Anthropology Exam #2 essay questions
Why do some researchers think that some Neanderthals had red hair?
A DNA study concluded that some Neanderthals had red hair, although the mutation responsible for this differs from that which causes red hair in humans. The specific MCR1mutation in Neanderthals has not been found in modern humans (or occurs extremely rarely in modern humans). This indicates that the two mutations for red hair and pale skin occurred independently and does not support the idea of gene flow between Neanderthals and modern humans. Pale Skin may have been advantageous to Neanderthals living in Europe because of the ability to synthesize vitamin D.
What are the characteristics and differences among bands, tribes, chiefdoms and states?
A band is the simplest form of human society-usually a small kin group no larger than extended family or clan that has a very informal leadership-older members are usually looked to for guidance and advice. No laws and none of the coercion seen in more complex societies. Customs transmitted orally- formal social institutions are few or non existent-religion usually based on family tradition, individual experience or council from shama. Usually hung and gather to obtain food. Nomadic move from place to place - usually egalitarian society people of same age and gender seen as equal (does not mean men and women always). Tribes- a lot of debate over how to characterize them group of smaller kin or non kin groups linked by common culture that usually act as one. They are usually bigger than bands, tribes tend to contain communities that are a bit larger. Usually also dabble in agriculture and herding making it easier to support a larger yet still small population. Most have no formal leadership (like tribes) egalitarian in nature. Chiefdom- a community lead by an individual known as a chief. A form of social organization more complex than a tribe but less complex than a state. Characterized by pervasive inequality of peoples and centralization of authority. At least 2 social classes are present elite and commoner. Sometimes class can be changed by extraordinary behavior during ones life. A single lineage/family of the elite class will be the single ruling of the chiefdom-greatest influence and power prestige. Not egalitarian - have social rank chief and family hold the power - usually practice distribution where goods accumulated by one central person who decides how to allocate them. Many believe chiefs have mana - supernatural power that give the right to rule no form of bureaucracy or written laws to help chief. States- a geographic political entity possessing political sovereign. Centralized political unit governs a large population with a hierarchy of differing political positions and the power to enforce its decisions.
Where and when did anatomically modern Homo sapiens sapiens originate and did they cause the extinction of Neandertals?
Anatomically modern homo sapiens sapiens evolved from archaic homo sapiens in the middle paleolithic about 200,000 years ago in Africa. The emergence of them marks the saw of the subspecies homo sapiens sapiens (all modern humans). The oldest fossil remains of anatomically modern humans are the Omo remains that date back to 195,000 years ago. Neanderthals were widespread across Europe and Western Asia starting about 400,000 years ago, but things began to change when Homo sapiens (earlier members of our species) migrated from Africa to Europe about 45,000 years ago. 5,000 years ago not a single Neanderthal remained. The two main factors archaeologists think played a part in Neanderthal extinction was competition, because homo sapiens had a competitive drive over neanderthals, along with different trade networks and more advanced tools which helped them create a more diverse/adaptational diet, and changes to their habitat due to climate change, so neanderthals' physical features helped them survive cold climates and hunt large animals, but when climates began to change and these animals were going extinct, making neanderthals more vulnerable for starvation).
Why do archaeologist find it significant that Neanderthals may well have buried their dead?
Archaeologists find it significant that neanderthals may have well buried their dead because they dug holes to bury their dead. They conclude that Neanderthals were burying their dead in recognition of the significance of death. They seemed to understand the significance of death and recognized it through burial (and possibly different rituals through the burial process). This exhibits the human ancestors kinship to us.
When in the Paleolithic does the earliest evidence for the modification of bone for the use of tools show up?
Bone tools have been documented from the advent of Homo Sapiens and are also known from Neanderthals or even earlier. The oldest excavated bone tools are from Africa and dated to about 1.5 million years ago. It is widely accepted that they appeared and developed in Africa before any other geographic region. A very famous excavation of bone tools is that of the Blombos Cave in South Africa- a collection of 28 bone tools were recovered from 70,000 year old middle stone age levels at Blombos Cave.
What is Carbon-14 dating and on what material is it used? What is currently accepted as the half-life of Carbon-14?
Carbon-14 dating is a radiometric dating technique based on decay of radioactive isotope carbon14c or radioactive carbon. Carbon-14 dating can be applied to anything that once was a party of a living organism within a range from 50,000 to 500 years ago. What is currently accepted as a half life of carbon 14 is 5730.
