AMSCO APUSH TERMS
established church
late 17th century, Churches financed through the government most colonial governments taxed the people tpo support a denomination
Phillis Wheatley
noteworthy for her triumphs over slavery and the quality of her verse
John Bertram
of Philadelphia, America's first botanist; traveled through the frontier collecting specimens.
Law Professions
seen as talkative troublemakers, lawyers were not common in the 1600s, individuals would argue theri own cases before a colonial magistrate, as trade expanded adn legal problems became more complex people felt a need for expert assistance in court.
English Cultural domination
settlers were no longer afraid of Indian attacks so they started to return to their more "proper" way of life as people of the crown
Limited democracy
the democracy was limited because women, the poor, blacks, and slaves were not allowed to vote even though they were the majority
Town meetings
the dominant form of local government in New England people of the town would regularly come together to vote directly on public issues
Sectarian
the first colonial colleges they promoted the doctrines of a particular religious group
Aztecs
1345-1521 Aztec Empire1428-1521 Triple AllianceControlled a vast empire in Mexico through a system of trade and tribute until conquered by Cortes in 1521. Known for advances in math & writing and for human sacrifices in religious ceremonies (often captives defeated in battle).
Aztec Triple Alliance
1428, formed by 3 city states, Tenochtitlan, Tiacopan, and Tetzcoco, to rebel against the ruling state Azcapotzalco. It marked the beginning of the Aztec Empire, as Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City) became the dominant power and conquered most of S Mexico.
Henry the Navigator
(1394-1460) Portuguese prince who promoted the study of navigation and directed voyages of exploration down the western coast of Africa.
Iroquois Confederation
1142-late 1500s, alliance of 5 native American tribes (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca) in Mohawk Valley of present-day New York State led by legendary leaders Hiawatha & Deganawidah. Independent tribes who met occasionally to discuss matters of common interest, like war and defense.
Incas
1438-1532, highly advanced S American culture in Peru (and more) until conquered by Spanish / Francisco Pizarro in 1532. Spain gained immense wealth through captured Incan gold & silver, and the Potosi silver mine (a mountain of silver). Potosi silver facilitated the flow of slaves, fabric, spices and other goods across the globe, driving rampant inflation and the rise of capitalism. Incan empire and road system extended 2,500 miles along the W coast of S America from Ecuador to NW Argentina. They developed sophisticated agricultural techniques, such as terrace farming, in order to sustain large, complex societies in the unforgiving Andes Mountains (high altitudes & very steep slopes).
Christopher Columbus
1492, Italian explorer commissioned by Spain landed in West Indies. Voyage was a successful failure because he failed to find a route to Asia, but discovered for Europe the Americas/New World, two previously unknown continents, and started the Columbian Exchange, with all its good and bad effects.
Ferdinand and Isabella
1492, Spanish monarchs who completed the Reconquista and funded Columbus' 1492 voyage. Led to Columbus' discovery of the Americas/New World, and their marriage in 1469 and reign united Spain permanently.
Treaty of Tordesillas
1494, established a formal basis for claims by Spain & Portugal to the New World. Spain & Portugal agreed to settle conflicts over newly discovered/ explored lands. It divided them by a north/south (longitudinal) line drawn down the Atlantic Ocean. Spain got most of the Americas (west of the line), Portugal got Africa and Asia (east of the line). Portugal claimed Brazil when it was discovered in 1500, because its east coast lay east of the line. The treaty formalized a dividing line created by "Papal Bulls" issued by the Pope to avoid conflict between these 2 Catholic countries.
John Cabot
1497, Italian explorer who led English expeditions to explore northeastern coast of North America. Landed between Newfoundland and Nova Scotia (now Cabot Strait). He "discovered" North America as earliest European explorer to visit since Norse in Vinland in 11th century. His voyages laid groundwork for later British claim to Canada.
Conquistadores
1500s, 16th century Spanish explorers who, serving God and the Spanish monarchy and in search of gold and glory, invaded the Americas from Colorado to Argentina and conquered the Aztec and Inca empires. Included: Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Juan Ponce de Leon, Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, Hernando de Soto, Francisco Pizarro, Hernan Cortes. They sent vast amounts of silver and gold from New World to Spain which transformed the European economy, and some wed native American women and had mixed-race offspring called mestizos.
