America and the World Since 1945

Henry Stimson

US Secretary of War during WWII, part of FDR camp

John McCone

CIA Director under JFK after Bay of Pigs, replaced Allen Dulles

Lyndon B. Johnson

"- 36th president from Democrat party who assumed the presidency after the assassination of Kennedy - escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War, especially when the Congress passed Gulf of Tonkin Resolution - approved the plan to dispatch US marines to South Vietnam which marked the beginning of the American ground war - His popularity in the US declined after North Vietnam launched the Tet offensive which contradicted progress claimed by his administration"

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (1983)

"- Also known as Star Wars, the program intends to develop satellite anti-ballistic missile system to prevent Soviet missile attack. If successful, the program will create a protective dome over the US. - The anti-ballistic missile system was previously limited under the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972, Nixon), when mutually assured destruction (MAD) was instituted as the deterrence policy. Consequently, the SDI program undermines the faith placed under MAD. - The program was overly ambitious and never had any technical ground to materialize, but the large military budget committed (70B USD) to such program proved US's resolution in pushing back Soviet and achieved a degree of psychological warfare - Soviet response came in the form of VRYaN, acronym for Surprise Nuclear Missile Attack."

James William Fulbright

"- Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. - opposed the justification of the Vietnam war and a leading proponent for an end to the U.S. bombing of North Vietnam and for peace talks to settle the Vietnamese conflict"

Reagan Doctrine (1985)

"- Doctrine with primary goal of fighting against communism & SU and involves significant military spending to do so. - This led to US supporting all countries where anti-Soviet insurgence took place (eg. Nicaragua, South Africa, Afghanistan) and the Strategic Defense Initiative.

Ngo Din Diem

"- Established the first Republic of Vietnam with himself as the president after deposing Bao Dai who was the last Emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty - he was assassinated during a CIA-backed coup d'état in 1963 along with his brother Ngo Din Nhu who was also his chief political advisor"

Weinberger Doctrine (1984)

"- Laid out by Sec. of Defense Weinburger, the doctrine aims to establish strict criteria before US engages in use of force abroad and to counter Reagan's commonly preceived strong advocacy to the use of force (which paradoxically was limitedly true as Reagan was extremely cautious in sending troops) - The 6 criteria are: 1. Vital interest must be at stake; 2. Clear intention to win; 3. Clear political and military objectives; 4. Continual reassessment and adjustment of force to achieve goals; 5. Essential public and congressional support; 6. Commitment of force a last resort."

Mikail Gorbachev

"- Last leader of the Soviet Union, believer of Cold War detente. - Once in office, attempted to implement reforms to lift the Soviet Union out of economic failure though it was seen as already too late. More circulation of liberal ideas in SU under Gorbachev, and he was deeply popular in the eyes of the West. Reached the height of popularity in 1988 when the phenomenon was described as Gorbimania. - Historical meeting with Thatcher in 1984, subsequent to which Thatcher communicated his approval of Gorbachev to Reagan. - Responsible for post-Soviet Union fall negotiation with Kohl (chancellor of Germany) and George HW Bush which allowed the unification of Germany with East Berlin."

Eugene McCarthy

"- Lyndon B. Johnson's Democratic presidential candidate in the 1968 US election - dedicated the campaign on an anti-Vietnam war, but his opposition to the war later on split the Democratic party "

NSC-68

"- NSC-68 was a top secret National Security Council policy paper drafted by the Department of State and the Department of Defense presented to President Truman on 07 April 1950. - Principle authors of NSC-68 are Paul H. Nitze and Dean Achesons. - Historical circumstances that gave rise to NSC-68: Western Europe was devastated economically following WWII; there was a perceived Soviet threat, especially with their development of the bomb in 1949; a rise of the left/communist parties in East Asia, Middle East, and Eastern Europe leading to a spread of communism; US elections in 1948. - US needed to roll back Soviet power and win the Cold War before 1954, the year of maximum danger when the Soviets will have 200 nuclear warheads. - Basic recommendations of NSC-68 called for an offensive strategy of Containment, an increase in defense spending with no particular dollar amount recommended (spending increased from $13 billion to $40-50 billion); stay ahead of the Soviets in terms of nuclear capabilities. A quote from Acheson, ""NSC-68 was intended to bludgeon the mass mind of top government."""

Able Archer 83

"- Name of NATO exercise conducted annually. The 1983 edition involved a highly realistic simulated nuclear attack by the Soviet and the consequent NATO response. The exercise involved heads of states to give appropriate approvals and authorizations throughout the simulation. - While the Soviet was aware of these annual simulations, the Able Archer took place at a time of heightened tension between the US and the Soviet, and raised the Soviet's fear that a real attack was underway under the guise of exercise. - Some sources claim that the Soviet missiles were on standby ready to respond to NATO in the event of an attack, but this was never confirmed. - Irrespectively, Reagan was briefed subsequently of Soviet's readiness to defend which led him to believe that de-escalation of relation was required between the US and Soviet, thus began the Reagan Reversal."

