Whitley Comm 1000 Final Exam Study Guide

URLs

.gov-government, .edu-educational institutions, .org-non-profit organizations, .com-businesses. Now, .org and .com are used by non-profits and businesses alike.

central idea

A one sentence statement that sums up or encapsulates the major ideas of a speech

Reference Works

A work that synthesizes a large amount of related information for easy access by researchers. Encyclopedias, yearbooks, quotation books, and biographical aids.

Order of steps to the speech making process

Choose a topic, determine the general purpose, determine the specific purpose, and phrase the central idea

How the speech communication process elements interact with each other

Communication begins with the speaker, who tries to make the intended message what is actually communicated. The channel is the means by which a message is communicated. A listener receives the message and filters everything through their frame of reference. Then the listener sends back nonverbal messages to the speaker (feedback). Sometimes internal or external interferences occur. Speaking at the right time and place (situation) is also very important.

Stereotyping

Creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of a group are alike.

The relationship between critical thinking and public speaking

Critical thinking allows you to structure and outline your speech ideas cohesively and pick out bad arguments in others' speeches.

Incremental Plagiarism

Failure to give credit for different parts of a speech that are borrowed from other people (quotations and paraphrases)

Online Government Reference

Federal, state, local, and tribal governments. Statistical social, political, and economic aspects of American life. World Factbook information on every country in the world.

Online Multicultural Reference

Focused on diverse countries and cultures.

Newspapers

For research on contemporary or historical events

Persuasion is not something that the speaker does to the audience but something the speaker does with the audience.

There is an imaginary mental dialogue.

Appeal to Fear

Trying to keep people from doing something because they are afraid. Someone wants and deserves a raise, but their boss threatens to give their job to someone else more appreciative

search engines

Type specific words in quotations and use commands (i.e. +)

Reasons why cultural diversity is important to public speaking

We live in a multicultural world, and you must know how to communicate with a diverse audience.

Speaking outline

a brief outline used to jog a speaker's memory during the presentation of a speech. Condensed version of preparation outline (phrases).

special encyclopedia

a comprehensive reference work devoted to a specific subject such as religion, art, law, science, music, etc.

general encyclopedia

a comprehensive reference work that provides information about all branches of human knowledge

Preparation Outline

a detailed outline developed during the process of speech preparation that includes the title, specific purpose, central idea, introduction, main points, subpoints, connectives, conclusion, and bibliography of the speech. Main points and subpoints in full sentences.

Bandwagon

a fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore, good, correct, or desirable

Slippery Slope

a fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented

Ad hominem

a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute

Either-Or

a fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist

Red Herring

a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

Questions of Fact

a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion. Will the economy be better or worse next year? What will happen next in the Middle East? Draw a conclusion on which side of a factual point of view is correct. Organize topically.

yearbooks

a reference work published annually that contains information about the previous year

virtual libraries

a search engine that combines internet technology with traditional library methods of cataloguing and assessing data (can determine the quality of a source)

specific purpose

a single infinitive phrase that states precisely what a speaker hopes to accomplish in his or her speech (to inform my audience about...to persuade my audience to...). Always include your audience in this.

Brief Example

a specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point

Different types of listening

appreciative (listening for pleasure or enjoyment), empathetic (listening to provide emotional support for a speaker), comprehensive (listening to understand the message of a speaker), and critical (listening to evaluate a message for purposes of accepting or rejecting it)

4 Different ways to use language appropriately

appropriateness to the occasion, audience, topic, and speaker

Appeal to tradition

argues that a practice or a way of thinking is "better" or "right" simply because it is older or traditional

general purpose

broad goal of a speech (to inform or to persuade)

3 Strategies for enhancing credibility

explain competence (advertise your expertise), establish common ground, and deliver fluently, expressively, and with conviction

3 Basic Issues when discussing a question of policy

need (the 1st basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?) i.e.-Is there a need for more student parking on campus?, plan (2nd basic issue: Is there a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?) i.e.-what can we do to get more student parking on campus?, and practicality (3rd basic issue: Will the speaker's plan solve the problem? Will it create new and more serious problems?) i.e.-Building a multilevel parking garage on campus will provide more student parking, but the cost would require a sharp increase in tuition.