What changes happened to the climate of the globe at the end of the Pleistocene?
Climate change was causing environments to change rapidly. At the end of the Pleistoscnee, temperatures were warming and rainfall patters were changing, glaciers were melting, seasonal differences in temperatures were increasing. These climate changes affected changes in our ecosystems; plants an animals moved out of the areas, communities were coming apart and reorganizing. Climate change also could have helped cause extinction by elimination of food sources, disrupting birth schedules, and exposing animals to climate changes they were not used to.
What are coprolites and what can we learn from them?
Coprolites are fossilized feces (range in size from a few mm to over 60 cm.). We can trace fossils, give evidence for animal behavior, and trace diet. It is important for paleontology because they provide direct contact of the predation and diet of extinct organisms.
What is flintknapping? What is the difference between percussion flaking and pressure flaking?
Flintknapping is the making of arrowheads or other stone tools- hunters and gatherers relied on this key wilderness survival skill to crate tools and hunting implements. Percussion Flaking is the action of striking material to break it apart in a controlled manner. Pressure flaking is the action of using a pressure flaking tool (like an antler) to load significant pressure against an edge and then popping off a long, thinning flake-this allows flakes to be carefully shaped down into finished tool.
Describe the recent discovery of the Flores skeleton (Homo floresiensis). To what other major group of hominid (hominin) do you think this creature is related, and why? [refer to your text and the article by K. Wong (The Littlest Human) on our Web site.]
Homo Floresiensis (Flores Man, Hobbit, or Flo) was discovered in 2003 in a cave on the island of Flores in Indonesia. (could have survived as recent as 12,000 years ago). Partial skeletons of nine individuals were recovered, including one complete skull. The body sizes were relatively small, which may have helped the species survive on an island with limited resources, and they had a small brain, about a third the size of anatomically modern humans. This creature is more likely related to hominids, which are more closely related to humans than apes. This is believed because of the stone tools found and evidence of symbols/communication.
Is there any evidence of human cannibalism or is this merely a myth perpetuated to make some appear barbaric?
Human cannibalism existed in prehistoric times. Among humans it can be categorized by function: ritual, revenge, gustatory and survival. Examples that human cannibalism existed include: Excavations at the 900 year old Mancos Canyon (Colorado) site affirms human cannibalism occurred in prehistoric times. About 950 A.D 11 people of a small Anasazi settlement on Burnt Mesa (New Mexico) site show evidence of being butchered, mutilated and possibly roasted. Almost all the bones were smashed and splintered, some of them burned, some show cut marks, and all exhibit greenstick breaks. Cannibalism is the only reasonable explanation for the patterned destruction. It was either starvation or necessity. The cave site of Moula-Geurcy (Europe) indicates Neanderthal cannibalism based on comparative analysis of hominid and animal bone spatial distributions, modifications by stone tools, and skeletal part representations. The assessment of cannibalism in prehistoric context depends on the demonstration that faunal and hominid remains were subject to similar treatment. There is clear evidence to this effect at Moula-Geurcy. Fossils and their context at this site are now the best evidence that some Neanderthals practiced cannibalism. A few other examples of cannibalism include the Donner Party and HMS Terror/Peggy/Franklin ship voyage-these were acts of what archaeologists call survival cannibalism.
When and how did humans arrive in the New World. Where did the first occupants of North and South America come from and what evidence is that based upon?
Humans are thought to have arrived in the New World around 16,300 years BP. There are two main routes/theories on how they arrived in the New World; by a pedestrian terrestrial route across the Bering Land Bridge and then through central-western Canada (The Continental Route) or by watercraft along the Northwestw Coast (Coastal Migration Hypothesis).
When and how did humans arrive in the New World? Where did the first occupants of N. and S. America come from and what evidence is that based upon?
Humans are thought to have arrived in the New World around 16,300 years BP. There are two main routes/theories on how they arrived in the New World; by a pedestrian terrestrial route across the Bering Land Bridge and then through central-western Canada (The Continental Route) or by watercraft along the Northwestw Coast (Coastal Migration Hypothesis).
Who were the Neanderthals ? How were Neandertals different than modern humans? Why are they often still viewed and portrayed as backward dimwits? Is this accurate or not?
