American Presidency Chapter 12

1. According to the "Return of the Honeymoon" article, what is beat sweetening? Can the authors say definitively whether or not it happens? (2 points)

Beat sweetening is when the media's honeymoon period for a president lasts a long time. It is shown in the positive tone of the stories portrayed about a president or its administration. President Obama's first year in office was portrayed in a better light than the past three presidents. It is also when there are longer-term working relationships between journalists and politicians. ("Return of the Honeymoon").

10. Explain how the failed effort to deal with Social Security is a prime example of Kernell's worries about the negative consequences of going public. Why did the public suffer from the way the politicians handled this issue? (2 points)

Bush II used the going-public strategy to push for Social Security reform. Many politicians did not get on board with this. One reason is because the midterm elections were coming up. They did not want to get in the middle of a crosshairs battle with Social Security. One problem with this is that the president was big on proposals, but did not present many details. Democrats were able to target this flaw. The democrats were upset y the reelection, so they all gathered together to win the following election and shut down social security reform. They coined phrases to pull the public away from Bush's idea (COMMENTARY: George W. Bush and Social Security Reform).

George W. Bush and Social Security Reform and Barack Obama and Health Care Reform

Bush used going public as a strategy many times by appealing to the American people directly or through the use of surrogates. Early in his presidency, the president appealed to the public for support of a number of domestic policy initiatives, such as the No Child Left Behind Act and a series of tax cuts. The Bush II administration was especially adept at using the symbols of patriotism and the presidency to sell the presidential message on foreign policy issues. Throughout much of his presidency, Bush II used a going-public strategy to promote a number of issues. No effort was more high profile than his plan to reform Social Security. At the beginning of his second term, President Bush announced his intention to spend the political capital he felt he had gained from his reelection to support his plan to reform Social Security. You will recall from earlier in this lesson that we discussed the opinion of political scientist Samuel Kernell that going public is counterproductive for policy making in Washington. Kernell's argument on this subject is quite compelling, and the consequences of going public, as he sees them, can be illustrated by Bush II's experience in using going public to support his Social Security plan. Bush's campaign to reform Social Security in 2005 was a massive presidential effort at going public, and it was run much like a political campaign in tone. Calling the effort a campaign is appropriate because the president, fresh off of his reelection in 2004, used many of the same techniques to promote his reform plan that he had used during his run for reelection. The president's Social Security campaign was aggressive, and it is a good example of how members of Congress can respond (negatively) when a president goes public. It is also a good example of Kernell's greatest fears about the effect that going public can have on the debate over an important issue of public policy.

Reagan with Deaver and other Staffers

Deaver understood production values, and he used them to Reagan's advantage through Reagan's very last public appearance: his funeral. The funeral, broadcast on national television, took place with the sun setting just at the right time, overlooking the Pacific Ocean. The service was choreographed by Deaver. The funeral was an extraordinary moment. Reagan's sentimental legend was overwhelming, and Deaver had much to do with that.

America's Ownership Society

During the campaign in 2004, President Bush began to talk about Social Security reform again. It was part of a larger package of reforms he called "America's Ownership Society." The guiding principle behind all of the president's proposed reforms was that people needed to have a stake in the future of the country and take ownership (responsibility) of their futures. In addition to reforming Social Security to include personal retirement accounts, he also proposed a diverse array of programs, including health savings accounts, tax cuts to encourage entrepreneurship, and programs to encourage private saving for retirement. Although members of Congress—especially Democrats but also many Republicans—were wary about Social Security reform, it remained a part of the president's reelection platform. It was not central to the campaign, thanks to several other pressing issues that formed the basis for most of the debate, such as the war in Iraq, the war on terrorism, and what was perceived to be a sluggish economy, but the president did not forget about it.

Early Historical Norms:

Early Historical Norms: We must remember from our earlier lessons that the framers' construction of our government reflected a strong distrust of popular leadership (demagoguery) by presidents, and the system was designed partially to protect against it.

Explain why Kernell feels going public is harmful to the public policy-making process.

He feels that it causes people to take public positions that oversimplify issues and cement people in place. Politicians do not feel they can negotiate because they have taken a public position and do not want to be accused of being wishy-washy.

1. What did Johnson do on the first day he was president that demonstrated his understanding of the power of television? (1 point)

He had the cameras on the runway as Kennedy's casket came out of the plane. He used this to give his first live television address as president. It gave him the opportunity to honor the former president. It showed that the government was stable and would continue to function (COMMENTARY: Lyndon Johnson).