misidentification of the cause

saying the something is the cause of something else when it isn't

Appeal to Pity

trying to excuse a wrong action by making others feel bad for you and your situation

3 Tips for generating emotional appeal

use emotional language, develop vivid examples, and speak with sincerity and conviction

8 different aspects of vocal quality

volume, pitch, rate, pauses (pauses are good, but vocalized pauses-er, um, uh-are bad), vocal variety (changes in a speaker's rate, pitch, and volume that give the voice variety and expressiveness), pronunciation, articulation (the physical production of particular speech sounds), and dialect (a variety of language distinguished by variations of accent, grammar, or vocabulary)

Methods to adapting to the audience before the speech

1) anticipate how your audience will respond to what you are going to say 2) adjust what you say to make it as clear, appropriate, and convincing as possible

Pitfalls and guidelines to constructing a central idea

1) should be expressed in a full sentence 2) should not be in the form of a question 3) should avoid figurative language 4) should not be vague or overly general

Identification

A process in which speakers seek to create a bond with the audience by emphasizing common values, goals, and experiences.

Questions of Policy

A question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken. Should the electoral college be abolished? What measures can be taken to...?

Questions of Value

A question about worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action. What is the best movie of all time? They demand value judgments. Organize topically.

Periodical Databases

A research aid that catalogues articles from a large number of journals or magazines

Using language clearly

A speaker's meaning must be immediately comprehensible with no chance of misunderstanding. Ensure this by using familiar words (short, homely words of common usage), by choosing concrete words (referring to tangible objects) over abstract words (referring to ideas and concepts), and by eliminating verbal clutter (discourse that takes many more words than are necessary to express an idea).

3 Questions for evaluating the use of statistics

Are the statistics representative? Are statistical measures used correctly (mean, median, mode)? Are the statistics from a reliable source?

3 Criteria for evaluating internet documents

Authorship (must be present and be an expert), sponsorship (organization that, in the absence of a clearly identified author, is responsible for the content of a document on the Internet-must be unbiased), and recency

Guidelines for Ethical Listening

Be courteous and attentive, avoid prejudging the speaker, and maintain the free and open expression of ideas.

atlases

Book of maps, charts, or diagrams

5 Questions to ask about the adequacy of a specific purpose

Does my purpose meet the assignment? Can I accomplish my purpose in the time allotted? Is the purpose relevant to my audience? Is the purpose too trivial for my audience? Is the purpose too technical for my audience?

Methods to adapt to the audience during the speech

Don't panic and adjust to time limitation and technical difficulties. Be aware of audience feedback.

6 Things to do during an interview

Dress appropriately and be on time, repeat the purpose of the interview, set up the recorder if you are using one, keep the interview on track, listen carefully, and don't overstay your welcome

Different elements of an introduction and their functions

Get the attention of the audience (relate the topic to the audience, state the importance of your topic, startle the audience, arouse the curiosity of the audience, question the audience, begin with a quotation, tell a story), reveal the topic of your speech, establish credibility and goodwill (the speaker has the best interest of the audience in mind), and preview the body of the speech (preview statement with the main points)

Appeal to Personal Attack

Ignores the issues of the argument and focuses instead on the personal qualities of the person making the argument. a.k.a.-ad hominem-"to the man"-and poisoning the well. Can attack a person's character or circumstance.

Audience-centeredness

Keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation. The point of the speech is to gain a desired response from listeners. Ask "to whom am I speaking?" "What do I want to know, believe, or do as a result of my speech?" "What is the most effective way of composing and presenting my speech to accomplish that aim?"

Guidelines for ethical speaking

Make sure your goals are ethically sound, be fully prepared for each speech, be honest in what you say, avoid name-calling and other forms of abusive language, and put ethical principles into practice.

Online News Reference

Online Newspaper. Current events. Local, state, or national.

