Wester Civ II

The Great Depression mostly affected Germany by A. creating extremely high levels of unemployment. B. deterring the onset of industrialization. C. bringing about the institution of five-year plans. D. strengthening support for the Weimar government. E. encouraging massive hyperinflation.

(A) After World War I, economic problems caused in part by the heavy demands for war reparations shook Germany. Hyperinflation devalued the German currency during the early 1920s, for example. Such issues skewered popular support for the democratic Weimar government. Germany had already industrialized by this time. Five-year plans were a feature of Stalin's Soviet Union.

Which industry was most directly affected by the First Industrial Revolution? A. Textiles B. Steel C. Oil D. Automotive E. Communications

(A) During the First Industrial Revolution, new machines and new production practices greatly reshaped the textile industry. The spinning jenny, for example, allowed one person to produce more cloth than the process of doing so by hand. The other industries listed were greatly affected by the Second Industrial Revolution, which took place during the nineteenth century and reshaped practically all aspects of contemporary life.

The painting shown below best reflects A. increased urbanization during the Second Industrial Revolution. B. artistic characteristics associated with the Cubist movement. C. the global nature of concerns over environmental pollution. D. nostalgia for the past that became common after World War II. E. an interest in exotic places that arose as a result of European imperialism.

(A) During the Second Industrial Revolution, European cities grew larger both in population and in size as rural dwellers moved to urban areas to take jobs in factories. Artists of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries depicted this shift in paintings such as this one, by the French artist Camille Pizarro. The increased number of vehicles, densely packed buildings, and throngs of people are clear indicators of an urbanized landscape.

According to German thinker Johann Gottfried Herder, a Volksgeist was the A. national spirit of a people. B. emotional basis for all decision making. C. clash between what is and what is not. D. repressed childhood experiences of an individual. E. natural source of inspiration of art and literature.

(A) German writer Johann Gottfried Herder wrote during an era of growing nationalist tendencies. His term Volksgeist sought to describe the unique character and spirit of a national people. Romanticism, rather than nationalism, sought to explore the emotional basis for reason and nature as a source of artistic inspiration. Hegel wrote on the clash between the thesis what is, and antithesis what is not, as a source of new creation. Later psychologist Freud explored the childhood experience as a source of psychological formation and enduring struggle.

Which statement best describes the cultural changes of late twentieth-century Europe? A. Western European nations increasingly resemble one another due to the globalization of popular culture. B. Society became less diverse as immigration policies prevented new residents from arriving. C. Cultural norms became more conservative amidst a time of significant political change. D. The elimination of the Soviet sphere ended civil conflicts over cultural differences. E. Europeans again began to develop strong nationalist tendencies to differentiate themselves from U.S. culture.

(A) Globalization has been one of the driving factors of international cultural change since the late twentieth century. More and more, nations resemble one another, mostly due to the sweeping influence of U.S. popular culture; despite occasional revivals of regionalism, citizens exhibit individualistic rather than nationalistic, tendencies. This is not to say that cultural conflicts, such as the civil wars in the Balkans, have ceased altogether. Yet European culture has also become more diverse as immigrants from North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia have come to the region.

All of the following were goals of the early labor union movement in Great Britain except: A. Elimination of child labor B. Better pay for workers C. Limits on mandatory working hours D. Improved workplace safety E. Protection for workers to organize

(A) Labor unions became a force during the Second Industrial Revolution. Among their primary goals were protecting and supporting the basic rights of workers, including the simple right of workers to organize into unions. Unions called for reduction of mandatory working hours, increased pay for workers, and improvement in what were often horrifically unsafe and unsanitary industrial working conditions. Labor unions did not, however, typically agitate for the creation of child labor laws.

Which international organization was created as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919? A. League of Nations B. Warsaw Pact C. United Nations D. North Atlantic Treaty Organization E. European Union

(A) The Treaty of Versailles created the League of Nations in the hopes of preventing future conflicts. Despite a suggestion by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, the United States refused to join the League, greatly limiting its efficacy in monitoring later foreign affairs. The United Nations, NATO, and the Warsaw Pact were all formed in the wake of World War II. The European Union followed some years after that.

What was one immediate effect of the Truman Doctrine on Europe? A. Greece and Turkey received a great deal of financial and military aid. B. Germany was divided into four military occupation zones. C. France, Britain, and other allied nations joined NATO. D. United Nations forces intervened in ethnic conflict in the Balkans. E. French leaders agreed to give up their colonial holdings in Indochina.

(A) The U.S. foreign policy called the Truman Doctrine stated that the nation would actively intervene to support those who opposed communism around the world. As a result of this policy, the United States gave some $400 million in aid to anticommunists in Greece and Turkey. The division of Germany into military occupation zones preceded the creation of the Truman Doctrine. The doctrine did not cause specific actions by European nations such as France and Britain. The conflict in the Balkans took place after the end of the Cold War.

Which of the following actions is most compatible with the ideas of mercantilism? A. Passing policies promoting free trade B. Establishing overseas trading colonies C. Lowering levels of both imports and exports D. Stockpiling mostly industrial resources E. Raising taxes on companies exporting goods

(A) The economic policy of mercantilism is based on the idea that only a limited amount of wealth exists in the world and, thus, nations should strive to acquire large stockpiles of gold. To do this, a nation should discourage imports and free trade while striving to export as many goods as possible. Of these choices, the most compatible action is the founding of overseas colonies. Such colonies both provided sources of gold and other precious metals and served as captive markets for the exported goods of the colonizing nation.