Velvet Revolution (1989)

"- Non-violent and gradual revolution that took place in Central and Eastern Europe that overthrew communism in Czhechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, E. Germany, Bulgaria and Romania. This occurred on the eve of the fall of Soviet Union - This was allowed under Gorbachev's leadership as he was for ending the Cold War and his awareness of the Soviet's weakness that can no longer support these countries."

Vietnam syndrome

"- US public aversion to send troops into or involve in combat situations overseas, following the domestic controversy and bad memories over the Vietnam War as well as the Watergate scandals which have caused the American people to distrust any type of foreign intervention. - It was the combination of a public opinion apparently biased against war and a relative reluctance to deploy ground troops and conscription "

Tet offensive

"- a vast military campaign carried out by North Vietnam and the Viet Cong against military, civilian command and control centers throughout South Vietnam including the US embassy in Saigon. - the attack shocked the US public as American citizens believed in the government campaigns that the war was about to come to an end. - Soon the public support for the war declined, leading the US to end the war"

William Bundy

"- foreign affairs advisor to Kennedy and Johnson (serving as the Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific affairs under Johnson) - one of the proponents of the commitment of U.S. military forces to the Vietnam war - later became a key draftsman and executor of U.S. involvement in the war"

"Benign hegemon syndrome"

"-Samuel Huntington talked about this -Idea that was generated in the late 1980s and 1990s -Asserted that the U.S. was the leader of a unipolar world and that the U.S. was uniquely predestined for this role"

Cordell Hull

"FDR's Secretary of State. Wilsonianism. Supported a free trade policy. The Good Neighbor Policy: U.S. non-intervention and non-interference in the domestic affairs of Latin America. Implemented the Lend-Lease policy (1941-1945) to U.S. allies: Free aid of oil, food, and materiel. Return of some hardware, such as ships. US rights to freely use allies' bases during the war. Opposed to secret diplomacy discussing on the postwar arrangement with the Soviets"

Neoconservative Movement

"It is difficult to imagine the collapse of détente without changes that took place in US politics between 1973-76. The Watergate affair convinced many Americans that there were fundamental flaws in governance" Westad (pg. 475)

Tonkin Gulf Resolution

"Whereas the Formosa Resolution explicitly authorized the president to use force to defend the United States, the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution simply stated that the Congress approves and supports the determination of the president as Commander in Chief, to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the united states and to prevent further aggression. As Jean Smith argues, "the change in wording reflected more than presidential predilections; it involved a fundamental shift in the role of Congress from one of ultimate authority to one of subordinate support. The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution or the Southeast Asia Resolution, Pub.L. 88-408, 78 Stat. 384, enacted August 10, 1964, was a joint resolution that the United States Congress passed on August 7, 1964, in response to the Gulf of Tonkin incident. It is of historical significance because it gave U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson authorization, without a formal declaration of war by Congress, for the use of conventional military force in Southeast Asia. Specifically, the resolution authorized the President to do whatever necessary in order to assist ""any member or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty"". This included involving armed forces. It was opposed in the Senate only by Senators Wayne Morse (D-OR) and Ernest Gruening (D-AK). Senator Gruening objected to ""sending our American boys into combat in a war in which we have no business, which is not our war, into which we have been misguidedly drawn, which is steadily being escalated"". (Tonkin Gulf debate 1964) The Johnson administration subsequently relied upon the resolution to begin its rapid escalation of U.S. military involvement in South Vietnam and open warfare between North Vietnam and the United States."

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT,)

"• A 1947 agreement between many countries to promote international trade by reducing or eliminating trade barriers. Led to a major reduction in tariffs and quotas. - Predecessor to the World Trade Organization (WTO), which led to worldwide trade liberalization. - Set of international agreements that ratified the end of the Bretton Woods monetary system, signed in 1976

New Economic Plan

"• Aimed to restore US trade surplus, while allowing expansionary fiscal and monetary policy before 1972 elections. - U.S. abandon's pledge to convert foreign-held dollars into gold. - Imposes temporary 10% surcharge on imported goods, as a bargaining tool. - Imposes federal wage and price controls to contain inflation in the U.S. - Negotiates with partners to realign exchange rates leading to a 10% devaluation of the dollar in 1971. (Smithsonian Agreement. - "The dollar is our currency, but it's your problem" - John Connally

Marshall Plan

"• An American initiative that gave over $12 billion (nearly $100 billion in 2016 dollars) in economic assistance to Western European nations. - European nations could only import raw materials by exporting, but they couldn't export. If U.S. let European downward spiral continue, they would find themselves without key trading partners and Western Europe could have been amenable to Communist ideology. - U.S. designed system where requested goods transferred directly and decisions required U.S. agreement.