1. What are the reasons many scholars give to argue that JFK was our first television president? Explain your answer. (2 points)

He is the first president to fully understand the power of television and adequately use it. He understood that image was crucial and necessary. He also put Jackie on camera because Americans really did like her. He was also the first president to hold live press conferences. He came off comfortable and at ease (COMMENTARY: John Kennedy).

8. In four to five sentences, explain how Reagan used going public as part of his strategy to get the 1985 budget and tax code reform legislation passed. (2 points)

He used going public to pressure Democrats to go along with his economic plans. Reagan would broadcast a radio address to urge Congress members to cooperate with the budget. He wasn't going public yet, but Democrats knew it was a matter of time before he did. The president used the public as a way to bargain with Democrats to sign on. For the tax reform act, Reagan also did threaten to go public. He did allow some information to leak, as a way to threaten going public (COMMENTARY: Ronald Reagan and Going Public).

Ronald Reagan

If Nixon established many of the models, Reagan perfected them. Reagan was a consummate television performer. While Nixon and his staff developed ways to use television to connect with the American people, Nixon still had a way about him that many people found off-putting. This was not a problem for Ronald Reagan. Reagan was dramatically different in the message he delivered and in the way he delivered it from any of his recent predecessors. More than any other president since Roosevelt, Ronald Reagan excelled in rallying public opinion behind presidential policies, and he did so with a very tightly controlled media strategy that emphasized simple, positive messages; public appearances that made the president look visually appealing; and limited access for reporters to the president. Much of Reagan's communication legacy was due to his natural ability to play to the camera, but Reagan owed much of his strategy for when and how to use his natural abilities to a key adviser—Michael Deaver. According to Reagan biographer Edmund Morris, Deaver played the role of producer for Reagan. Deaver understood that Reagan needed to be seen in full body if possible, because his body was impressive. The many clips of Reagan at work chopping wood or riding horses on his ranch were Deaver's idea.

Richard Nixon

If you will recall from Lesson 6, the case was made that the real first TV president was Richard Nixon, because of the many patterns he established, which have been continued by each of his successors. Nixon was the first to use television to overcome a political crisis, with the Checkers speech in 1952, when he was running for the vice presidency. He was the first to take advantage of late night and entertainment television to improve his image. He established structures and patterns as president, designed to control media coverage and his image, that every president since him as duplicated. In many ways, the model of how to be president in the age of visual media was established by Nixon. Please review Lesson 6 for more specific details.

. Jeff Tulis

In his book, Tulis suggests that when presidents began to assert themselves publicly to sell policy proposals to the American people, beginning with Teddy Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, it had the effect of creating a "new" Constitution. He writes that since the presidency of Teddy Roosevelt, mass rhetoric has become a principal tool of presidential governance as presidents regularly go over the heads of the members of Congress to speak directly to the people, seeking support for legislation and other initiatives. He calls this the rhetorical presidency. More importantly, he argues that the doctrine that a president ought to be a popular leader has become an unquestioned premise of our political culture. Tulis writes that the rhetorical presidency is a profound development in American politics. The framers were opposed to the idea of an outspoken president, and before the twentieth century, congressional leaders also strongly opposed the idea of an outspoken president. The emergence of rhetorical presidents marked a change in the American meaning of governance. Tulis suggests that we have had two constitutional presidencies. The first imposed restrictions on the president through the separation of powers, and the second, more current, restriction is the one in which presidents try to govern by putting a premium on active and continuous presidential leadership of public opinion.

1. According to Kernell, going public has a negative effect on policy. What are the reasons for this? (2 points)

Kernell argues that when a president goes to the public for policy-making it changes the balance of power. He says this is not what the founders had in mind. When the president goes public, this forces other politicians to go public as well. The other politicians then need to simplify policy. He argues that this is negative because it creates oversimplification. He also argues that it makes the bargaining positions of policy makers more difficult (COMMENTARY: Going Public).

Harry Truman and Dwight Eisenhower

Like Roosevelt, Truman and Eisenhower served as a new medium—television—came into its own. Truman gave some speeches on television and was the first president to give a televised State of the Union address. (Calvin Coolidge was the first president to give the State of the Union address on radio.) The 1952 campaign, when Eisenhower was elected, was the first to feature televised campaign commercials. Eisenhower was also the first president to permit his news conferences to be televised. They were not broadcast live, and Eisenhower was usually stiff and uncomfortable, but he recognized that television was a new, powerful way to communicate with the American people.