Which conclusion is best supported by the information in the table? British Law Effect : Capped workday at nine hours for those under the age of 13; Factory Act of 1833: Capped work week at 69 hours for those aged 13 - 18. Factory Act of 1847 Capped workday for all women and boys under the age of 18 at ten hours A. Women and children made up a great deal of the industrial workforce during the nineteenth century. B. The British government had little interest in the safety of its industrial workers. C. Men worked shorter hours and in fewer industrial jobs than did women and children during this time period. D. Many people chose to work longer hours than were required of them despite the risks of doing so. E. The number of people willing to work in industrial jobs rose greatly during the early nineteenth century.

(A) The information in the table suggests that women and children under 18 routinely worked in industrial jobs for periods of time exceeded 10 hours per day or 70 hours per week. It also suggests that a sufficient number of women and children performed this type of work to warrant not just one, but two British laws regulating it to ensure worker health and safety. Thus, a logical conclusion is that a great number of women and children worked in industrial jobs. The information in the table provides no information about men, and does not imply that the long hours were undertaken by choice. The information also gives no details about the number of people in the overall industrial workforce.

All of these contributed to the outbreak of World War I except: A. An extended period of economic depression B. The rise of national movements around the continent C. German concerns over national security D. The creation of multiple military alliances E. Competition for dominance of continental politics

(A) The tensions that led to World War I had been building for decades before they finally erupted. Among the leading causes of the war were growing nationalist tendencies among European citizens and the creation of numerous military alliances embroiling much of Europe and Russia in shared concerns. The absence of a major military conflict for many years had allowed European nations to fall into a relatively equal power struggle for control of continental politics, giving national leaders an incentive to weaken their rivals. Yet some countries, such as Germany, remained worried about the security of their borders and thus wished to expand to shore up their positions. These issues created a period of devastating warfare that eventually contributed to the massive economic downturn of the 1930s, which, in turn, contributed to the outbreak of World War II.

Which of these figures was most instrumental in achieving Italian unification during the mid-nineteenth century? A. Count Camillo Benso di Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi B. Charles Albert and Victor Emmanuel II C. Giuseppe Mazzini and Count Camillo Benso di Cavour D. Victor Emmanuel II and Giuseppe Mazzini E. Giuseppe Garibaldi and Charles Albert

(A) The unification of Italy was completed in 1861, largely due to the efforts of moderate statesman Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, who served as the nation's first prime minister; and revolutionary fighter Giuseppe Garibaldi, who led a conquest to unify southern Italy. Charles Albert was a king of the Italian region of Piedmont-Sardinia who waged an unsuccessful war against Austria-Hungary in the 1840s. Victor Emmanuel II was the first king of a united Italy. Giuseppe Mazzini was an earlier Italian radical who had advocated for unification but failed to bring it into fruition.

For many decades after the Thirty Years' War, Prussia's power was based mostly on A. military might. B. religious unity. C. constitutional republicanism. D. intellectual dominance. E. industrial strength.

(A) Under the reigns of the Fredericks—Frederick William, Frederick I, and Frederick II—Prussia built the powerful army that largely defined its niche within European politics for years to come. Between 1690 and 1740, for example, Prussian rulers grew the size of the army from 30,000 to 80,000 soldiers. Prussians were divided between Catholics and Protestants, and the government did not follow a republican structure. Prussia industrialized well after powers such as Great Britain. Although the region produced important philosophers and other thinkers, these intellectual achievements did not hold the same overall importance as military might.

Louis XIV claimed absolute power under the doctrine of A. secularism. B. divine right. C. Utilitarianism. D. nationalism. E. Realpolitik.

(B) According to thinkers of the day, such as Bishop Bossuet, kings owed their authority to a grant of power from God. This concept was known as divine right. Because royal power came from God alone, it followed that kings answered only to God—not citizens—for their actions. Secularism was the separation of religious and civil ideas. Nationalism relates to the belief in the superiority of one's own nation. Both utilitarianism and Realpolitik arose well after the reign of Louis XIV.

How did World War I contribute to social change in countries such as Great Britain and Germany? A. The service of minority soldiers lessened racism and anti-Semitism. B. Women's contributions during the war convinced nations to expand suffrage. C. Communism emerged as an influential political idea among the working class. D. Traditional elites of the aristocracy regained status lost during the Industrial Revolution. E. Concerns over the effects of rapid change prompted a return to conservative values during the 1920s.

(B) During World War I, high levels of troop mobilization left women as the only able-bodied citizens available to fill vital economic and military support roles. Women's contributions during this period helped them gain support in the long-running effort to attain suffrage. Within a few years of the war's end, women gained the right to vote in Great Britain, Germany, and the United States. Social and economic liberalization was the norm in many places as the power of the aristocracy shrank and people embraced shorter hemlines, challenging literature, and other crazes. Yet anti-Semitic feeling and racism increased in Germany under Hitler, setting the stage for the horrors of the Holocaust.

Which of these individuals is commonly associated with the Scottish Enlightenment? A. Francis Bacon B. David Hume C. Edward Gibbon D. Mary Wollstonecraft E. James Madison

(B) During the Enlightenment, the Scottish capital of Edinburgh emerged as a center of northern thought and inquiry, helping earn it the nickname the "Athens of the North." Among the philosophers associated with this city were economist Adam Smith and thinker David Hume. Bacon lived and worked in the city of London. Gibbon was an English author, not a philosopher. Wollstonecraft was an English author and feminist. Madison was an American statesman and thinker.

