2010) Martial arts winners A champion (from the late Latin campio) is the victor in a challenge, contest or competition. There can be a territorial pyramid of championships, e.g. local, regional / provincial, state, national, continental and world championships, and even further (artificial) divisions at one or more of these levels, as in soccer. Their champions can be accordingly styled, e.g. national champion, world champion. In certain disciplines, there are specific titles for champions, either descriptive, as the baspehlivan in Turkish oil wrestling, yokozuna in Japanese sumo wrestling; or copied from real life, such as the koenig and kaiser ('king' and 'emperor') in traditional archery competitions (not just national, also at lower levels) in the Low Countries. In a broader sense, nearly any sort of competition can be considered a championship, and the victor of it a champion. Thus, there are championships for many non-sporting competitions such as spelling bees or wargames. In this context, it is used as an noun. An example would be, "Bianca is a CHAMPION". It is also possible to champion a cause. In an ideological sense, encompassing religion, a champion may be an evangelist, a visionary advocate who clears the field for the triumph of the idea. Or the champion may merely make a strong case for a new corporate division to a resistant board of directors. Such a champion may take on responsibility for publicizing the project and garnering funding. Such a champion is beyond a simple promoter. Here it is used as a verb. An example is, "The fundraiser championed rights for everyone". A national champion is a large company that is dominant in its field and favored by the government of the country in which it is based in the belief that it will be in that country's interests if the company is successful in foreign markets. The practice is controversial, and not widely believed by economists to be beneficial, but has long been a policy of France and other countries. The original meaning of the word partakes of both these senses: in the Feudal Era, knights were expected to be champions of both prowess in combat and of causes, the latter most commonly being either patriotic, romantic or religious in nature. This reaches its most literal in a trial by combat, in which each combatant champions the cause of one side of the trial. A "King's Champion" is appointed for ceremonial purposes at the coronation of an English Monarch, to defeat any challenger to the monarch's right to be crowned. World Champion is a title used to denote a winner of a World championship in a particular sport, discipline or game. Normally, the person who wins title is thought of as being the best in the world at that particular skill at the time when they win the title. [edit]See also World championship Championship [edit]References This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) View page ratings Rate this page What's this? Trustworthy Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) Submit ratings Categories: Terms used in multiple sports Log in / create accountArticleDiscussionReadEditView history Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Toolbox Print/export Languages Български Deutsch Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Ido Bahasa Indonesia Қазақша Nederlands Română Русский Svenska Українська 吴语粵語中文 This page was last modified on 24 August 2011 at 11:57. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Contact us Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersMobile view Champion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from World champions) For other uses, see Champion (disambiguation). This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (Consider using more specific clean up instructions.) Please improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (May 2010) Martial arts winners A champion (from the late Latin campio) is the victor in a challenge, contest or competition. There can be a territorial pyramid of championships, e.g. local, regional / provincial, state, national, continental and world championships, and even further (artificial) divisions at one or more of these levels, as in soccer. Their champions can be accordingly styled, e.g. national champion, world champion. In certain disciplines, there are specific titles for champions, either descriptive, as the baspehlivan in Turkish oil wrestling, yokozuna in Japanese sumo wrestling; or copied from real life, such as the koenig and kaiser ('king' and 'emperor') in traditional archery competitions (not just national, also at lower levels) in the Low Countries. In a broader sense, nearly any sort of competition can be considered a championship, and the victor of it a champion. Thus, there are championships for many non-sporting competitions such as spelling bees or wargames. In this context, it is used as an noun. An example would be, "Bianca is a CHAMPION". It is also possible to champion a cause. In an ideological sense, encompassing religion, a champion may be an evangelist, a visionary advocate who clears the field for the triumph of the idea. Or the champion may merely make a strong case for a new corporate division to a resistant board of directors. Such a champion may take on responsibility for publicizing the project and garnering funding. Such a champion is beyond a simple promoter. Here it is used as a verb. An example is, "The fundraiser championed rights for everyone". A national champion is a large company that is dominant in its field and favored by the government of the country in which it is based in the belief that it will be in that country's interests if the company is successful in foreign markets. The practice is controversial, and not widely believed by economists to be beneficial, but has long been a policy of France and other countries. The original meaning of the word partakes of both these senses: in the Feudal Era, knights were expected to be champions of both prowess in combat and of causes, the latter most commonly being either patriotic, romantic or religious in nature. This reaches its most literal in a trial by combat, in which each combatant champions the cause of one side of the trial. A "King's Champion" is appointed for ceremonial purposes at the coronation of an English Monarch, to defeat any challenger to the monarch's right to be crowned. World Champion is a title used to denote a winner of a World championship in a particular sport, discipline or game. Normally, the person who wins title is thought of as being the best in the world at that particular skill at the time when they win the title. [edit]See also World championship Championship [edit]References This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) View page ratings Rate this page What's this? Trustworthy Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) Submit ratings Categories: Terms used in multiple sports Log in / create accountArticleDiscussionReadEditView history Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Toolbox Print/export Languages Български Deutsch Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Ido Bahasa Indonesia Қазақша Nederlands Română Русский Svenska Українська 吴语粵語中文 This page was last modified on 24 August 2011 at 11:57. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Contact us Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersMobile view Champion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from World champions) For other uses, see Champion (disambiguation). This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (Consider using more specific clean up instructions.) Please improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (May 2010) Martial arts winners A champion (from the late Latin campio) is the victor in a challenge, contest or competition. There can be a territorial pyramid of championships, e.g. local, regional / provincial, state, national, continental and world championships, and even further (artificial) divisions at one or more of these levels, as in soccer. Their champions can be accordingly styled, e.g. national champion, world champion. In certain disciplines, there are specific titles for champions, either descriptive, as the baspehlivan in Turkish oil wrestling, yokozuna in Japanese sumo wrestling; or copied from real life, such as the koenig and kaiser ('king' and 'emperor') in traditional archery competitions (not just national, also at lower levels) in the Low Countries. In a broader sense, nearly any sort of competition can be considered a championship, and the victor of it a champion. Thus, there are championships for many non-sporting competitions such as spelling bees or wargames. In this context, it is used as an noun. An example would be, "Bianca is a CHAMPION". It is also possible to champion a cause. In an ideological sense, encompassing religion, a champion may be an evangelist, a visionary advocate who clears the field for the triumph of the idea. Or the champion may merely make a strong case for a new corporate division to a resistant board of directors. Such a champion may take on responsibility for publicizing the project and garnering funding. Such a champion is beyond a simple promoter. Here it is used as a verb. An example is, "The fundraiser championed rights for everyone". A national champion is a large company that is dominant in its field and favored by the government of the country in which it is based in the belief that it will be in that country's interests if the company is successful in foreign markets. The practice is controversial, and not widely believed by economists to be beneficial, but has long been a policy of France and other countries. The original meaning of the word partakes of both these senses: in the Feudal Era, knights were expected to be champions of both prowess in combat and of causes, the latter most commonly being either patriotic, romantic or religious in nature. This reaches its most literal in a trial by combat, in which each combatant champions the cause of one side of the trial. A "King's Champion" is appointed for ceremonial purposes at the coronation of an English Monarch, to defeat any challenger to the monarch's right to be crowned. World Champion is a title used to denote a winner of a World championship in a particular sport, discipline or game. Normally, the person who wins title is thought of as being the best in the world at that particular skill at the time when they win the title. [edit]See also World championship Championship [edit]References This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) View page ratings Rate this page What's this? Trustworthy Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) Submit ratings Categories: Terms used in multiple sports Log in / create accountArticleDiscussionReadEditView history Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Toolbox Print/export Languages Български Deutsch Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Ido Bahasa Indonesia Қазақша Nederlands Română Русский Svenska Українська 吴语粵語中文 This page was last modified on 24 August 2011 at 11:57. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Contact us Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersMobile view Champion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from World champions) For other uses, see Champion (disambiguation). This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (Consider using more specific clean up instructions.) Please improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (May 2010) Martial arts winners A champion (from the late Latin campio) is the victor in a challenge, contest or competition. There can be a territorial pyramid of championships, e.g. local, regional / provincial, state, national, continental and world championships, and even further (artificial) divisions at one or more of these levels, as in soccer. Their champions can be accordingly styled, e.g. national champion, world champion. In certain disciplines, there are specific titles for champions, either descriptive, as the baspehlivan in Turkish oil wrestling, yokozuna in Japanese sumo wrestling; or copied from real life, such as the koenig and kaiser ('king' and 'emperor') in traditional archery competitions (not just national, also at lower levels) in the Low Countries. In a broader sense, nearly any sort of competition can be considered a championship, and the victor of it a champion. Thus, there are championships for many non-sporting competitions such as spelling bees or wargames. In this context, it is used as an noun. An example would be, "Bianca is a CHAMPION". It is also possible to champion a cause. In an ideological sense, encompassing religion, a champion may be an evangelist, a visionary advocate who clears the field for the triumph of the idea. Or the champion may merely make a strong case for a new corporate division to a resistant board of directors. Such a champion may take on responsibility for publicizing the project and garnering funding. Such a champion is beyond a simple promoter. Here it is used as a verb. An example is, "The fundraiser championed rights for everyone". A national champion is a large company that is dominant in its field and favored by the government of the country in which it is based in the belief that it will be in that country's interests if the company is successful in foreign markets. The practice is controversial, and not widely believed by economists to be beneficial, but has long been a policy of France and other countries. The original meaning of the word partakes of both these senses: in the Feudal Era, knights were expected to be champions of both prowess in combat and of causes, the latter most commonly being either patriotic, romantic or religious in nature. This reaches its most literal in a trial by combat, in which each combatant champions the cause of one side of the trial. A "King's Champion" is appointed for ceremonial purposes at the coronation of an English Monarch, to defeat any challenger to the monarch's right to be crowned. World Champion is a title used to denote a winner of a World championship in a particular sport, discipline or game. Normally, the person who wins title is thought of as being the best in the world at that particular skill at the time when they win the title. [edit]See also World championship Championship [edit]References This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) View page ratings Rate this page What's this? Trustworthy Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) Submit ratings Categories: Terms used in multiple sports Log in / create accountArticleDiscussionReadEditView history Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Toolbox Print/export Languages Български Deutsch Español Esper

values dfo the differencet of the ansers and squestions

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