Neanderthals were a species of the genus homo that became extinct between 41,000-39,000 years ago. They look like cartoon cavemen. Their features include: large noses, bulky physique (adaptions to cold), shorter than modern humans but thicker and thicker bones, step sloped forehead and heavy brow ridges. Their craniums are often larger than modern humans'. The Neanderthals were not less intelligent than modern humans. They have been the most advanced group of primates besides humans. They have possessed intelligence almost on par with us. Neanderthal living sites show complex tool use, abstract thoughts and speech, burial of their dead, and manufactured primitive art objects.
Anatomically modern Homo sapiens is the only living species of hominid/hominin remaining on the earth today. What physical and culture characteristics distinguish anatomically modern Homo sapiens from their immediate ancestors and contemporaries (like Neandertals). Please mention and describe skeletal characteristics, artifacts, and other features in the archaeological record in some detail.
Physical trait wise, anatomically modern humans are more lightly built more lightly than archaic people, modern humans lack a occipital bun in the neck that anchored neck muscles in neanderthals, modern humans have a larger fore-brain than archaic people (so brain sits above not behind eyes which gives a higher forehead and reduced brow ridge), modern humans have different teeth and pronounced chin/jaw, modern humans have smaller/lower faces, modern humans have less robust build and a more proportioned body. Culture wise, modern humans frequently produce new technologies, have a greater capacity for abstract, symbolic thinking.
What is the difference between sedentary and nomadic?
Sedentary is a permanent settlement. Species here created art in free time and were dedicated tons science and technology and developed a writing system. Some of the disadvantages to sedentary settlements was the spread of infectious disease, waste disposal problems, and finding fertile land and preservation/storage methods. Some advantages were that they were first seen near waterways which allowed them to cultivate crops and develop techniques to have a better chance at farming, and were able to create a better shelter because they could build houses and storage units. Nomadic is hunting and gathering societies that don't worry about fertile land. They have no permanent home which makes for a hard life and little time for leisure or a rich language, and they lived in tents. These two ways of life could never coexist peacefully in the same place.
What type of evidence reveals that modern Homo sapiens were capable of symbolic communication and why is this important?
Some evidence that reveals that modern homo sapiens were capable of symbolic expression include: reliance on new and improved stone tool technologies, new hunting and weapon technologies, broadening of subsistence quest, branching out in raw materials, new uses for plan materials, raw materials from a great distance, larger sites of population aggregation, an abundance of non utilization objects, elaborate burials, and symbolic expression through the production of art. In other words...... archaeological evidence strongly suggests that Homo sapiens was the first species to exhibit widespread use of symbolic behavior. For example, early Homo sapiens produced cave art (examples of ones in the ones in Chauvet Cave), statues, shell beads, incised ochre, pendants, and artifacts like the venus figurines. While some authors contend that these items are also found at some Homo neanderthalensis sites, this opinion is contended and, at most, these items are found in much lower abundance at H. neanderthalensis sites. These traits suggest that Homo sapiens had a greater capacity for abstract, symbolic thinking than any earlier species. Based on the anatomy of the upper part of the vertebral column and associated structures, it is also highly likely that Homo sapiens was the first species that was capable of spoken language, but the evidence in support of this claim is scant.
What factors may have contributed to the extinction of Pleistocene megafauna?
Some factors that may have contributed to the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna include climate change, hunting by spreading humans, spread of disease, and an impact form asteroid or comet. It is also possible that two or more of these reasons could have combined to help cause the extinction.
What does subsistence refer to?
Subsistence refers to the way that organisms obtain their food. This has advanced over the years- for example, neanderthals could have became extinct because of their limited subsistence, and as we evolved, we know have thousands of different ways to obtain food.
What happens to the human body under conditions of severe starvation?
Under sever starvation, your body basically fights to keep you alive. The hard part comes affter the first 72 hours without food, known as autophagy. When fat splits up/disappears, your body turns to the protein in muscle, which means it starts spending your muscles. At this point, the brain's need for glucose decreases from 120 to 30 grams. Now the brain must get energy from the protein (brain can survive on protein but muscles will start to disappear.) Your metabolism slows down and your body starts using the least amount of energy. At some point, your immune system will weaken due to lack of vitamins and minerals. With starvation usually comes, weight loss, apathy, listlessness, withdraw, and increased susceptibility to infectious disease which usually appear in the last stages, marasmus and kwashiorkor.