What is Research

What is Scientific Research

"Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such phenomena" (Kerlinger, 1986, p. 10).

Theory as New Knowledge

Adaptation, revision or confirmation of existing theory Generation of new theory Relates to conceptual framework

Theory as a Lense

Existing theory(s) which seek to explain how aspects of social reality 'work' (models). E.g. Models of learning Behaviourist (Skinner); Constructivist (Piaget); Social constructivist (Vygotsky); Deep learning (Anderson) Models of professional/expertise development Situated learning; Communities of practice (Lave; Wenger) Models of second language acquisition Krashen's SLA theory; Oxford's S2R;

Theory as conceptual framework

1. A written or visual presentation that: "explains either graphically, or in narrative form, the main things to be studied - the key factors, concepts or variables - and the presumed relationship among them" (Miles and Huberman, 1994, P18) 2. Quantitative research Typically developed after literature review Provides the structure/content for the whole study based on literature and personal experience Revisited at the conclusion of the study Qualitative research Initial framework after literature review Further developed as participants' views and issues are gathered and analysed.

Paradigm Questions

1. What do we believe exists? (Ontology) Fundamental beliefs that someone holds about the nature of the social world and its relationship to individual social actors. Social reality exists independent of the observer Social reality is constructed by people in particular social, cultural and historical contexts 2. What constitutes reliable & valid knowledge? (Epistemology) Causal relationships between observable phenomena Interpretations of meaning How we produce reliable and valid knowledge? (Methodology) 3. What 'Strategies of inquiry' (Creswell) are appropriate to our ontological/epistemological position (descriptive/confirmatory <-> explanatory/exploratory) ('Flat world' theory <-> Exploring other cultures) 4. How can we collect data to test our theories or describe social phenomena? (Methods) What data collection approaches/tools are appropriate to the the methodology

Hypothesis

A testable statement that guides your data collection and analysis A representation of the literature

Quantatative Study

An inquiry based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers and analysed with statistical procedures, in order to determine whether the predictive generalisations of the theory hold true Associated with: Post/positivist paradigm Key principle: Objectivity Theory stated: before ('a priori') the study (theory verification) Process: Deductive

Qualitative Study

An inquiry which seeks to understand social phenomena through the exploration and interpretation of the meanings people attach to, and make sense of, their experiences of the social world " Associated with the Interpretive paradigm Key principle: Subjectivity/interpretation Theory developed: during and/or after ('a posteriori') the study (theory generation) Process: Inductive

Basic Research

Answers fundamental questions about the nature of behavior Studies are often designed to address theoretical issues such as cognition, emotion, social behavior, and learning Does not focus on immediate or practical concerns as it seeks to gain knowledge that may be of some value at a later time

Determining the Cause of Behavior

C-A-T Identification of the cause of behavior requires three types of evidence: Temporal Precedence: Temporal order of events where the cause precedes the effect. Covariation of the Cause and Effect: When the cause is present, the effect occurs, when the cause is not present, the effect does not occur. Alternative Explanations: There should be no other plausible alternative explanation for the relationship.

Goals of Scientific Research

D-P-C-E To Describe Behavior To Predict Behavior To Determine the Causes of Behavior To Understand or Explain Behavior

Intuition

Intuition: Unquestionably accepting what your own personal judgment or experience tells you about the world. Example: Beef is bad ... since Oprah said not to eat it. Scientists understand that numerous cognitive and motivational factors (that affect our perceptions) lead to erroneous conclusions.

Applied Research

Main focus is to address practical problems and to find potential solutions to such problems A major area of applied research is called Program Evaluation where research is used to evaluate social reforms, government, the criminal justice system, industry, schools, and health care

Science vs. Intuition

Numerous cognitive biases exist when we focus on two events that stand out and occur together. The scientific approach requires much more evidence before any conclusion can be drawn.

Goldstiens Evolved Theory of Science

Observe - Search - Open - Peer 1. Observations accurately reported to others A. So that others can replicate the study B. So that others can see that the data has not been fabricated. 2. Search for discovery and verification of ideas: A. Scientists search for observations that will verify their ideas about the world. B. Scientists develop theories, argue that existing data supports their theories, and conduct research to further support their theories. 3. Open exchange and competition among ideas: A. Research flourishes when there is an open exchange of ideas. B. Others should report findings not supporting an ideas. C. Even good ideas are not supported by research. However, this leads to new and more innovative ideas. 4. Peer Review of Research: A. Ensures that only the best research is published. B. Ensures that research with major flaws is not integrated into the scientific community. C. Allows others to build upon and advance research.

Predicting Behavior

Once it has been observed (in a scientific manner) that two events are related to one another, predictions can be generated. Examples of predicting behavior: The more attractive interviewee will get the job. Individuals who eat Big Macs on a daily basis will gain weight over the course of a year.

Three Ways of Thinking about Theory

Paradigm* Lens *New Knowledge 1. That which underpins research design (Theory as paradigm) 2. That which may inform our understanding of the phenomenon under investigation (Theory as a 'lens') 3. That which may emerge from our study (Theory as new knowledge)

Theory as Paradigm

Philosophical assumptions about what constitutes social reality (ontology) What we accept as valid evidence of that reality (epistemology) The means by which we investigate that context (methodology) The means by which we gather evidence (methods)

Cause of Behavior

Predicting behavior does not mean that a cause can be determined. In order to determine how to change behavior, we must first determine the cause of the behavior

Mixed Methods

Qualitative and quantitative strategies used in a single study Concurrent: Quantitative and qualitative strategies employed in parallel Sequential: Qualitative informs quantitative (or vice versa) Brannen Denscombe Denzin Johnson & Onwuegbuzie Teddlie & Tashakkori

Explanation of Behavior

Researchers seek to understand and explain why behavior occurs (Caregivers of people with stroke may become depressed due to the "burden of caregiving"). Causes and explanations are closely related but as new causes are determined, new explanations are necessary.

Why is scientific research important?

VALID - Helps us decide what is what is valid and what is not MEANS- Provides us a means of addressing and answering important questions DOCS- Helps practitioners with treatment, therapy, and medication choices POLICY - Assists public policy decisions COURT - Influences judicial decisions (Study by Clark & Clark, 1947, influenced the landmark Brown vs. Board of Education case) PROGRAM GOALS - Determines whether or not programs (public and private) are successfully meeting their goals