Listening

Paying close attention to, and making sense of, what we hear

How the speaker's body is a form of delivery and 4 different types of nonverbal body delivery

People will believe body language over words. Personal appearance, movement (be still and calm), gestures (natural, spontaneous, and should not distract), and eye contact

4 Strategies for brainstorming for topics

Personal inventory, clustering (people, places, things, events, processes, concepts, natural phenomena, problems, plans and policies; make sublists), reference search, and internet search

Differences between public speaking and conversation

Public speaking is more highly structured, requires more formal language, and requires a different method of delivery.

Analogical Reasoning

Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second. Make sure the two examples are essentially alike. No invalid analogies.

Reasoning from principle

Reasoning that moves from a general purpose to a specific conclusion. Pay close attention to your general principle. May have to support your major or minor premises.

Causal reasoning

Reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects. Watch out for false cause (post, hoc, ergo propter hoc).-There can be coincidence. Don't assume that one event has only one cause.

2 Types of Speeches on Questions of Policy

Speeches to gain passive agreement (the audience agrees that the policy is desirable) and speeches to gain immediate action (the audience takes action in support of the given policy)

Difference between effective and ineffective subpoints in a preparation outline

State your main points and subpoints in complete sentences in preparation outline.

Global Plagiarism

Stealing a speech entirely from a single source and passing it off as one's own

Patchwork Plagiarism

Stealing ideas or language from two or three sources and passing them off as one's own

4 tips for doing research

Take plenty of notes, record notes in a consistent format (record the note, the source of the note, and a heading indicating the subject of the note), make a separate entry for each note, and distinguish among direct quotations, paraphrases, and your own ideas

Denotative meanings

The literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase

Main points

The major points developed in the body of a speech. Most speeches contain from two to five main points. The main points can come from the specific purpose and central idea of a speech.

Difference between the specific purpose and the central idea

The specific purpose is what you hope to accomplish in your speech. The central idea is a concise statement of what you expect to say. It is the thesis statement, and it sharpens and refines the specific purpose statement. The central idea includes your main points. The central idea is the residual message, what the speaker wants the audience to remember after everything is forgotten about the speech.

Egocentrism

The tendency of people to be concerned, above all with their own values, beliefs, and well-being. The audience will ask, "How does this pertain to me?"

Hearing

The vibration of sound waves on the eardrums and the firing of electrochemical pulses in the brain

Strategies for developing public speaking confidence

Transfer to positive nervousness by acquiring speaking experience, preparing well, thinking positively, using the power of visualization, knowing that nervousness isn't visible, and not expecting perfection.

4 Tips for using evidence

Use specific evidence, use novel (new) evidence, use evidence from credible sources (well-known and unbiased), and make clear the point of your evidence

6 Tips for Using Statistics Effectively

Use statistics to quantify your ideas, use statistics sparingly, identify the sources of your statistics, explain your statistics, round off complicated statistics, and use visual aids to clarify statistical trends

Using language accurately

Use the right word to capture meaning and enhance credibility. Use thesaurus

5 tips for formulating a specific purpose statement

Write the purpose statement as a full infinitive phrase, not as a fragment. Express your purpose as a statement, not as a question. Avoid figurative language in your purpose statement. Limit your purpose statement to one distinct idea. Make sure you specific purpose is not too vague or general.

Straw Man

You attack someone's point of view by creating an exaggerated straw man version of the position, and then you knock down the straw man you just created.

Extended Example

a story, narrative, and anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point

Connectives

a word or phrase that connects the ideas of a speech and indicates the relationship between them. Transitions (word or phrase that indicates when a speaker has finished one thought and is moving on to another. State the idea that you are leaving and the idea you are about to talk about.), internal previews (a statement in the body of a speech that lets the audience know what the speaker is going to discuss next. More specific than transitions), internal summaries (a statement in the body of a speech that summarizes the speaker's preceding point or points. They remind listeners of what they just heard.), and signposts (a very brief statement that indicates where a speaker is in the speech (First, Second, Third and questions) or that focuses attention on key ideas(the most important thing to remember is...)).

Begging the question

a.k.a Circular Reasoning because the premises of the argument assume or include the claim that the conclusion is true

Red Herring

a.k.a-smoke screen and wild goose chase, the red herring fallacy is committed by introducing an irrelevant topic in order to divert attention from the original issue being discussed

invalid analogy

an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike

false cause

an error in causal reasoning in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second. This is error is often known by its Latin name, post hoc, ergo propter hoc, meaning "after this, therefore because of this."