Triffin Dilemma

"• Dilemma identified by Economist Robert Triffin. Holders of global reserve currencies have paradoxical short-term domestic and long-term international economic interests. - Holder of the global reserve currency must be willing to supply world with enough of its currency to satisfy world demand for foreign exchange reserves. This leads to a balance of payments deficit. - However, the holder of the global reserve currency also has a responsibility not to allow its currency to become overvalued. The holder has to run a balance of payments current account surplus in order to maintain confidence in the currency. - It's not possible to run a current account surplus and deficit at the same time.

Multilateralism

"• Multiple countries pursuing a common goal, without discriminatory arrangements. This was the vision of "liberal internationalists" after WWII. - "Liberal Internationalists" believed in an open world economy without regional economic blocs. - Cordell Hull vision included: 1) elimination of preferential systems that discriminate against non-members. Hull wanted to break down the British imperial preference system. Applies to money in addition to goods. Wanted currencies to be convertible. 2) Development- A vision of universal global development. All of humanity moving in the same direction even if it is at a different pace.

Bretton Woods Monetary System

"• Negotiated in 1944 and fully in effect as of 1958 - Replaced gold standard with a gold exchange standard. U.S. dollar an official reserve asset. U.S. dollar "as good as gold" and convertible into gold at official reserve banks. - Fixed, but adjustable exchange rates - Led to the creation of the IMF and World Bank. IMF would reconstruct international payment system and World Bank would provide loans for capital projects.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

"• Replaced General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and became the largest economic organization in the world. - Provides a multilateral framework for agreement implementation and administration. - A forum for negotiations and dispute resolution.

Volcker Disinflation

"• Tight monetary policy of the Federal Reserve - Strict adherence to floating exchange rates - No attempt to limit U.S. dollar's sharp rise - Led to very high interests rates and "double-dip" recession. Inflation and energy prices fall.

Allan Dulles

- Allen Welsh Dulles was an American diplomat and lawyer who became the first civilian Director of Central Intelligence (DCI), and its longest-serving director to date. - As head of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) during the early Cold War, he oversaw the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, Operation Ajax, the Lockheed U-2 aircraft program and the Bay of Pigs Invasion. - His older brother, John Foster Dulles, was the Secretary of State during the Eisenhower Administration.

Eisenhower

- Dwight D. Eisenhower was an American army general and statesman who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 to 1961. - During World War II, he was a five-star general in the United States Army and served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe. - In his presidency, Eisenhower's main goals were to contain the expansion of the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. - In 1953, he threatened the use of nuclear weapons until China agreed to peace terms in the Korean War. China did agree and an armistice resulted that remains in effect. - His New Look policy of nuclear deterrence prioritized inexpensive nuclear weapons while reducing funding for expensive Army divisions.

Cuban Missile Crisis

- In May 1960, Khrushchev began to ship ballistic missiles to Cuba and technicians to operate them. - In 1962, The missile preparations were confirmed when an Air Force U-2 spy plane produced clear photographic evidence of the Soviet's missile facilities. - After extensive consultation with his foreign policy and military advisers, Kennedy blockaded Cuba on October 22, 1962. - The two sides stood on the brink of nuclear war, but Khrushchev capitulated six days later and the missiles were dismantled. In return, Kennedy disbanded its own missile sites in Turkey.

Iron Triangle

- In United States politics, the iron triangle comprises the policy-making relationship among the congressional committees, the bureaucracy, and interest groups. Each group does some action that will help the other group, creating a lasting and unbreakable bond between the three. - Precisely, it includes the armed services and Pentagon bureaucracy, congressmen and senators who are seeking to create jobs in their district and defence contractors (Boeing, Northrop, GM, etc.) - Or "quadrangle": the big research universities: UC Berkeley, MIT, JHU.

Flexible Response

- Outlined by Sec. of Defense McNamara, consists of 3 parts. - Kennedy's response to Eisenhower's New Look and massive retaliation. - Flexible response calls for strengthening US's capability for conventional forces and raise the threshold before resorting to nuclear response. Deterrence at cheaper cost than fully militarizing the US society; calls for building more precise missiles that can target military and industrial targets. - If nuclear threshold were to be reached, calls for an all out attack on Soviet. - If attacked first by the Soviet, US needs to secure second strike capability: build up of SLBM (submarine launched ballistic missile). - While this strategy was mounted as a defensive strategy, Khrushchev interpreted it as an offensive strategy and responded it to it by building up first strike capability

Dean Acheson

- Secretary of State under Truman; Stood behind Alger Hiss; Principle author of NSC-68 with Nitze; A quote from Acheson, "NSC-68 was intended to bludgeon the mass mind of top government."