Protestant Reformation
1517, movement to reform Catholic Church launched by Martin Luther in Germany. Reformers questioned the authority of the Pope, sought to eliminate the selling of indulgences, and encouraged translation of the Bible from Latin, which few could read. In 1530s, reformation launched in England when Henry VIII broke with Catholic Church. Protestants, including Calvinists, Puritans, Huguenots, and Presbyterians, played prominently in the settlement of America and in molding colonial beliefs and values.
Hernan Cortés
1519-1521, Conquistador who defeated the Aztec Empire and claimed Mexico and all its riches for Spain. His success in defeating the Aztec empire and taking its enormous wealth inspired other conquistadors to search for other native American civilizations to conquer and exploit.
Francisco Pizarro
1534, French explorer who explored the Canadian coast and hundreds of miles up St Lawrence River. His expedition formed the basis for later French claims to North America
Jacques Cartier
1534, French explorer who explored the Canadian coast and hundreds of miles up St Lawrence River. His expedition formed the basis for later French claims to North America
New Laws of 1542
1542, "The New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of the Indians," Spanish legislation which prohibited the exploitation and enslavement of Indians. Bartolomé de Las Casas was a leading proponent. Led Spanish to seek African slaves.
Bartolomé de las Casas
1542, a conquistador who became a reform-minded Dominican friar. He worked to abolish the encomienda system and documented mistreatment of native Americans in the Spanish colonies in his 1542 book, "The Destruction of the Indies." He testified in the Valladolid Debate and was a proponent of the New Laws of 1542. His warnings and efforts had some positive effect on Spaniards' treatment of native Americans (The New Laws), but his book also was used as evidence of the "Black Legend" and an indirect effect of his efforts, the reduction in native American slaves, in turn, caused Spaniards to look elsewhere for slaves to work their Caribbean sugar plantations. They looked to Africa.
Valladolid Debate
1550-1551, in Spain, a debate about the colonization of the Americas, justification for the conversion to Catholicism, and relations between European settlers and natives in the Spanish colonies. Bartolome de las Casas vs. Juan Gines de Sepulveda debated opposing views about the way natives were to be integrated into colonial life, converted to Christianity, and their rights/obligations in Spanish colonies. It was the first formal debate in European history to discuss the rights and treatment of colonized people by colonizers, and reflected a concern for morality and justice in 16th-century Spain that didn't surface in other colonial powers until centuries later.
Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda
1550-1551, philosopher who opposed Bartolome de las Casas in Valladolid Debate, arguing that the human sacrifice of innocents, cannibalism, and other such "crimes against nature" by native Americans were unacceptable and should be suppressed by any means possible, including war.
Captain John Sith
1580-1631, Captain John Smith was an English adventurer who took control of Jamestown in 1608 adn ensured the survival of the colony by directing gold-hungry colonists toward more productive tasks. He also established ties with the Powhatan Indians through the chief's daughter, Pocahontas, who had "saved" him from a mock execution the previous year.
Roanoke Island
1585, English colonial settlement established by Sir Walter Raleigh on an island off North Carolina. The colonists disappeared without a trace in 1590.
Printing Press
15th century Renaissance invention which revolutionized the ability to print information. It accelerated the speed of the spread of information itself. A technological innovation that helped drive Age of Discovery, by quickly spreading news of explorers' voyages and discoveries.
Jamestown
1607, first successful English settlement in N America, founded by Virginia Company (joint-stock trading co). p25 1607-1609 hard times fighting or trading with Powhatans. Capt John Smith, Powhatan. 1609-1610 Powhatan stopped trading after Smith left. "Starving time" (80-90% died of hunger & disease). Lord De La Warr arrived with fleet and resupplies. 1612 John Rolfe started successful tobacco cultivation. 1614-1622 peace after Rolfe/Pocahontas marriage. 1622-1632 battles with Powhatans as English further encroach on their land. 1624 transitioned to England's first Royal Colony. Colony was near collapse and Virginia Co deeply in debt. James I revoked its charter, renamed Jamestown colony the Virginia Colony under direct royal control, with Jamestown its capital. 1676 Bacon's Rebellion burned Jamestown church, statehouse, and houses. Rebuilt. 1698 fire destroys Jamestown. Not rebuilt. 1699 colonial capital moved to Williamsburg.