Which of these principles would an "enlightened despot" be most likely to oppose? A. Private property rights B. Checks and balances C. Increased education D. freedom of speech E. Religious toleration

(B) Enlightened despots were those absolute monarchs who sought to enact reforms in their governments and nations as a whole. These monarchs generally allowed freedom of religion and speech, for example, and permitted individuals to own private property. Enlightened despots also tended to support the expansion of education as a way to lessen the gap between rich and poor. However, the notion of checks and balances—that one part of a government can limit the powers of another—is inherently at odds with the nature of an absolute monarchy, no matter how enlightened it may be.

Which of these statements best summarizes Pascal's Wager? A. Thinkers should risk promoting unpopular ideas because of the benefits to society. B. Man may reasonably risk believing in God because doing so can bring no loss. C. Refusing to follow government laws was not worth the risk of certain punishment. D. Risking suffering in the next life was a necessary part of the human experience. E. Humans often choose to take risks without thoroughly considering the consequences.

(B) French mathematician, thinker, and theologian Blaise Pascal saw no reason that religious faith and scientific principles could not exist side by side. Among his most famous principles drawn from this belief was Pascal's Wager. This idea stated that humans may as well believe in God, because if God did not exist, doing so carried no negative consequences in the next life. However, if God did exist, the believer would benefit greatly from his or her belief in the next life. Thus, believing in God was a rational decision, because the believer had nothing to lose from the choice.

Otto von Bismarck brought about the unification of Germany primarily through A. diplomatic persuasion and electoral victory. B. strategic military conquest and annexation. C. economic and industrial interdependence . D. appeals to shared religious and cultural traits. E. ideological rebellions against the Prussian monarchy.

(B) Otto von Bismarck led Prussia on a series of successful military ventures that brought together the diverse regions that comprise modern Germany into one, cohesive unit. Bismarck was a proponent of Realpolitik—a form of political realism that foregoes idealistic diplomacy in favor of practical effort. Although Bismarck was a nationalist, he did not primarily bring together the country through religious or cultural appeals. Bismarck also worked with the Prussian Kaiser rather than against him.

Which of the following was the immediate cause of the first declaration of war in World War I? A. German forces launched a successful invasion of neighboring Polish territory. B. Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. C. Great Britain declared war on Germany to protect the neutrality of Belgium. D. Russian Bolsheviks led a coup against Tsar Nicholas II in St. Petersburg. E. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy entered into the Triple Alliance.

(B) Several long-term factors contributed to the eruption of World War I in 1914, particularly extreme nationalism and the development of military alliances. However, the immediate cause of the war was the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist on Serbian territory. Austria declared war on Serbia, and in turn Russia declared war on Austria. Before long, nearly all of Europe was at war due to international alliances; Great Britain, for example, upheld a pact to protect the neutrality of Belgium by declaring war on the invading nation of Germany.

Which individual or group governed France during the Reign of Terror? A. National Convention B. Committee of Public Safety C. Louis XVI D. Third Estate E. Napoleon Bonaparte

(B) The French Revolution began with the idealistic goals of the Third Estate, which organized itself as the National Assembly and called for the creation of a written constitution with the Tennis Court Oath in 1789. Over the next few years, however, political disagreements and violence undermined this idealism. Rebels killed nobles even as laws sought to promote political equality. By 1792, radicals seized control of the government, and before long began executing those seen as a threat to the state. The twelve-man Committee of Public Safety rose to the forefront, and under this group the Reign of Terror—during which an estimated 25,000-50,000 French citizens died—took place.

In what way were the North American Treaty Organization and Warsaw Pact similar? A. Both formed as branches of the United Nations. B. Both were international military alliances. C. Both worked to peacefully end World War II. D. Both came under the control of the Soviet Union. E. Both adhered to the policy of containment.

(B) The North American Treaty Organization—more commonly known as NATO—was formed in the early days of the Cold War as an international military alliance to oppose the Soviet Union. In response, the Soviet Union created a similar military alliance of Eastern Bloc nations known as the Warsaw Pact. The Warsaw Pact deteriorated with the breakup of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, and many of its members went on to join NATO. Neither organization was adjunct to the United Nations. Only the United States and some of its allies supported the policy of containment.

Which statement best explains the information shown in the following graph? A. The introduction of the potato during the seventeenth century improved agricultural yields in Ireland. B. Ireland suffered from significant economic and political challenges during the late nineteenth century. C. Great Britain granted increasing levels of political autonomy to Ireland during the early twentieth century. D. Nationalist sentiment against the British grew in Ireland during the late nineteenth century. E. The existence of a Gaelic linguistic minority allowed the Irish to retain an identity distinct from the British before Home Rule.

(B) The bar graph clearly indicates a sharply declining population trend beginning at some point in the 1840s and continuing throughout the nineteenth century. Of the choices provided, the most logical explanatory factor for this population decrease is that economic and political challenges pushed Irish emigrants to seek homes in other countries. The introduction of the potato predates the graph by many years, and the granting of Home Rule came after the period shown here. Nationalist sentiment and the retention of a strong national identity are not characteristics generally identified as push factors in immigration.