Lyndon Johnson

Lyndon Johnson was also familiar with the power of television. He did not have Kennedy's charisma, but that did not prevent him from using television as a way to communicate with the American people. From the first day of his presidency, Lyndon Johnson demonstrated an understanding of the communications power of television. On the day John Kennedy was assassinated, Johnson flew back to Washington, DC, from Texas and ordered television cameras to be waiting on the runway when he got off the plane as Kennedy's casket was unloaded in the background. He used the opportunity to give his first live television address as president. The brief speech was meant to assure the American people and the rest of the world that, although a terrible tragedy had just occurred, the government was stable and would continue to function. Johnson was the first president to deliver the State of the Union address to the nation during prime time. These appearances began in a similar vein to his other televised appeals—he was promoting the United States' role in Vietnam. As the war continued, however, Johnson's television appearances became more defensive in nature. When watching the tapes of his appeals, it is possible to see how hard he was trying to get Americans to see things his way. Part of the problem for Johnson was that he truly believed that opposing a communist victory in Vietnam would help prevent the spread of communism. Unfortunately, his twin desires to create the Great Society and end the spread of communism led him to deceive the American people with falsified data about American casualties, enemy casualties, and the progress of the war, because he feared that if people knew the real costs of the war, that knowledge would cause them to stop supporting his expensive social programs. The depth of his dishonesty to the American people was revealed by the publication of the Pentagon Papers report in the early 1970s.

John Kennedy

Many scholars argue that the country's real first television president was John Kennedy. This consensus comes from the fact that he was the first president to fully understand the power of television as a communication medium, much like Roosevelt did with radio. Kennedy understood that image was important and that television was the best way to promote his image. Kennedy understood camera angles and how to look as good as possible on television. He knew the popular appeal of his young, beautiful wife, Jackie, and got her on camera as much as possible, along with the rest of his camera-friendly family. Kennedy was the first president to hold live press conferences on television, and he came across as witty and very much at ease. Kennedy used television to both appear presidential and come across as a "regular guy." It is a combination that few presidents have been able to pull off.

9. In the commentary, it is argued that Richard Nixon is the real first TV president. What are the reasons given for this assertion? (2 points)

Nixon was the first president to use television to overcome a political crisis. He used his checkers speech. He also was the first president to take advantage of late night and entertainment television. This was a way for Nixon to control his image (COMMENTARY: Richard Nixon).

Define political capital and explain how Neustadt felt presidents might use it.

Political capital is public approval of the president. Neustadt felt the main way for presidents to succeed was to bargain with other policy makers, but he also felt that he could use public approval as a way to improve his bargaining advantage with other Washington policy makers.

Compare and contrast Ronald Reagan's use of going public with that of George W. Bush. Why was Reagan so much more effective in getting Congress to do what he wanted with tax reform and the budget than Bush was with Social Security reform?

Reagan occasionally went public during the process of producing policy, but he also understood that negotiating with the members of Congress was a necessary part of the process. In this, Reagan rather brilliantly made going public part of the bargaining process itself. Bush, on the other hand, ran into Democrats who were just as willing to go public as he was, and it resulted in killing the negotiation process and making winning a temporary political victory more important than dealing with a serious policy issue such as Social Security. With Bush, Kernell's worst predictions about going public came true. The regularity with which recent presidents have sought public backing for their policies has altered the way politicians inside and outside the White House regard the president. Negotiation is no longer the primary consideration for those who do business with presidents, and it has permanently changed the way business in Washington is done.

1. Describe Ronald Reagan's presidential media strategy. (1 point)

Reagan was able to rally public opinion. He did this with very tight control over the media and strategized simple, positive messages. His public appearances ake the president look visually appealing to the American people. He also has a natural ability to play the camera (COMMENTARY: Ronald Reagan).

Explain how Franklin Roosevelt and John Kennedy used national media to communicate effectively with the American people.

Roosevelt was the first president to effectively use radio, the first national medium. He used it to communicate messages to the American people that calmed and encouraged them, first with the Great Depression and then with the New Deal. Kennedy was the first president to understand how to effectively appear on television in a way that made him attractive to the public. He managed to project an image that had more of an impact on the public than his actual performance as president.

1. What are America's two constitutional presidencies, according to Tulis? (1 point)

The first constitutional presidency put restrictions on the president through the separation of powers. The second is where presidents try to govern by putting a premium on active and continuous presidential leadership of public. (COMMENTARY: Going Public).

What does Tulis mean when he argues that we have had two constitutional presidencies? When did the second constitutional presidency begin?

The first presidency imposed restrictions on the president through the separation of powers, and the second—and current—presidency is one in which presidents try to govern by putting a premium on active and continuous presidential leadership of public opinion. What Tulis argues is that when presidents began going public because they wanted to promote a policy agenda, it permanently changed the policy-making process and the balance of power in our government, making it something that is fundamentally different from the system that the framers created. In the framers' minds, Congress was where policy was supposed to originate. In the twentieth century, Tulis argues, the birthplace of policy ideas shifted from the Congress to the White House. In his book, Tulis argues that we do not live under the same system of government that the country began with.