Samuel de Champlain
1608, French explorer of North America around Nova Scotia who established the first permanent French settlement in New World (modern Quebec).
Henry Hudson
1609-1610. Led 2 expeditions in search of a NW Passage. One in 1609 for Dutch (Dutch East India Co.) explored ~120 miles up Hudson River to Albany, forming basis for Dutch claims to Hudson River. Another in 1610 for English (British East India Co.) explored Hudson's Bay in northeast Canada, forming basis for English claims to Canada. Northwest (NW) Passage - an ice-free sea route from Europe north to Arctic then west to Asia. He explored rivers/bays noted in logs of prior expeditions in 1602 by Capt George Weymouth (~62N Lat - bay between Greenland & Canada that leads to Hudson Bay) and in 1609 by Capt John Smith (~40N Lat - mouth of Hudson River at NJ & Manhattan/Staten Islands). New York Bay (mouth of Hudson River) was discovered by Verrazzanno (for French) in 1524. Hudson had led 2 prior English expeditions in search of a "NorthEAST Passage" - sailing north to Arctic then East to Asia. Hudson's 1609 voyage for Dutch East India Co. was financed to search for a NE passage. They failed but, instead of returning to Holland, they continued west in search of a NW passage instead.
John Rolfe
1612, started successful cultivation of tobacco for export that saved Jamestown.1614 married Pocahontas to seal peace in First Anglo-Powhatan War. It was the first known interracial union in VA.1622 renewed Powhatan attacks - Rolfe is killed in one.
Puritans
1630 establish Massachusetts Bay colony.p25-26. Strong religious convictions help sustain the colony through struggles, but leaders were intolerant of other religions and anyone who questioned their teachings, and they banished dissenters. p29. Historians disagree whether Puritan influence encouraged "American individualism" that led to Revolution, or suppressed it. p38 Puritans vs. Pilgrims: both were English Protestants who dissented from Church of England (Anglican Church) because it retained too much Catholic Church ritual and structure, and believed John Calvin's doctrine of predestination: that people are selected by God for salvation even before birth. Pilgrims: fled England first. Radicals who split from Church of England (separatists) and fled to Holland to avoid persecution by James I (1603-1625), then to America on the Mayflower (thus pilgrims). Together with non-pilgrims onboard (of 100, about half were Pilgrims), they created Mayflower Compact: a rudimentary written constitution and early form of colonial self-government in which they pledged to abide by majority rule. 1620 established Plymouth colony. Half die in first winter. Indians help them farm. 1621 1st Thanksgiving. Capt Miles Standish, Gov William Bradford. Puritans: believed Church of England could be reformed (purified) from within (non-separatist). 1629 obtained royal charter to go to America to seek religious freedom and avoid persecution under Charles I (1625-1649). 1630 John Winthrop led ~1,000 Puritans to establish Massachusetts Bay colony, founded Boston and other towns. 1630s civil war in England drove ~!5,000 more settlers to Massachusetts Bay in Great Migration. Self-rule: All "freemen" (male members of the Puritan Church) had the right to vote in annual elections of the colony's governor, his assistants, and a representative assembly. Puritan leaders were intolerant of other religions and other Puritans who disagreed with their teachings, and banished dissenters including Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson. Historians disagree whether Puritan influence encouraged an individualistic spirit (the American individualism that drove the Revolution), or suppressed it (Puritan leaders stressed conformity to a strict moral code and sacrificing one's individuality for the common good).
Lord Baltimore
1632, established Maryland as a haven for Catholics. George Calvert (1st Lord Baltimore) was an English Catholic granted proprietorship of Maryland by Charles I as a reward for his service to the crown. He died soon after and his son, Cecil Calvert, inherited the proprietorship (2nd Lord Baltimore). p27 He (1st or 2nd?) unsuccessfully tried to reconstitute the English manorial system in the colonies and gave vast tracts of land to Catholic relatives. This policy soon created tensions between the seaboard Catholic establishment and backcountry Protestant planters
Cecil Calvert
1634, the second Lord Baltimore, inherited the proprietorship of Maryland. He offered religious toleration to all Christians and refuge for persecuted Roman Catholics, but didn't tolerate non-Christians.