From which political document does the excerpt below come? Articles: 1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good. 2. The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. 3. The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation. A. Tennis Court Oath, 1789 B. "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen," 1789 C. Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 1790 D. Declaration of Independence, 1776 E. "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Female Citizen," 1791

(B) This excerpt, with its dual focus on Enlightenment ideals such as natural rights and nationalistic sentiments, clearly comes from the French "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen." Although the Declaration of Independence reflects similar Enlightenment political goals, it focuses on individual liberty rather than nationalistic connections. The other documents also date from the time of the French Revolution. The Tennis Court Oath announced the National Assembly's intention to remain in session until the creation of a written constitution. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy required religious clergy to take an oath of loyalty to the nation. The "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Female Citizen" was a feminist document calling for political equality for women.

During the early twentieth century, diplomatic alliances most closely tied Russia with A. Austria and France. B. Italy and Germany. C. Germany and Austria-Hungary. D. France and Great Britain. E. Great Britain and Japan.

(C) A period of alliance-building took place in Europe during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. After an early alliance with Germany and Austria, Russia split with Germany over its support for Austrian efforts to maintain control of its Slavic minority group. Instead, Russia entered into the Triple Entente with France and Great Britain, fellow opponents of Germany. By 1914, Germany was left with only Austria-Hungary as a reliable ally.

Which three countries benefited from the partitions of Poland in the 1790s? A. The Netherlands, Austria, and Sweden B. Germany, Belgium, and Russia C. Russia, Austria, and Prussia D. Lithuania, Prussia, and Italy E. Ukraine, Belgium, and Lithuania

(C) During the 1790s, revolutionary sentiments supporting Polish nationalism and opposing Russia seemed to be growing in Poland. Concerned about the prospect of true revolution and seeking to add lands to their own holdings, Russia, Austria, and Prussia undertook a series of territorial divisions that led to the complete absorption of Poland into their lands. The country of Poland was thus removed from the world map until after World War I, when it was re-created as part of the Treaty of Versailles.

During the Russian Revolution of 1917, the White Russians A. strove to remove the nation from World War I. B. were a leading voice for peace in the civil war. C. opposed Bolshevik domination of the government. D. consisted entirely of conservative monarchists. E. supported Trotsky as the proper successor to Lenin.

(C) During the Russian Revolution, Russians split into factions known as Red Russians and White Russians. The Red Russians comprised the radical Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, who sought to institute communism. The White Russians comprised all those who opposed Bolshevism, including not only monarchists, but also liberals and other anticommunists. The Bolsheviks removed Russia from World War I after defeating the White Russians.

The late nineteenth century in Europe was most marked by A. rejection of the ideals of imperialism. B. widespread anti-absolutist revolutions. C. increasing numbers of diplomatic alliances. D. limited economic and technological growth. E. high levels of immigration from other regions.

(C) During the late nineteenth century, European nations began entering into the diplomatic and military alliances that would eventually bring about widespread conflict in World War I. At the same time, European powers undertook nation-building imperialist efforts in Africa and Asia, and experienced exploding levels of economic and technological growth thanks to the Second Industrial Revolution's spread from Britain and the United States. European workers left the continent in great numbers, often for the Americas, to seek a better life. Anti-absolutism revolts had been major characteristics of the early and mid-nineteenth century.

Which statement best explains the population trend shown in the table below? Year /Population of Western Europe 1700 / 86,300,000 1750 / 101,800,000 1800 / 132,000,000 1800 / 213,000,000 A. New medical knowledge contributed to better urban hygiene. B. The European balance of power virtually eliminated war-related deaths. C. Improved agricultural techniques led to larger and higher-quality crop yields. D. Decreased trade kept infectious diseases from spreading from place to place. E. European governments discouraged immigration to overseas colonies.

(C) From the early eighteenth century onward, a demographic shift was underway in Europe. New crops imported from the New World, such as potatoes, and improved agricultural production techniques offered higher crop yields and a more nutritious diet. These changes supported substantial population growth, as shown in the table. Although new scientific and medical advances took place during this time, practical application of their findings came through somewhat later reforms. European powers fought frequently during this period, even as trade both within Europe and across the sea grew. At the same time, governments helped establish new colonies in overseas locations in the hopes of gaining economic benefits.

Which of these statements correctly characterizes Napoleon's Civil Code? A. Church officials gained the sole right to nominate and depose bishops under the Code. B. Under the Code, newspapers and individuals had the right to criticize the government. C. The laws of the Code protected personal property and encouraged some equality. D. Napoleon's laws reaffirmed the powers of the displaced ancien regime over France. E. The Civil Code strengthened Napoleon's power by allowing him to choose all civil servants

(C) Napoleon's Civil Code was one of the most influential legal codes in European history. The Code set out to restore order and stability by encouraging government and military advancement solely on the basis of merit rather than birth, eliminating primogeniture, and protecting personal property rights. It also granted male peasants equality under the law. The Concordat granted the Church the right only to depose bishops. Napoleon also limited speech by putting many newspapers out of business and requiring government approval for newspaper stories.

Which of the following happened as a result of the Glorious Revolution? A. Cromwell rose as the leader of a short-lived English constitutional republic. B. A Catholic monarch regained the throne of England from Protestant rebels. C. English citizens received guarantees of basic civil liberties under a bill of rights. D. Political infighting made Parliament unimportant for decades to come. E. The British East India Company gained the power to begin trading abroad.