Bay of Pigs

- The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the CIA-sponsored military group. - The invasion had been debated within JFK administration before it was finally approved and carried out. - They intended to overthrow the increasingly communist government of Fidel Castro. - On April, 1961, the Cubans trained by the United States principally landed at the bay of pigs and was defeated by Castro's troop.

Shanghai Communique issue of Taiwan

-A joint statement summarizing the agreements between Richard Nixon and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai - Set into motion the process of normalizing relations between US and China - This was the first time an American president went to China - Tensions between the PRC and Soviet Union - US saw it as a opportunity to be closer to PRC and make Soviets more malleable and the PRC may put pressure on Communist North Vietnam (to who they were providing aid) to concede - but PRC maintained support for North and US for South -PRC pushed for united Korea, whereas US only for "relaxation" of tensions - Both sides called for peace between the East and the West - But there was an issue with Taiwan: PRC said it would not begin diplomatic relations with US unless US cut diplomatic ties with Taiwan. Nixon promised to reduce American military presence in Taiwan. Importance: Set the stage for reversal of US policy toward China.

Richard Nixon

-Elected in 1968 -President from 1969 to 1974 - Republican (represented a Republican shift, with the exception of Jimmy Carter, Republicans ran the administration until 1992)-ran on pledge of restoring law and order and ending the war in Vietnam (promised "peace with honor") - won by a silent majority (the middle class fearful of radical social change)- conservative Cold War Warrior - Domestically the administration pursued a continuation of LBJ's reforms (although Nixon was no fan of Democratic social programs) but internationally they kept US preeminence at a lower cost than in the past. His administration negotiated a ceasefire in 1973.- He also dealt with a period of stagflation (combination of wage stagnation and price inflation). In an attempt to improve this, he took the dollar off the gold standard. He resigned in 1974 after evidence that he had directed FBI to cover up an investigation into his supporters' illegal activities @ the Watergate office. He had a tendency to believe everyone is plotting against him

Foreign Affairs Article

-Published in October 1967 issue of Foreign Affairs Magazine- Authored by Nixon - Titled "Asia after Viet Nam" - In the article, Nixon revealed for the first time in a public forum the ideas about dealing with China that he would begin acting on when he was elected President the following year.- "we simply cannot afford to leave China outside the family of nations"- Nixon

Halford Mackinder

1904, European civilization is outcome of Asian powers pushing west and western naval power. 1904 essay titled "Geographical pivot of history" → the basic premise: what is the connection between history and geography? European civilization is the outcome of an endless struggle between asiatic landpower pushing west, and western sea power trying to contain this pressure from the east. He argued the base of asiatic landpower has been called the pivot area (based in Siberia and Mongolia) and it was an impregnable fortress as it was not accessible to sea power. The 400 year advantage that western sea power has had is coming to an end Mackinder argued due to the development of railroads.

Berlin

1948-1949: Blockade & airlift. 1961 Crisis: wall built.

Plaza Accord/Agreement

1985 agreement by France, West Germany, Japan, US, UK to depreciate the USD

John Foster Dulles

A Republican, he served as United States Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. - As Secretary of State, Dulles concentrated on building and strengthening Cold War alliances, most prominently the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. - He also helped instigate the 1953 Iranian coup d'état and the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état. - He favoured a strategy of massive retaliation in response to Soviet aggression, and nuclear "brinksmanship", to deter Communist aggression as in Korea in 1950. - Along with Eisenhower, he promoted West European unity; NSC 162/2 "the new look", calls for cuts in US conventional forces.

Plaza Hotel Agreement

Agreement among G-5 leaders to bring about a "soft landing" for the already declining US dollar

Jackson-Vanik amendment

Amendment to the Trade act of 1974 - Sponsored by Henry Jackson and Charles Vanik -Signed in by Ford -stated that in order to receive benefits of normal trade relations with US, non market economies, must comply with free emigration policies and exposing extra tax on emigration / exit visas (include. Most Favored Nation status) - Crafted to put pressure on Soviet Union for human rights abuses - Instrumental in reducing barriers to Soviet Jewish emigration - The trigger was the "diploma tax" issued by Moscow in 1972 (required world-be emigrants to pay to higher education before leaving) - Moscow agreed to not issue diploma tax but did not change legislation - After 1974 Stevenson Amendment (limiting credits to Soviet Union to $300 million), Soviet Union repudiated the trade agreement