11. According to the "President" vs. "president" article, list and briefly define each of the four categories of publications, based on their use of lower and uppercase spelling of "President." (4 points)

The four publications are relegators, modulators, vacillators and preservers. Relegators are publications where the authors changed "President" to "president" during the Nixon or Ford administrations. They broke tradition. Modulators are authors where it switched from "President" to "president" after the Ford administration. They follow the relegators and go with the grammatical flow. Preservers are publications that consistently used "president" before and during and after the Nixon and Ford administrations. They maintained the integrity of the political symbol. Vacillators switched back and forth between "President" and "president" before, during, or after the Nixon/Ford administrations. They could have used both words in the same publication (Is It "President" or "president" of the United States?)

Franklin Roosevelt

The next president to make a major contribution to the presidential communications revolution was Franklin Roosevelt. Roosevelt was not the first president to have a truly national medium available to him—radio—but he was the first to take full advantage of it as a way of speaking to the American public. In this sense, Roosevelt was the first president to truly "go public." Roosevelt used radio out of what he felt was political necessity. Roosevelt received harsh criticism in the editorial sections of many of the nation's newspapers, which suggested that many of his New Deal programs were socialist or, even worse, communist. To counter this, Roosevelt turned to radio. Using his famous "fireside chats," Roosevelt was able to develop an intimate relationship with millions of Americans. He used his addresses on the radio, which brought him directly into the living rooms of millions of Americans, first to soothe their concerns about the Great Depression and then to rally people during World War II.

What is wrong with the public opinion techniques used by Clinton during his presidency?

The problem with using techniques, such as public opinion polls and focus groups to test policy proposals, is that the president becomes risk averse. Rather than make innovative policy proposals, presidents who rely on these techniques introduce only policies they are sure will win. It is not real leadership in the way we have come to expect presidents to lead. Rather than making a stand on a policy issue, presidents that use these tactics let themselves be led by the public.

Explain the nineteenth-century perspective about the appropriate public role for presidents to play.

There was a general understanding during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, including Washington's presidency, that the president would not appeal directly to the people for support and that the people would not try to influence the president directly. Even with the entrance of mass political parties after Jackson, these norms stayed roughly the same. Presidents did not address Congress in person, and presidents rarely promoted their own legislative agenda in public or rallied followers on issues in Congress. Public addresses tended to be limited to patriotic speeches, constitutional analyses, war remembrances, and civic republicanism; they did not involve appeals to the public to back requests to Congress.

14. According to the "Return of the Honeymoon" article, what did Obama have during the campaign that led to more positive first-year coverage than that enjoyed by his predecessors? (1 point)

There was an aggressive courting of reporters and extensive use of paid media. Obama's campaign enjoyed a huge tonal advantage in the stories about the campaign. These reports were more positive than those of McCain ("Return of the Honeymoon").

Tulis writes that it is taken for granted that presidents have several obligations:

They have a duty to defend themselves publicly, They have a duty to promote policy initiatives nationwide, and They have a duty to inspire the American people.

third rail of American politics

This is a reference to the third rail on subway tracks, such as the Metro in Washington or the El in Chicago. The third rail is the source of electricity, and touching it can be deadly. O'Neil suggested that many members of Congress feel that if they touch Social Security, it will be the end of their political careers.

1. According to the "President" vs. "president" article, what was the impact of the decision of most publications to decapitalize the "president"? (1 point)

This was a reaction to Watergate. It was an editorial decision to decapitalize the "presidency" and "president". There was a growing trend by political scientists to "de-imperialize" the office in the wake of Watergate (Is it "President" or "president" of the United States?"

1. Tulis writes that it is now taken for granted that presidents are popular leaders with several obligations. What are those obligations? (3 points)

Tulis argues that a president has several obligations. The first one is the obligation to defend oneself publicly. They have a duty to promote policy initiatives nationwide. They also have a duty to inspire the American people (COMMENTARY: Going Public).

Woodrow Wilson

Wilson was also the first president to hold regular press conferences with the media. Although Wilson was an innovator in his use of the media, he did not welcome the media with open arms, especially after he realized that they did not have the same goals he did. As president, Wilson was in a difficult spot from a public relations perspective. He was a Democrat in a solidly Republican era. He led the country into World War I, which was against the wishes of many isolationists in the country, and he suffered a major stroke that incapacitated him for a large portion of his second term in office. During his presidency, however, he pursued an ambitious agenda that led him to a complicated relationship with the press.