Hasty Generalization

an error in reasoning from specific instances, in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence

Hypothetical Example

an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation

Two Wrongs Make a Right

attempts to justify a morally questionable action by arguing that it is a response to another wrong action, either real or imagined

Demographic audience analysis

audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background. It consists of two steps: 1) identifying the general demographic features of your audience 2) gauging the importance of those features to a particular speaking situation

Situational Audience Analysis

audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical setting of the speech, and the disposition (interest, knowledge, and attitude) of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion (time limit, response to prompt, and appropriate attire and mannerisms)

appeal to authority

authorities must have a legitimate expertise in the area in which they are advising

Relevance Fallacies

authority, tradition, bandwagon, pity, fear, flattery, special pleading, ignorance, begging the question, straw man, red herring, appeal to personal attack, and two wrongs make a right

4 Forms of exclusive language use to avoid

avoid the generic "he" (the use of he to refer to both men and women), avoid the use of "man" when referring to both men and women, avoid stereotyping jobs and social roles by gender, and use names that groups use to identify themselves (don't want to offend with names like Asian or Handicapped)

Guidelines for presenting visual aids

avoid using the chalkboard, display visual aids where listeners can see them, avoid passing visual aids among the audience, display visual aids only while discussing them, talk to your audience, not to your visual aid, and explain visual aids clearly and concisely

Fallacies

causal and relevance

Different ways to strategically order your speech

chronological (main points follow a time pattern like in explaining a process, informative), spatial (main points follow a directional pattern like giving a tour, informative), causal (main points show a cause effect relationship, persuasive and informative), problem-solution (first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to a problem, persuasive), topical (the main points divide the topic into logical and consistent subtopics, informative or persuasive and most commonly used).

3 Types of Language Imagery

concrete words, simile (an explicit comparison, introduced with the word "like" or "as," between things that are essentially different yet have something in common), and metaphor (an implicit comparison, not introduced with the words "like" or "as," between two things that are essentially different yet have something in common)

Different methods to signal the ending of speech

crescendo (a conclusion in which a speech builds to a zenith of power and intensity) and dissolve (a conclusion that generate emotional appeal by fading step by step to a dramatic final statement)

5 Steps to prepare for an interview

define the purpose of the interview, decide whom to interview, arrange the interview, decide to record the interview, prepare the questions (avoid common knowledge questions, leading questions, and hostile, loaded questions)

dictionaries

definitions of words

Appeal to Flattery

designed to influence the thinking of others by appealing to their vanity as a substitute for providing relevant evidence to support your point of view

Guidelines for informative speaking

don't overestimate what the audience knows, relate the subject directly to the audience, don't be too technical (too big of words), avoid abstractions (combat this through description, comparison, or contrast), and personalize your ideas

Methods of getting information about the audience

fixed-alternative questions (questions that offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives-superficial), scale questions (questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers), and open-ended questions (questions that allow respondents to answer however they want)

Character and credibility

how an audience perceives a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience. Credibility is an attitude.

Competence and credibility

how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject

Types of credibility

initial (before he or she starts speaking), derived (produced by everything she or he says during the speech), and terminal (at the end of the speech)

emotional appeal

intended to make listeners feel sad, angry, guilty, afraid, etc.

4 different methods of speech delivery

manuscript speech (reading word for word for an audience), reciting from memory, impromptu (little or no immediate preparation), and extemporaneous (a carefully prepared and rehearsed speech that is presented from a brief set of notes)

4 Causes of poor listening

not concentrating, listening too hard, jumping to conclusions (putting words in people's mouths or deciding prematurely that a speech is boring or misguided, leading you to tune out), and focusing on delivery and personal appearance

4 types of informative speeches

objects (anything that is visible, tangible, and stable in form-can be people), processes (usually use chronological order), events, and concepts (belief, theory, idea, notion, principle, or the like)