Committee on Present Danger

American foreign policy interest group / hawkish advocacy group - goal to "stiffen American resolve to confront the challenge presented by terrorism and the ideologies that drive it" through education and advocacy. - Pushed for larger defence budgets and arms build up to counter Soviet Union - led by Eugene Rostow -B10 wanted to alert the nation to the Soviet 'present danger' - push to adopt NSC-68 - Reemergence of the group in 70s - grew out of Team B (Richard Pipes, Nitze, Wolf, Shifter etc) - political base led by Henry Jackson - US had a moral obligation to eradicate communism and foster democracy worldwide - conservatives, neoconservatives and democratic hawks -detente was a failure -only way to deal with hegemony = armed confrontation - insisted Soviets had far greater strides in striking power of nuclear arsenal

Alexander Hamilton

American founding father & 1st Secretary of the Treasury. Promoted Federalist point of view: 1) strong, autonomous executive; 2) Sound national finances; 3) professional army and navy; 4) organized national effort to fulfill the potential of the U.S. (including import-substituting industrialization). Disagreed with Thomas Jefferson.

Thomas Jefferson

American founding father, 3rd President of the US, 2nd Vice President, 1st Secretary of State, Democrat Republican party. Promoted: 1) Protection of individual liberty (Bill of Rights); 2) National defense based on a civilian militia (standing armies were bad); 3) War powers in the hands of the people & their elected representatives; 4) A society of sturdy landowners (low tariffs/free trade, easy credit, favoring farmers and those in debt). Disagreed w/ Alexander Hamilton.

Pentagon Papers

Documents that revealed that the US government had lied to Congress and the American people about the scope of the Vietnam War—The Military leaked them - Nixon became obsessed with maintaining secrecy in his administration. He employed a group of aides that he called "plumbers" in order to plug any further leaks

George F. Kennan

Drafted outline of containment policy. Long Telegram. George Kennan (director of the Policy Planning Staff 1947-49) and is known as the main architect of the "containment" idea.

Jimmy Carter

Elected in 1976- Served as President 1977-81 no coherent foreign policy until 1979, Carter's Policy: SIgned SALT II and Withdrawal of SALT from consideration by senate, 5% increase in defense spending, Carter Doctrine to defend Saudi Arabia, Reinstitution of draft-registration -confronted persistent stagflation -Iran Hostage Crisis

Yalta Conference

Feb 1945: US, UK, USSR meeting discussing Germany & Europe's postwar reorganization

Castro

Fidel Alejandro Castro was a Cuban Communist revolutionary and politician who governed the Republic of Cuba as Prime Minister from 1959 to 1976 and then as President from 1976 to 2008. - A Marxist-Leninist and Cuban nationalist, Castro also served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from 1961 until 2011. - Under his administration, Cuba became a one-party communist state, while industry and business were nationalized and state socialist reforms were implemented throughout society.

James Forrestal

First Secretary of Defense, appointed by Truman in 1947; During 1948 Elections, Forrestal believes Truman will lose the election and makes a packed with Dewey for Sec Def. Truman wins and fires Forrestal. Forrestal commits suicide in 1949.

Big Four (4)

Four top leaders at the post WWI Paris Peace Conference (1919) that resulted in the Treaty of Versailles: PM George Clemenceau (France), PM David Lloyd George (UK), President Woodrow Wilson (US), PM Vittorio Eanuele Orlando (Italy)

Conservative nationalism (or non-internationalism)

Healthy form: a sense of financial and strategic limits. Unhealthy form: an obsession with sovereignty; xenophobia. John Adams, John Quincy Adams (Monroe Doctrine), America First, Robert Taft.. and Donald Trump?

Conservative internationalism (realism)

Healthy form: an appreciation of the enduring role of force. Unhealthy form: militarism; belief that the means justify the ends. Alexander Hamilton, Lincoln, T. Roosevelt, Nitze

Liberal Internationalism (Wilsonianism)

Healthy form: concern with threats to liberty and peace abroad; preserving a rule-based order. Unhealthy form: hubris; "political solipsism". Thomas Jefferson, Woodrow Wilson, Cordell Hull, FDR, Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton

Liberal reformism (or non-internationalism)

Healthy form: desire to promote liberty and equal opportunity in the US. Unhealthy form: a lack of concern w/ the outside world. George McGovern & those who opposed US involvement in WWI, WWI, & Vietnam

Robert Mundell Trilemma

Impossible to have fixed exchange rates, free capital flows, and an autonomous monetary policy at the same time. Best illustrated by Germany's situation in the 1960s.

