AP EURO EXAM

Renaissance

"Rebirth;" following the Middle Ages, a movement inspired by a revival of interest in classical texts from ancient Greece and Rome, as well as a shift towards a more secular and individualistic way of thinking. Increased trade and advancements in banking and bookkeeping created wealth, and new commercial elites, such as the Medicis, became patrons of the great Renaissance artists.

humanism

Renaissance intellectual movement where thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and achievements. The classical history and literature laid the foundation for education.

Fascism

A political system headed by a dictator that calls for extreme nationalism and racism and no tolerance of opposition

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

English reformer, essayist, and influential Utilitarian. He wrote "The Subject of Women" in 1869. He opposed the social and legal inequalities imposed on women. Argued that inequalities were a relic from the past and "a hindrance to human development"

Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906)

Norwegian playwright and social critic who wrote "A Doll's House" in 1879. He criticized conventional marriage roles.

Eastern Europe after deStalinization

1. De-Stalinzation raised hopes for more freedom in Eastern Europe. A wave of strikes and protests swept across East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Hungary 2. the protests in Hungary quickly escalated into a major crisis when Hungary's liberal Communist leader, Imre Nagy, promised free elections and called for the removal of Soviet troops 3. Khrushchev responded by ordering the Red Army to invade Hungary. After intense fighting, the Soviets crushed the rebellion and executed Nagy 4. The US did not assist Hungary because it lay within the Soviet sphere of influence

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The Three Estates

1) CLERGY- First Estate ~0.05% - own ~10% of the land - collect an annual tithe from parishioners and heavy influence on society - exempt from taxes; provide a "donation" to the crown every 5 years 2) The NOBILITY- Second Estate ~1.5% - nobility of the Sword and Nobility of the Robe (newer, often wealthier) - own ~20 to 25% of the land - exempt from taxes - dominate positions in government (block attempts at tax reform) 3) Everyone else- Third Estate ~24.5 million - Bourgeoisie ~4%; own 20% of the land and held some positions in government - working class/wage earners ~8%; princes since 1730 have risen over 65% while wages only rose 22% - peasants and farmers ~86%; own 40% of the land and are resentful of "seigniorial privileges"

Romanticism and Nationalism

1. As romantic writers studied the past, they helped make people aware of their common heritage. The resurgence of national feeling sparked nationalistic movements across Europe. The first stirring was felt in Greece. 2. Greek Independence - The Greek revolt against the Ottoman Empire began in 1821 - While the revolutions in Spain and Italy failed because of great power intervention, the Greek revolt succeeded because of the support of Great Britain, France, and Russia. These nationals all wanted to expand their influence in the Balkans. They are also influenced by public support for Greece before of its historic importance as the birthplace of Western civilization.

Postwar Italy

1. Italy had entered World War I in hopes of winning mandates in East Africa and Austrian territory along the Adriatic Sea. When the Treaty of Versailles rejected these claims, embittered Italian nationalists felt betrayed. 2. Italy faced a severe economic crisis that included soaring inflation, rising unemployment, and a massive national debt 3. Italy's upper and middle class feared that the economic crisis and growing labor unrest might lead to a communist revolt, as had just happened in Russia

Enlightenment

A philosophical movement which started in Europe in the 1700's and spread to the colonies. It emphasized reason and the scientific method. Writers of the enlightenment tended to focus on government, ethics, and science, rather than on imagination, emotions, or religion. Many members of the Enlightenment rejected traditional religious beliefs in favor of Deism, which holds that the world is run by natural laws without the direct intervention of God.

deism

A popular Enlightenment era belief that there is a God, but that God isn't involved in people's lives or in revealing truths to prophets.

Thermidorian Reaction

A reaction to the violence of the Reign of Terror in 1794. The Committee of Public Safety successfully crushed internal dissent and defeated the First Coalition. Despite these victories, Robespierre continued to pursue his fanatical dream of creating a Republic of Virtue. Fearing for their lives and yearning for stability, the National Convention reasserted its authority by executing Robespierre. His death ended the radical phase of the French Revolution. Hence, the revolt against Robespierre is called the Thermidorian Reaction.

Protestant Reformation

A religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches.

The Great Fear

A wave of senseless panic that spread through the French countryside after the storming of the Bastille in 1789. The King was forced to recognize the National Assembly, but rumors in the countryside spread and peasants began to revolt against their lords by burning feudal documents and ransacking manors. This chaos ended with the National Assembly abolishing feudal privileges of the nobility and tithes to the church.

League of Nations

A world organization established ion 1920 to promote international cooperation and peace. It was first proposed in 1918 by Woodrow Wilson, although the United States never joined it. Essentially powerless, it was officially dissolved in 1946.

Civil War in Russia

By the summer of 1918, several "White" armies attempted to overthrow the Bolsheviks. Led by Leon Trotsky, the Bolsheviks responded by forming a highly disciplined Red Army. the civil war between the Whites and Reds lasted from 1918-1920. The divided and poorly led Whites lost to the better-organized Red Army.

The "New Woman"

By the turn of the 20th century, educated middle-class women enjoyed more independent lifestyles. They dressed practically, moved about freely, lived apart from her family, and supported herself. The "new woman" also wore fewer petticoats and enjoyed sports.

Michelangelo

An Italian painter, sculptor and architect, who was a giant of the High Renaissance. He was commissioned by Pope Julius II to decorate the Sistine Chapel in Rome. In good Neoplatonic fashion, the beauty of these figures meant to be a reflection of divine beauty; the more beautiful the body, the more God-like the figure. He also sculpted the David, a colossal marble statue commissioned by the Florentine government. An awe-inspiring hero, his David proudly proclaims the beauty of the human body and the glory of human beings. His muscular body is tense with gathering power, and his contrappostal pose recalls statues from Greece and Rome.