(C) The "Glorious Revolution"—so called because was it bloodless—restored the English throne from the Catholic James II to the Protestant William of Orange and his wife Mary at the behest of a united Parliament. When William and Mary accepted the crown, they agreed to a new bill of rights limiting royal power and asserting basic civil liberties of English citizens, such as freedom from cruel and unusual punishment. This revolution followed the English Civil War that granted power to Cromwell and united opposing factions of Parliament. The rights of the British East India Company were not determined as a result of the Glorious Revolution.

Which of these statements correctly characterizes an economic effect of the First Industrial Revolution? A. Employment levels fluctuated more by the season than before. B. Membership in the agricultural workforce grew unexpectedly. C. Overall incomes rose for members of the working and middle classes. D. National levels of productivity dropped significantly. E. International trade declined as industries made individual nations self-sufficient.

(C) The First Industrial Revolution greatly changed the national economies of the countries in which it took place, most notably Great Britain and, to a lesser extent, the United States. In these places, the first true middle class emerged thanks to overall rises in income. Employment levels became less dependent on the weather as work shifted away from the farm, and farm employment decreased dramatically as workers took new industrial jobs. New industrial processes grew productivity levels and contributed to growing trade as companies sought to import needed raw materials and export finished goods to profitable markets.

Which of the following government regimes would a French philosophe have been most likely to admire? A. The Italian state under Benito Mussolini B. The French court of Louis XIV C. The U.S. Republic under George Washington D. The Russian rule of Peter the Great E. The French Empire under Napoleon Bonaparte

(C) The French philosophes generally sought to encourage fair government characterized by a separation of power and system of checks and balances. They admired the constitutional monarchy of England, so unlike the absolute monarchies of nations such as France and Russia. American statesmen and political thinkers drew on these ideas to create the U.S. system of government, making it highly compatible with the political ideals of the philosophes. The later government of Mussolini again centralized absolute power in a dictatorial figure.

"The maxims are, first, that the individual is not accountable to society for his actions, in so far as these concern the interests of no person but himself.... Secondly, that for such actions as are prejudicial to the interests of others, the individual is accountable, and may be subjected either to social or to legal punishment, if society is of opinion that the one or the other is requisite for its protection." The quotation above exemplifies the principles of which school of thought? A. Conservatism B. Nationalism C. Liberalism D. Socialism E. Absolutism

(C) This excerpt is taken from John Stuart Mill's On Liberty, and exemplifies many of the characteristics of the philosophy of liberalism. Mill argued that individuals had the right to undertake any path in life so long that their choices did not create difficulties for society at large. Thus, liberalism encouraged the adoption of broader individual liberties by governments.

What was the primary purpose of the Congress of Vienna? A. To complete the unification of Germany B. To resolve religious disputes between Catholics and Protestants C. To create a lasting balance of power in Europe D. To add new lands to Prussia and Austria-Hungary E. To form an alliance against Napoleon Bonaparte

(C) Undertaken in 1814 and 1815, the Congress of Vienna sought to reorganize Europe following the defeat of Napoleon. In order to do this, the powers involved strove to create a series of buffer states from former French territories and worked to spread power and influence such that no one country had more power than the rest of Europe. Although the Congress did grant lands to Prussia and Austria-Hungary, this was a secondary circumstance subject to achieving a European balance of power. The Congress of Vienna preceded the unification of Germany by several decades and did not seek to address religious matters.

Which of the following was NOT a characteristic of Italian fascism before World War II? A. Opposition to communism B. Support for extreme nationalism C. Belief in the doctrine of anti-Semitism D. Rejection of democracy E. Resentment of the Treaty of Versailles

(C) Unlike the dictatorship that arose in Germany, Italy's fascist government did not base its domestic policy on a platform of anti-Semitism. Instead, the government called for strong loyalty to the Italian state and opposition to communism. Fascists also rejected democracy, believing it to have been proven a failure. The Italian Fascists believed that the nation had been cheated out of its fair due in the Treaty of Versailles.

Which of these was a cause of the July Revolution that placed Louis Philippe I on the French throne? A. The armies of Napoleon Bonaparte were defeated at Waterloo. B. Louis XVIII expanded religious toleration of Protestants. C. Ultraroyalists called for the expansion of the franchise. D. Charles X dissolved the Chamber of Deputies. E. The Third Estate signed the Tennis Court Oath.

(D) After Napoleon's fall at Waterloo, the French monarchy took a conservative turn, favoring the traditional nobility and Catholics. Extreme conservatives, known as ultraroyalists, harassed Protestants and liberals with the tacit approval of monarchs such as Louis XVIII. After Charles X undertook a series of actions, including dissolving the legislative Chamber of Deputies, censoring newspapers, and restricting the franchise, riots broke out that forced Charles to abdicate. French liberals then placed the more reform-minded Louis Philippe I on the throne. The signing of the Tennis Court Oath was a cause of the French Revolution, not the July Revolution.

Which style of music first became popular shortly after World War I? A. Rock-and-roll B. Opera C. Romantic D. Jazz E. Cubist

(D) After the close of World War I, new cultural phenomena swept both Europe and the United States. U.S. audiences were introduced to jazz, a musical style innovated in the city of New Orleans. Musicians brought jazz north to New York City, where it formed a central part of the Harlem Renaissance. U.S. musicians then carried the form to Paris, and from there it became popular in other parts of Europe. Rock-and-roll emerged after World War II, and opera had existed for centuries. Romanticism and Cubism were both artistic, rather than musical, styles.