Providence
1636, established by Roger Williams on land bought from Native Americans, founding Rhode Island colony
Rhode Island
1636, founded by Roger Williams at Providence after he was banished by Puritans from Massachusetts Bay. Colony was unique because 1) it recognized rights of Native Americans and paid them for use of their land, 2) freedom of religion - allowed Catholics, Quakers, and Jews to worship freely.3) separation church and state
Anne Hutchinson
1638, banished from Massachusetts Bay by Puritans, she & some followers founded Portsmouth colony in 1638.Believed in antinomianism - that faith alone, not deeds, is necessary for salvation.
act of Toleration
1649, Maryland act that guaranteed toleration to all Christians, protecting Catholics (but death to non-Christians), to remedy conflict between Protestants and Catholics at the time. Cecil Calvert pushed for the act to realize his father's goal to make Maryland a haven for Catholics.
Halfway covenant
1662, adopted by Puritans to allow children of baptized but unconverted church members to be baptized, and thus become church members with limited rights (no voting rights or Communion). It helped stem the decline in Church membership due to the original arduous requirement to prove a profound religious experience (conversion) to become members.
William Penn
1681, prominent Quaker activist who, in 1681, founded Pennsylvania as a haven for fellow Quakers. He established friendly relations wiht neighboring Indian tribes and attracted a wide array of settlers to his colony with promises of economic opportunity, and ethnic and religious toleration
Charter of Liberties
1701, the PA colony created this written constitution which guaranteed freedom of worship for all and unrestricted immigration.
Jonathan Edwards
1703-1758, a Puritan minister from New England who became America's most important and original philosophical theologian, and a key stimulator of the Great Awakening. p49-50 1741 sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" argued that God was rightfully angry with human sinfulness, each person who expressed deep penitence could be saved by God's grace, but those who didn't heed God's commandments would suffer eternal damnation. He inspired hundreds of conversions in New England but didn't travel widely, as George Whitefield did.
George WHitefield
1714-1770, a charismatic and theatrical preacher who toured throughout the colonies in the Great Awakening. He taught that ordinary people with faith and sincerity could understand the gospels without depending on ministers to lead them. He convinced many colonists to join local churches and re-energized waning Christian faith in the colonies. p50 He would shout the word of God and tremble during his sermons. People gathered by the thousands to hear him. He preached to commoners, slaves, Indians. Even Benjamin Franklin, a religious skeptic, was captivated by his sermons and they became friends.
Great Awakening
1730s-1740s, (First Great Awakening), a series of Christian revivals that swept England and its colonies that changed religious practice in the colonies and influenced the Revolution by encouraging notions of nationalism, individual rights, and, indirectly, the separation of church and state. Key people: Jonathan Edwards, George Whitefield. p49-50 It was a reaction to the Enlightenment (early 1700s), a European philosophical movement that emphasized a scientific and logical view of the world while downplaying religion, at a time when religious fervor and practice in the colonies already had grown stale. Religious Impact: had a profound effect on religious practice in the colonies. Emotionalism became a common part of Protestant services. Ministers lost some authority among those who now studied the Bible for themselves. It caused divisions within churches between those supporting its teachings (New Lights) and those condemning them (Old Lights). More evangelical sects, like Baptists and Methodists, grew. As new sects competed for followers, they called for separation of church and state (because old sects, like Puritans, held the political power). Political Impact: for the first time, colonists shared in a common experience as Americans, regardless of their national origins or social class. It had a democratizing effect by changing the way people viewed authority. If common people could make their own religious decisions without relying on the higher authority of ministers, why not also make their own political decisions without relying on powerful landowners and merchants (and later, the King)?
Poor Richard's Almanack
1732-1757 Benjamin Franklin's highly popular collection of information, parables, and advice
Hokoham
200-1400, native American culture that lived in the arid valleys of Salt and Gila rivers (in AZ). Engineered complex water works. Initially grew corn, later added cotton. When Anasazi abandoned Mesa Verde/etc and migrated through Hohokam territory, the Hohokam adopted Anasazi/Pueblo style multi-storied stone/adobe buildings.
Anasazi
200-1500 Native American civilization in Utah, their decendants were the Pueblo Indians. Abandoned Mesa Verde and traveled through Hohokam territory.