Watergate Scandel

In June 1972, allegations emerged that Nixon loyalists wiretapped the Democratic National Committee office in the Watergate building to spy on Democratic nominee George McGovern presidential campaign. ( In other words, a group of spies with ties to Nixon was caught attempting to place listening devices in the office).Tapes showed that Nixon forbid the FBI from investigating the incident- he refused to turn over tapes of his conversations, citing "executive privilege"to not reveal confidential White House information - an obvious obstruction of justice. At first, there was little solid information linking the "burglars" to the president and Nixon won the 1972 election against McGovern. However, reporters for the Washington Post ( Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein) kept reporting on it. They received tips from "Deep Throat" (later revealed to be FBI Deputy Director Mark Felt).In 1974, Nixon handed over the tapes as he faced impeachment. They confirmed he ordered the FBI not to investigate - He resigned in August 1974. His VP Gerald Ford took over. Ford pardoned Nixon for his charges.

The Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty (SALT)

Moscow Talks re Soviet willingness for detent, May 1972- Signed by Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev- Agreement to reduce the number of nuclear missiles in their arsenals - aimed at restraining arms race in strategic (long-range / intercontinental) ballistic missiles armed with nuclear weapons. - First suggested by Lyndon Johnson in 1967 - Treaty on Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Systems (limited each side to only one ABM deployment area and 100 missiles) and the Interim Agreement (froze the number of ICBMs and submarine-launched ballistic missiles for 5 years) and Protocol on Limitation of Strategic Offensive Weapons. - was approved by Congress in joint resolution

Basic Principle Agreement

Moscow Talks re Soviet willingness for detente - Signed May 26 1972 - leaders Nixon and Brezhnev agreed on 12 fundamental principles to underpin superpower relations. For example: (1) Superpower Peaceful co-existence 2) Recognition of eachother 3) Restrain at times of crisis 4) Avoid confrontation. It was also agreed for a Joint Commercial Commission and trade details were negotiation. Important because it was the first series of rules governing the relations of the Superpowers and made the relationship more stable.

NSC 162-2

NSC 162/2 was a policy paper of the United States National Security Council approved by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on 1953. It defined the Cold War national security policy during the Eisenhower administration. NSC 162/2 stated that the United States needs to maintain "a strong military posture, with emphasis on the capability of inflicting massive retaliatory damage by offensive striking power", and that, in the event of hostilities, the United States "will consider nuclear weapons as available for use as other munitions."

SALT 2

Negonications opened in 1972 and took 7 years- Signed June 18, 1979 - Signed by Jimmy Carter and Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev- "Strategic Arms Limitation Talks" - Signed in Vienna - Issues of difference in strategic forces (USSR concentrated on large warheads whereas US concentrated on smaller missiles of greater accuracy) - Treaty limits # of strategic launchers (i.e. missiles with multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs)) - Limited about 2400 weapons systems for each side - Treaty was removed from Senate consideration in 1980 after Soviet invasion of Afghanistan caused tensions

New Look Policy

New Look, U.S. military strategy developed by the administration of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower and articulated in a 1953 National Security Council paper. - The policy focused on the use of nuclear weapons and was intended as a way for the United States to meet its Cold War military obligations without putting too much strain on the country's economy. - The New Look strategy decreased expenditures for the army and navy in favour of increased expenditures for the air force and for nuclear weaponry. The policy, which relied heavily on the capacity for strategic bombing, depended on the asymmetrical threat to respond to provocations by the Soviet Union with massive retaliation. - the New Look policy focused on strengthening ties to U.S. allies and courting nonaligned countries. It also envisioned covert operations undertaken by the Central Intelligence Agency to undermine Soviet control over countries within its orbit.

Harry Hopkins

Part of FDR camp, pro-USSR, architect of New Deal & Lend-Lease, foreign policy advisor during WWII

Four (4) policemen

Post-WWII powers proposed by FDR to preserve world peace: US, UK, USSR, China. During the 1930s some believed that the two systems were growing less antagonistic if not actually converging. There was a widespread belief that the Soviet Union was a vast market for Western goods and technology. Commerce would foster friendlier relations. Constituencies would develop in the USSR. Roosevelt in 1941-3 spoke of the "Four Policemen" the United States, USSR, Britain and China who would keep the world at peace.

Fourteen (14) Points

President Wilson's Fourteen Points were an effort to build a democratic conglomerate of states that would work together to ease barriers to trade, eliminate European balance of power conflicts, and create a league of nations. This league was to be led by US example and practice Wilsonian principles of liberal internationalism. Wilsonian principles call for states to not only work to improve themselves, but also to work to improve the international order. The US never took part in the league of nations because it could not be ratified by US Congress.