Which of the following groups was NOT persecuted as part of the Holocaust? A. Gypsies B. Jews C. The disabled D. Prisoners of war E. Nazi opponents

(D) Although the Jews were by far the most numerous and best-known group persecuted under the Holocaust, the Nazis also sought to eradicate others that they found undesirable. These people included the Roma (gypsies), disabled people, political opponents, homosexuals, and Christians who aided Jewish refugees. The treatment of prisoners of war (POWs) varied; Western European POWs generally came in for much better treatment than Soviet POWs, for example. Although Soviet POWs especially were treated cruelly, they are not generally considered direct victims of the Holocaust.

Which of the following events did NOT take place as part of the Thermidorian Reaction? A. The Jacobin Club of Paris was shut down. B. A new national constitution was written. C. Napoleon emerged as a central government leader. D. The Directory took charge of legislative oversight. E. Peace was achieved between the Vende and the government.

(D) By 1795, the tide had begun to turn against the radicals of the French Revolution. The formerly influential Jacobins were removed from political office, and the Jacobin Club ended. The National Convention wrote a new constitution creating a legislature overseen by the five-man Directory. The rebelling Vendée and French central government achieved peace. But these changes did not fully stabilize France. The turmoil set the stage for the later rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who became the emperor of France about a decade later.

Which of these improvements was innovated by Charles Townshend as part of Great Britain's eighteenth-century agricultural revolution? A. The invention of the cotton gin to clean crops B. The spreading of manure as fertilizer C. The use of metal plows to plant seed D. The rotation of crops within the same field E. The enclosure of shared agricultural lands

(D) Charles "Turnip" Townshend is best remembered for his finding that the rotation of crops through the same field improved crop yields, as different crops deplete different minerals from the soil. Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in the United States. Jethro Tull argued against the use of manure as fertilizer, but did encourage the employment of metal plows to spread seeds. The enclosure movement had been slowly gaining speed in England for some time before the agricultural revolution took place.

During the early eighteenth century, which two powers mostly dominated the European continent and the seas? A. Austria-Hungary and Spain B. Prussia and the Netherlands C. The Swiss Confederacy and Portugal D. France and Great Britain E. Italy and the Ottoman Empire

(D) Conflicts between emerging empires caused minor wars in Europe, the Americas, and even India during the early and mid-eighteenth century. By the end of these conflicts, it had become clear that France was the leading power on the European mainland, while Great Britain dominated the seas. This status quo was largely maintained for many years; British naval dominance, for example, continued well into the twentieth century.

In order to increase economic growth after 1928, Stalin relied on the A. New Economic Policy. B. Great Purges. C. Brezhnev Doctrine. D. Five-year plans. E. Warsaw Pact.

(D) During the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, the Soviet Union had followed the relatively liberal New Economic Policy. After coming to power, however, Stalin rejected this policy in favor of a series of five-year plans meant to maximize industrial production. The Great Purges were a series of political murders undertaken by Stalin during the 1930s. The Warsaw Pact was a military alliance formed during the Cold War. The Brezhnev Doctrine was a later foreign policy allowing for Soviet intervention to support communist governments.

All of the following resulted from Napoleon's rule of France except: A. The United States gained a great deal of power and wealth. B. Serfdom finally ended throughout Western Europe. C. Meritocracies became more common in European government. D. Peace and prosperity spread to Spain and Portugal. E. French military tactics were broadly adopted.

(D) Napoleon's political and military efforts had far-reaching effects. The high costs of warfare led the emperor to sell the French claim to the Louisiana Territory to the United States, more than doubling that nation's size and greatly growing its wealth and power. Egalitarian reforms helped bring about the end of serfdom and encourage the adoption of merit-based systems of advancement around Europe. Countries that militarily opposed the French, such as Prussia, began adopting French tactics to reform and improve their own armies. However, Napoleon's reign also carried negative consequences; for example, French military efforts to deter Portuguese trade with Britain sparked guerrilla warfare in Spain.

Which of these was a short-term result of the Russian Revolution of 1917? A. Soviet economic policy restored national agricultural output. B. Stalin began the Great Purges to eliminate potential opponents. C. Japan and Russia signed a peace treaty ending their war in East Asia. D. Russia withdrew its forces from unpopular involvement in World War I. E. The Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States began.

(D) Shortly after winning control of the government, the Bolshevik government signed a separate treaty with Germany to end its involvement in World War I. This involvement was incredibly unpopular with the Russian people, who were still suffering the results of the Russian loss in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905. But Russia's problems were not over. Famine followed for several years. During the 1930s, Stalin began a series of organized political murders known as the Great Purges. With the end of World War II came the beginning of the Cold War.

Which of the following correctly identifies the internal tensions that eventually destabilized the Austro-Hungarian Empire? A. Economic changes led to increased urbanization. B. The Austrian emperor refused to grant Hungary any autonomy. C. Charismatic figures sought to unify the regions into one unit. D. Hungarian bureaucrats wished to institute a Triple Monarchy. E. Nationalist groups called for increased political autonomy.

(D) The Austro-Hungarian Empire, although officially centered in German-speaking Vienna, had diverse holdings containing a number of diverse linguistic and national groups. Austrian ruler Francis Joseph allowed the government of Hungary a great deal of autonomy over its affairs. In turn, national groups, particularly those within Hungarian territory, began to call for liberalization of their own internal affairs. Although Francis Joseph was willing to accept the idea of a Triple Monarchy, Hungary opposed it, fearing those of power. The nationalist sentiments created during this time directly contributed to the outbreak of World War I and resulting fall of the empire.