Mayas
300-800AD, high developed Mesoamerican civilization that built remarkable cities in the rain forests of the Yucatan Peninsula.
Compass
A Renaissance invention, an instrument containing a magnetized pointer that shows the direction of magnetic north and bearings from it. A technological innovation that enabled Age of Exploration/Discovery.
Algonquian
A group or nation in the northeast that included the Lenape, Montauk, Machican, and Adirondack. They speak the Algonquian language.
Slavery
A system of enforced, involuntary servitude in which some people are owned by other people. Used throughout the old and new worlds.
Adena-Hopewell
Adena: ~500BC-100AD (in some areas to 700AD), 1st "Mound Builder" culture, in southern OH. Villages of circular houses with conical roofs, made of poles, willows, and bark, or rock shelters. Hunter gatherers who began to domesticate some crops. Simple tools and pottery. Traded with faraway places. Buried dead in prominent mounds. Hopewell: 200BC-400AD, in OH, named for its most important site, was the most elaborate and widespread N American mound building culture.
Social mobility
All people in teh colonial society had an opportunity to improve their standard of living and social status by hard work with the exception of the African Americans
Religious toleration
All the colonies permitted the practice of different religions, but with varying degrees of freedom
Benjamin West & John Copley
American artists who went to England where they acquired the necessary training and financial support to establish themselves as prominent artists
Religious professions
Christian ministry was the the only profession to enjoy widespread respect among the common people, often the only well-educated person in a small community
Medical professions
Colonists who fell prey to epidemics of smallpox adn diphtheria were often treated by "cures" that only made them worse
Slave Trade
European trade agreement with Africa dealing with slaves brought from Africa. Integral part of Triangle Trade between the Americas, Africa, and Europe.
Corn (Maize)
Corn; first domesticated in Mexico ~8000BC and spread to SW of N America by ~1000BC. Many native American societies were built around maize. It spread to Europe and beyond in Columbian Exchange (along with potatoes and beans).
Disease
European diseases (esp. smallpox, syphillis, measles) were the number one killer of Native Americans after 1492+.
Enlightenment 18th century
European movement that spread to the colonies, in literature adn philosophy the leaders felt that the darkness of past ages would be corrected by the use of human reason in solving most of humanity's problems
Hereditary aristocracy
European social extreme with a nobility that inherited special privileges and masses of hungry, poor, were missing in teh colonies Narrower class system, based on economics, was developing
Huguenots
French Protestants
Immigrants
From Europe, Came for religous freedom, escape wars, wought economic opportunity in farming or selling as an artisan or merchant Mostly settled in the middle colonies adn on the western Frontier of the southern colonies
Massachsetts Bay Colony
Group of more moderate dissenters founded colony thousands of puritans sailed to massachusetts the Great Migration Led by John Winthrop Had a royal charter
Roger Williams
In 1636, founded Rhode Island colony after being banished by Puritans from Massachusetts Bay.Recognized the rights of Native Americans and paid them for use of their land (he bought land from them to established Providence).His firm beliefs in religious freedom and the separation of church and state governed Rhode Island and inspired founders of U.S.
Subsistence farming
In New Engand Colonies the rocky soil and long winters limited farming to just subsistence, only producing enough to get
Horses
Introduced to Americas by Europeans. Helped Europeans defeat native cultures, and later transformed the Indian way of life on the Great Plains, esp. Lakota Sioux
John Peter Zenger
Journalist in 1735 On trial for seditious libel, and critizcizing the royal govenor of New York. injuring a govenor's reputation was sconsidered a criminal act, no matter whether a printed statement was true or not. He was aquitted by the jury . Encouraged journalists to take more risk in criticizing a colony's government.
Africans
Large group of Non-Englishimmigrants did not come to America by choice, taken by force and forced into slavery in 1775 made up 20% of the colonies
Land Bridge
Linked Asia and N America across Bering Sea during the Great Ice Age, when sea levels dropped exposing the Bering Shelf/Isthmus ("Beringia"). Nomadic humans/tribes, the ancestral native Americans, were able to walk across the bridge for ~25,000 years before sea level rose again.