Types of visual aids

objects (don't use if too big/small or unavailable), models (use if object is too big/small or unavailable), photographs (use if objects or models don't work), drawings, graphs (line-most common, pie-used for illustrating distribution patterns, and bar-shows a comparison among two or more items), charts-summarize large blocks of information usually in list form and are good if there are too many categories to put on a pie graph; also, good for showing steps in a process, and videos

Similarities between public speaking and conversation

organizing thoughts logically, tailoring your message to your audience, telling a story for maximum impact, adapting to listener feedback

4 Types of rhythm

parallelism (the similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences), repetition (reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences), alliteration (repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words), and antithesis (the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel structure)

Guidelines for preparing visual aids

prepare visual aids in advance, keep visual aids simple, make sure visual aids are large enough, use fonts that are easy to read, use a limited number of fonts, use color effectively, and practice with your visual aids

Organizing speeches on questions of policy

problem-solution order (the first main point shows the existence of a problem and the second main point presents the solution to a problem), problem-cause-solution order (the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of a problem, and the third main point presents the solutions to the problem), comparative advantages order (each main point explains why the speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other solutions), and Monroe's Motivated Sequence (seeks immediate action. It has 5 steps: attention, need, satisfaction (solution), visualization (of proposed solutions' benefits), and action)

Value of strategic organization for public speaking

putting a speech together in a particular way to achieve a particular result with a particular audience. Listeners, unlike readers, demand coherence. If it is organized, it will be considered more competent.

Causal fallacies

questionable cause, misidentification of the cause, post hoc ergo propter hoc, and slippery slope

4 tips for using testimony

quote or paraphrase accurately (no misquotes, no violating meanings with paraphrases, quoting out of context), use testimony from qualified sources, use testimony from unbiased sources, identify the people you quote or paraphrase

Reasoning from specific instances

reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion. Avoid generalizing to hastily, be careful with your wording, and reinforce your argument with statistics and testimony.

Bandwagon

relies on uncritical acceptance of others' opinions because everyone believes it

Different elements of a conclusion and different functions of each element

signal the end of the speech (crescendo or dissolve ending) and reinforce the central idea (summarize the speech, end with a quotation, make a dramatic statement, and refer to the introduction)

special pleading

someone makes himself a special exception without sound justification, to the reasonable application of standards, principles, or expectations. The world revolves around us. Get me a coke cuz I'm tired even though you are tired and have had a long day as well.

questionable cause

someone presents a causal relationship in which no real evidence exists (superstitions)

Different elements of the speech communication process

speaker, message, channel, listener, feedback, interference, and situation

How to create a preparation outline

state the specific purpose of your speech, identify the central idea, label the introduction, body, and conclusion, use a consistent pattern of symbolization and indentation, state main points and subpoints in full sentences, label transitions, internal summaries, and internal previews, attach a bibliography, and give your speech a title, if one is desired

6 Guidelines for becoming a better listener

take listening seriously, be an active listener (giving undivided attention to a speaker in a genuine effort to understand the speaker's point of view), resist distractions by trying to guess what the speaker will say next, reviewing what the speaker has said to make sure you understand it, and listening between the lines to try to assess what the speaker is trying to say with verbal and non-verbal communication, don't be diverted by appearance or delivery, suspend judgment, focus your listening by listening for main points, listening for evidence (is it accurate, taken from objective sources, relevant to the speaker's claims, and sufficient to support the speaker's point?), and listening for technique, and develop note-taking skills (key-word outline)

peer testimony

testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic

expert testimony

testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields

Connotative meaning

the meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word or phrase

pathos

the name used by Aristotle for emotional appeal

Appeal to ignorance

the person offering the conclusion is asking his opponent to disprove the conclusion. If the opponent is unable to do so, then the conclusion is asserted to be true. It is the speaker's job to prove the conclusion.

Target Audience

the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade. Target your speech towards the ones you want to reach the most.

kinesics

the study of body motions as a systematic mode of communication

4 Ways in which examples are used to enhance a speech

to clarify ideas, to reinforce ideas, to personalize your ideas, make your examples vivid and richly textured, and practice delivery to enhance your extended examples