The Dutch Republic was able to come into existence as a result of A. political shifts toward enlightened despotism. B. Austro-Hungarian efforts against the Ottomans. C. influential power brokering by the papacy. D. the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia. E. efforts to win the support of the Junkers.

(D) The Treaty of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years' War recognized the political independence of both the Swiss Confederacy and the United Provinces of Holland. These provinces rose to economic and political heights during the seventeenth century as the Dutch Republic. The rise of the Dutch Republic preceded interest in enlightened despotism, and bore no relation to the taking of lands by the Austro-Hungarian Empire that been claimed by the Ottoman Empire. By this time, the influence of the papacy over political matters had waned greatly. The Junkers were important in nearby Prussia rather than the Low Countries.

During the Second Industrial Revolution, significant advances in transportation were most made possible by A. widespread European electrification efforts. B. the construction of the first railroad lines. C. James Watts's invention of the steam engine. D. improved methods of oil and steel production. E. the development of the long-distance telegraph

(D) The perfection of the steel-making process and the large-scale extraction of oil helped propel new, faster forms of transportation during the Second Industrial Revolution. The internal combustion engine, steel railroad tracks, and the eventual development of automobiles and airplanes allowed humans to go farther faster than ever before. Watts's steam engine and the earliest railroad tracks dated to the time of the First Industrial Revolution. Neither electrification nor improved communication via the telegraph aided transportation development to the same extent as oil and steel.

"My good friends this is the second time in our history that there has come back from Germany to Downing Street peace with honor. I believe it is peace in our time." The words above were spoken in response to which of the following events? A. Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles ending World War I. B. The U.S. government agreed to provide military aid to Britain under the Lend-Lease Act. C. Italian and German leaders formed an alliance known as the Rome-Berlin Axis. D. British and French acceded to Nazi German demands to occupy the Sudetenland. E. The Allies approved the forced joining of Germany and Austria under the Anschluss.

(D) This excerpt, from a speech given by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain shortly after his return to Britain after the signing of the Munich Pact, exemplifies the European policy of appeasement. British and French leaders believed—wrongly—that granting Hitler the territory he desired in Czechoslovakia would end his efforts at territorial expansion. Instead, Hitler soon invaded Poland, thrusting Europe into what historians believe was the bloodiest war in human history.

The creator of this political cartoon is criticizing A. twentieth-century African independence movements. B. the institution of apartheid used in South Africa. C. German military tactics in Africa during World War II. D. the nineteenth-century European Scramble for Africa. E. United Nations intervention in Africa during the late twentieth century.

(D) This political cartoon, first published in the British magazine Punch, shows British imperial Cecil B. Rhodes astride the continent of Africa. The artist subtly recalls the famed Colossus of Rhodes, which tumbled in an earthquake during ancient times, with Rhodes's pose. This image is closely connected with the efforts of the British Empire to establish far-flung colonies in Africa during the late nineteenth century. Rhodes may be dated by his clothing and physical appearance; the absence of military or racial symbolism also suggests that the other choices are not appropriate.

Overall, the Revolutions of 1848 ended in A. the complete restoration of absolutism for a time. B. an increase in industrialization and urbanization. C. the institution of new liberal governments around Europe. D. increased nationalist feeling and republicanism. E. widespread defeat for liberals and radical movements.

(E) During 1848, a series of liberal revolutions swept much of Europe in search of political reforms. Despite the efforts of these revolutionaries, the revolts as a whole failed to achieve most of their ends. In France, for example, Louis Napoleon won election as president only to reinstitute the French Empire short years later using strong-arm tactics. The failures of the movements temporarily stymied swelling European nationalism and saw the return of strong monarchies in some, but not all, nations. Countries such as the constitutional monarchy of Great Britain did not take part in the revolutions and thus saw no political changes as a result.

How did the development of a transatlantic industrial economy shape European interests during the eighteenth century? A. Restrictive emigration policies sought to keep lower-class European populations at home to provide a necessary workforce. B. Competition for resources frequently set Europe at odds with the United States and Canada. C. Middle Eastern issues and politics became a driving concern for European foreign policy. D. European countries entered into numerous wars with one another to control important continental industrial regions. E. Increasingly, European countries sought to establish colonies in places rich in needed raw materials.

(E) Economic growth and industrialization generated high levels of new demand for raw materials in European nations that had previously had economies based on agriculture and small-scale production. Thus, nations began seeking new sources of cheap raw materials through imperialist colonization in Africa and Asia. Working-class immigration from Europe to the Americas was common during this era, and European and North American interests did not frequently result in armed conflict. Although European countries did establish a presence in the Middle East, this was a result of an overall imperialist drive rather than an end in itself. European powers did not engage in wars to control industrial reins during this period.

Which Enlightenment thinker had the most direct influence on the framers of the U.S. government? A. Denis Diderot B. François Fénelon C. Adam Smith D. François Voltaire E. Charles Montesquieu

(E) Enlightenment thinker Charles Montesquieu is best known as the force behind the political ideals of separation of powers and checks and balances. Separation of powers requires government authority to be divided up among several entities; checks and balances grants each of these entities the ability to limit the power of the others. Both of these principles were put into use in the U.S. government. Diderot and Voltaire focused their writings on attacking the Church and overall authority. Fénelon supported the idea of a limited monarchy. Smith was concerned mostly with economic rather than political matters.