County government
Local government was carried on by a law-enforcing sheriff and other officials who served a large territorial unti
Dutch + Swedes
Made up ~5% of all the population of all the colonies in 1775
Pilgrims
Named bc their travels, moved to holland but economic hardship and cultural differences with teh Dutch led many to seek another haven for their religion, The NEw World, Landed in Plymouth
Pueblos
Native American culture in SW, descended from Ancestral Pueblo/Anasazi, who live in compact permanent settlements (pueblos) of stone/mud (adobe) buildings.1540 Francisco Vazquez de Coronado invaded and brutally defeated Pueblo resistance.1599 Battle of Acoma (NM), aka Acoma Massacre, Juan de Onate killed hundreds of natives and amputated feet of many others1610 Santa Fe NM founded by Spanish1680 Pope's Rebellion (Pueblo Revolt)
Germans
Non-English immigrants settled chiefly on the rich farmlands west of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Dutch country Maintained their language and culture, while obeying colonial laws by 1775 comprised 6% of colonial population
Lakota Sioux
Once they gained horses they started hunting and following buffalo across the plains easily, Show the positive effect of the colombian exchange in native ways of life in North America
Nation-state
Political entity that exists simultaneously as a sovereign geo-political unit and a national cultural community. Characteristic of the modern world, in which governments have sovereign power within defined territorial areas, and populations are citizens who know themselves to be part of single nations
Separatists
Radical dissenters to the Church of England they wanted to organize a completely seperate church that was independent of royal control
Quakers
Religious group known for their tolerance, emphasis on peace, and idealistic Indian policy, who settled heavily in Pennsylvania in the 17th and 18th centuries
Encomienda System
Spanish government policy to "commend," or give, natives to certain colonists in return for the promise to Christianize them. It was slavery. Part of a broader Spanish effort to subdue native tribes in the West Indies and on the North American mainland
Siouan
The American Indians had 20 language families and 400 distinct languages. Siouan is a family of North American Indian languages spoken by the Sioux tribes.
Antinomianism
The belief that faith alone, not deeds, is necessary for salvation.
Plymouth Colony
The colony founded by the pilgrims second permanent english colony in the new world grew slowly but remained small furs fish lumber became mainstays of the colony
Mayflower
The ship that the pilgrims took to the new world dropped ancor after 65 stormy days of travel off the coast of massachusetts few hundread miles north of the intended destination in Virginia
rice plantations
These plantations grew food for the West Indies, and relied on slave labor. Found in South Carolina.
tobacco farms
These were mainly small farms in North Carolina, but larger tobacco plantations were found in other parts of the colonies.
Colonial legislatures
Traditionally a 2 house system elected officials would vote about taxes and money the upper house was appointed by the king or the proprietor (in self-governing coloies the upper house was also elected)
Holy Experiment
William Penn's term for the government of PA, which was supposed to serve everyone and provide freedom for all.
Andrew hamilton
Zenger's lawyer who aargued that his client had printed the truth about a govenor, his client was aquitted by the jury
longhouses
a long wooden building which several related Iroquois families would share
Pocahontaas
c1595-1617, daughter of Chief Powhatan, Pocahontas "awed" Captain John Smith in a dramatic mock execution and served as a mediator between Indians and the colonists. In 1614, she married John Rolfe and sailed with him to England, where she was greeted as a princess, and where she passed away shortly before her planned return to the colonies.
nonsectarian
college with not religous sponsors had civic minded founders including Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin
ersonification of the Enlightenment, individual was participated in the writing of the Declaration of Independence, was the main negotiator in the Treaty of Paris and played an important role in the Philadelphia convention
Colonial governors
in the 8 royal colonies the governor was selected by the king in the 3 proprietary colonies, govenors were appointed by the proprietor in 2 of the colonies the govenor was elected by popular vote
Colonial Families
in the colonies people married and had children at a younger age. 90% of the people lived on farms but still had a higher standard of living than their European counterparts
Cotton Mather
wrote widely read religious tracts along with Jonathan Edwards Massachusetts minister
Woodland mound builders
~3500BC-1600AD, a series of N America cultures, including Adena, Hopewell, and Mississippian, that built huge ceremonial and burial mounds and other earthworks in complex villages. They were large, sophisticated, well-organized, pre-Columbian cultures that used 3-sisters farming to enable large, densely populated villages, like Cahokia.