Woodrow Wilson

President of the US 1913-1921. Championed the League of Nations (never passed in Senate). Author of the Fourteen (14) points (in January 1918): among them, self-determination, freedom of the sea, open world economy, abolishing the European balance of power (the League of Nations), American leadership. "The world must be made safe for democracy" (In April 1917). His outlook shares an assumption of a democratic peace argument and 'the end of history' claim.

Paul H. Nitze

Right-wing proponent of NSC-68. Paul H. Nitze chairs the study group, founds SAIS in 1943, he was a close friend and protege of James Forrestal. NSC-68, the hidden psychological agenda, is to carry out Forrestal's legacy. What does NSC-68 say: existence of 2 atomic arsenals puts a premium on a soviet attack to the United States. The Soviet's may also want to expand in Europe, West Berlin specifically → the very possibility of this happening undermines confidence in the United States. NSC-68 predicts, that by 1954, Soviet Union would have at least 200 bombs of the Nagasaki type to launch an attack against the United States. "Window of vulnerability." Basic theme running through his career: growing soviet strength, raising the risk of a nuclear surprise attack, and undermining credibility of US promise to defend europe. Build conventional forces in West so you don't solely rely on nuclear weapons. Building hydrogen bomb (acheson and nitze supported this idea that came earlier). Means to deliver nuclear weapons. Late 1950s Nitze argued that there was a missile gap, that the soviet Union had a bigger arsenal of weapons. In 1970s he argued that the US had an imminent window of vulnerability. The mere ability to do this allows the Soviet Union to blackmail the United States. His arguments are based on Kennan;s long telegram, rather than the Mr.X.

McNamara

Robert Strange McNamara was an American business executive and the eighth United States Secretary of Defence, serving from 1961 to 1968 under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. - McNamara became a close adviser to Kennedy and advocated the use of a blockade during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Kennedy and McNamara instituted a Cold War defence strategy of flexible response, which anticipated the need for military responses short of massive retaliation. - He played a major role in escalating the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War.

Louis Johnson

Second Secretary of Defense (1949-1950) under Truman, and following Forrestal's firing; Wanted to decrease military spending

Louvre Agreement

Secret agreement to put a floor under dollar's fall and create a managed floating system - This would've been a move back toward the Bretton Woods system -No party willing to let an exchange rate target dictate domestic fiscal and monetary policies -Agreement abandoned after "Black Monday" on Wall Street.

NATO

Seucrity alliance to keep the US in Europe, the USSR out, and the Germans down. Kennan thought it was a mistake. Article 5: the parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs each of them in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defense recognized by article 51 of the Charter of the UN.

1972 Trade Agreement

Soviet Union and US signed a trade agreement in Moscow in October 1972- In 1971 trade was "trivial" but began to rise. Trade in 1972-74 was double what it was in. 1969-71 -But in Jan 1975 the Soviet Union announced that it would not agree to put the trade agreement into formal effect as they claimed the Jackson-Vanik Amendment on emigration violated the terms of the agreement and so they voided it. Since trade stagnated

Sputnik

Sputnik 1 was the first artificial Earth satellite. - The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October 1957. - It sowed panic in the US.

Charles Bohlen

Suceeded Kennan as US Ambassador to USSR, thought USSR threat exaggerated, but promoted action

Potsdam Conference

The Potsdam Conference (German: Potsdamer Konferenz) was held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm in Potsdam, occupied Germany, from 17 July to 2 August 1945. (In some older documents, it is also referred to as the Berlin Conference of the Three Heads of Government of the USSR, USA, and UK) The participants were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States, represented by Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin, Prime Ministers Winston Churchill and Clement Attlee, and President Harry S. Truman. Stalin, Churchill, and Truman gathered to decide how to administer Germany, which had agreed to unconditional surrender nine weeks earlier on 8 May (Victory in Europe Day) The goals of the conference also included the establishment of postwar order, peace treaty issues, and countering the effects of the war.

Window of Vulnerability

The decline of détente in second half of 1970s brought a nuclear arms race - assumed that the Soviets will gain the capability to destroy the majority of US ICBM force by firing as few as 210 of their 1400 ICBMs. - a perceived Soviet advantage in ICBM throw weight (if Soviets strike first, Us would be unable to retaliate because Soviets would have enough missiles to respond)- This perceived vulnerability influenced US to seek more land-based missiles - However, from the early 1980s to the mid/late 1980s before the US could gain adequate number of missiles for retaliation = considered "window of vulnerability" that Soviet Union could exploit, if not to attack than by influence

Missile Gap

The missile gap was the Cold War term used in the US for the perceived superiority of the number and power of the USSR's missiles in comparison with its own. - Following Soviet intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) testing in August 1957 and the successful launch of Sputnik in October, the United States began to believe that the Soviet Union possessed superior missile capability that directly threatened the continental U.S. - Members of the administration of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower feared that if the United States did not reassess its nuclear posture and regain a comparative advantage in weapons capability, it would not be able to deter a Soviet missile attack.