What was the purpose of the Declaration of Pillnitz? A. To generate support for the Legislative Assembly among the citizenry B. To prevent the Vende from continuing their revolt against the French government C. To encourage the British to unite with other monarchies against the French Revolution D. To assure French émigrés that they would be protected in Prussia E. To show Austrian and Prussian support for the ousted French monarchy

(E) Issued in 1791, the Declaration of Pillnitz was a joint statement of the Austrian and Prussian governments announcing their intention to invade France if its royal family came to harm at the hands of the revolutionaries. The declaration was spurred by the efforts of the French king and the émigrés - French nobility in exile. However, it did not seek to gain British support for the monarchy, and had no connection to the rebelling Vendée. As a result of the Declaration, the French Legislative Assembly declared war on Prussia and Austria.

Peter the Great undertook all the following measures to Westernize Russia except: A. Requiring some Russian men to shave their beards B. Employing Western methods of military operations C. Encouraging the adoption of the French language D. Building a new capital city in western Russia E. Promoting the adoption of Roman Catholicism

(E) Peter the Great undertook numerous efforts to Westernize Russia, believing that doing so would allow the nation to develop the same kinds of strong economic and military levels as the European nations. To do this, he encouraged his citizens to Westernize by requiring upper-class men and government officials to shave their beards and promoting the adoption of Western clothing and language. He also built a new capital, St. Petersburg, in western Russia, and copied military tactics from Sweden and other Western nations. Although Peter also brought the Russian Orthodox Church under state control, he did not attempt to supplant it with Roman Catholicism.

Which of these was NOT a factor encouraging industrialization in Great Britain during the eighteenth century? A. Britain had large supplies of natural resources such as coal and iron. B. A strong transportation system of roads, rivers, and canals existed. C. Investments in trade had given some Britons large amounts of capital. D. Government policies allowed private business to do largely as it wished. E. Isolationist feelings meant that Britons focused mostly on their own affairs.

(E) The Industrial Revolution first arose in Great Britain during the early eighteenth century. Britain's advantages were many. The nation had a great deal of raw materials and a strong tradition of mining. British transportation routes linked much of the country. Investments in overseas trade, such as the slave trade, generated a great deal of wealth for potential investors. At the same time, the government exercised little intervention in the affairs of private business. Another of Britain's advantages was the availability of raw materials from its overseas colonies, a sign of the nation's expansionist tendencies during this era.

In which nation did the Popular Front government come to power during the 1930s? A. Italy B. France C. Russia D. Germany E. Spain

(E) The Popular Front was a radical government comprising socialists and communists that controlled Spain during the 1930s. This government clashed with fascist anticommunist forces led by Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War. As a result of this conflict, Franco became dictator of Spain, retaining leadership of the country until his death in 1975.

Why was the following excerpted article added to the Treaty of Versailles? The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies. A. Austria-Hungary signed a separate peace treaty with allied nations. B. Italy and Germany had begun to develop strong fascist governments. C. The Allies were unaware of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. D. Germany had surrendered only reluctantly to allied forces. E. France and its allies wished to humiliate Germany after World War I.

(E) The framers of the Treaty of Versailles wished to punish Germany harshly for its role in World War I, perceiving it to be the true aggressor in the conflict. Thus, allied nations forced heavy reparations on Germany and barred it from maintaining a significant military force. They also required the nation to accept full responsibility for the war in the excerpt printed here, popularly known as the "war guilt clause." These efforts backfired, however, creating an atmosphere of resentment that allowed for the rise of Nazi leader Adolf Hitler, and thus setting the stage for World War II.

"I think, therefore I am." The statement above exemplifies the A. doctrine of Utilitarianism spread by Bentham. B. inductive reasoning method popularized by Bacon. C. laissez-faire approach suggested by Smith. D. Enlightenment ideals of the philosophes. E. deductive reasoning method supported by Descartes.

(E) The quote given above is one of the famous dictums of the philosopher Réné Descartes, and follows the pattern of the deductive reasoning method he supported. Under deductive reasoning, a thinker begins with a general principle and then determines smaller, supporting detailsin this instance, Descartes is able to think (the general principle) and thus, must exist (the supporting particular details). This stands in contrast to Bacons preference for the method of inductive reasoning. Under this method, a thinker draws large conclusions based on smaller supporting details; perhaps the most famous inductive thinker in popular culture is the literary detective Sherlock Holmes.

Which issue led to the emergence of civil war in the former Yugoslavia during the 1990s? A. Terrorist groups had begun using the region as a base of operations. B. Many citizens wished to restore the former Communist government. C. Yugoslavians rejected the verdict in the war crimes trial of Milosevic. D. Soviet troops occupied the country to end the nascent separatist movement. E. Ethnic and religious differences divided many of the region's citizens.

(E) Yugoslavia was formed after World War I without much respect for the natural ethnic and cultural divisions of the peoples its borders contained. The long centralized rule of a strong communist government kept the country together more or less peacefully for many decades. But the fall of communism in the late 1980s led to new ethnic conflicts. Serbs and Croats declared their independence from Yugoslavia, and before long, Serbians under the leadership of Milosevic began a period of "ethnic cleansing" against the Serbian Muslim population. In 1995, a peace was reached with the Dayton Accords, and Milosevic was later convicted of war crimes.