George C. Marshall

US Secretary of State under Truman, announced European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan), also Army Chief of Staff during WWII and Secretary of Defense in early 50s after Louis Johnson

Containment

US policy towards USSR during Cold War. Outlined by Kennan in Long Telegram. "Containment" defined as "policy of calculated and gradual coercion" to "roll back" soviet power and win cold war before 1954 "the year of maximum danger." NSC-68 a behind closed door, top-secret document. (neither Republicans and Democrats are pushing for defense spending at the time). Containment provided a conceptual framework for a series of successful initiatives undertaken from 1947 to 1950 to blunt Soviet expansion.

Truman Doctrine

US response to crises in northern tier, Greece, Turkey, to support free peoples resisting. "It must be the policy of the United States who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure." -The moment where US becomes a containing power. Key milestone of America's involvement in the middle east and eastern mediterranean. The doctrine sets a precedent to US commitments to other areas which have not been considered vital before WWII.

Nikita S. Khrushchev

USSR Premier 1958-1964. 1956 "Secret Speech" denounced Stalin's purges. JFK counterpart during Cuban Missile Crisis.

Turkish Straits crisis

USSR wanted naval base in Mediterranean. Fear of UK-USSR conflict. US rejected USSR demands, USSR backed off

Douglas MacArthur

WWII and Korean War General; Commander for UN Troops during Korean War; September 15, 1950, Miraculous landing of US forces in Inchon, MacArthur's great victory; Was fired by Truman for critizing Truman's strategy in letter to Congress.

Henry "Scoop" Jackson

Washington Senator 1953=83 (Previously a US representative) for Washington - Cold War liberal -anti communist - Supported higher military spending and a harder line against Soviet Union - opposed détente - His political positions influenced a number of key figures associated with neoconservatism (e. Paul Wolfowitz, Richard Perle, etc)

Alger Hiss

Worked for the State Department; Accused of being a Soviet Spy and convicted in 150 of perjury; The conviction turned people on Acheson who claimed he would not turn his back on Alger Hiss; McCarthy made his famous speech two weeks after the Hiss verdict.

Bureaucratic or Gov't Politics model

agencies compete for influence with president as mediator, lay lead to potentially harmful insitutional loyalty and lack of inter-agencycooperation

Operation Desert Shield + Storm

agreement to defend Saudi Arabia, buildup of troops during the First Gulf War; Storm was the combat portion of the operation, coalition of 35 nations invading/fighting Iraq in response to its annexation of Kuwait; helped to solidify the leadership of the president in foreign policy and war

Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004

creation of ODNI (new leader of the Intelligence Community and demotion of CIA chief)

Goldwater-Nichols Defense Dept. Re-org. Act of 1896

elevates chair of Joint Chiefs of Staff to role of principal military advisor to the pres., created unified commands presided over by officers reporting directly to the SecDef and pres

Gov't Organization model

governments are conglomerates of individual orgs offering pre-programmed responses to problems

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

passed Aug 1964, repealed in 1970 due to unpopularity of Vietnam War; authorized LBJ to use conventional military forces without a declaration of war in Southeast Asia (Vietnam War), blank checks/no limits on use of force - left solely to the pres's discretion

War Powers Resolution 1973

passed over Nixon's veto, meant to curb presidential power but ultimately did not; required pres to consult Congress before troop deployment, report troop deployments within 48 hours, must withdraw troops after 60-90 days without Congressional approval of an extension; Congress could pass legislative veto to bring troops home; loophole due to section 4.1A ("imminent danger" clause) enabled presidents to challenge/ignore the 60-day deadline, as Bush 41 did when invading Iraq

Rational Actor model

state is a unitary actor/black box acting rationally

National Security Act of 1947

unified DoD (War and Navy), independent Air Force, created National Security Council and CIA, led to decline in power of State Dept but more elaborate bureaucracy

Authorization for the Use of Military force (AUMF)

warrant to use military force (left to the pres.'s discretion) against al-Qaeda and its allies, passed overwhemingly under Bush 43 on 14 Sept 2001, never updated or revoked, effectively gave the president greater foreign policy/wartime powers

Graham Allison

wrote about the three decision-making models - rational actor, government organization, and bureaucratic/ government politics model