Divine Right of Kings & Bossuet

Bishop Bossuet was a prominent French churchman, a renowned orator, and the principal theories of the 17th century doctrine of absolutism. He argued that all power comes from God. The king inherited his position and authority from God. Thus, royal power was absolute. Subjects must obey their sovereign as the direct representation of God on Earth. Monarchs had to obey God's law and were responsible to God for their conduct.

Baroque Art

Art that originated in Rome and is associated with the Catholic Reformation, characterized by emotional intensity, strong self-confidence, spirit. It placed emphasizes on grandeur, sharp contrasts, and detail in order to inspire an emotional response in the viewer of awe and religious devotion. Purpose: - the Council of Trent reaffirmed that works of art should be employed to stimulate piety. Painters, sculptors and architects tried to speak to the faithful by creating dramatic works of art that involved worshippers and religious subjects.

Dawes Plan (1924)

At the end of 1923, a committee of experts led by American Charles Dawes devised a plan to reestablish a sound German currency and reduce reparation payments. The Dawes plan provided a series of American loans to Germany. The infusion of American money revitalized the German economy, thus ending the inflationary spiral.

Italian Nationalism

Austria dominated northern Italy. Italian nationalists formed a secret society called the Carbonic ("charcoal burners"). The Carbonari hoped to drive out the Austrians and unify Italy. Inspired by the events in France and Belgium, the Carbonari rebelled. However, Metternich promptly sent in Austrian trooped to restore order. The Carbonari's failure left Giuseppe Mazzini as Italy's foremost nationalist leader.

the Chartist Movement

Britain's disenfranchised workers demanded more sweeping reforms. In 1838, working-class leaders drew up a People's Charter that demanded universal manhood suffrage, a secret ballot, equal electoral districts, and the abolition of property requirements for membership in the House of Commons. Despite widespread public support, Parliament adamantly refused to consider the Chartists' proposals. It is important to note that most of the Chartist reforms would ultimately be adopted.

Constitution of 1791

By 1971, the National Assembly had completed a new constitution that established a limited constitutional monarchy. There was a still a monarch, but he enjoyed few powers not subject to review by the new Legislative Assembly.

Northern Renaissance

Following the invention of the printing press, interest in humanistic studies spread to Northern Europe. Northern Renaissance writers, such as Erasmus and Thomas More, began producing their own printed works that were inspired by classical authors. Northern Renaissance writers were heavily influence by Christian humanism, producing works that were more focused on Christian principles and social reform than Italian Renaissance authors, who were more individualistic and secular in their approach. They had a human-centered naturalism that considered individuals of everyday life appropriate objects of artistic representation. They were more concerned with religious piety.

Locarno Pact 1925

France, Germany, England, Italy, and Belgium signed the Locarno pact guaranteeing the borders between Germany and France. This marked an important turning point in Franco-German relations and appeared to offer the hope of a new era of peaceful relations between these two rivals.

Lafayette

French soldier who served under George Washington in the American Revolution (1757-1834)

Newtonian Physics

From the time of Isaac Newton to the early twentieth century, physical scientists believed that unchanging natural laws governed the universe. This mechanistic view of nature supported an optimistic belied in progress toward what one researcher called "a boundless future"

Charles de Gualle (1890-1970)

General Charles de Gualle established the Fifth French Republic in 1958. He served as president until 1969. De Gualle's key foreign policy decisions included: 1. granting Alegria full independence 2. withdrawing French military forces from NATO 3. developing France's own nuclear weapons 4. opposing Great Britain's entry into the EEC

civic humanism

Humanism with the added belief that intellectuals had a duty to live an active life for their state, where they would apply their study of the humanities. As seen in the writings of Machiavelli and Castiglione, it prepared young men for careers in public service. Humanists went on to serve as chancellors, councillors, and advisers.

Geneva "city of saints"

In 1541, Protestants in Geneva, Switzerland, asked Calvin to transform their city into a model Christian community. Calvin and his followers regulative all aspects of life in Geneva. They suppressed frivolous activities such as playing cards, dancing, and attending the theater. At the same time, they strictly enforced a high standard of morality that included regular church attendance.

War of Spanish Succession 1701-1713

In 1700, Charles II died and bequeathed the Spanish throne and its huge overseas empire to Louis's 17 year old grandson, Philip of Anjou. The nations of Europe feared that Louis could now create a universal monarchy that would upset the balance of power. They wanted to prevent the Bourbon family from controlling Spain as well as France. Led by England, they formed a Grand Alliance that included Holland, Austria, German states, and Savoy. This war proved to be a costly struggle that left France battered and weakened. Its huge debts played a key role in worsening financial and social tensions that would later erupt in the French Revolution.

classless society

In Marxist political theory, the ideal society in which wealth is equally distributed according to the principle "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs."

Age of Exploration

In the 15th century, new navigational technologies, such as the magnetic compass and Mercator protection maps, made it possible for Europeans to sail beyond the Mediterranean Sea and the coastline of Europe. After the Fall of Constantinople, European monarchs desired to find a nautical trade route to Asia. The Portuguese sought to sail east around Africa, while Ferdinand and Isabella financed Christopher Columbus voyage to find a westerly route to the Indies. Upon discovering the New World, Europeans conquered native populations using new weapons technologies, such as firearms. This age involved more than just the search for gold, silver, and spices. The new discoveries sparked an unprecedented global diffusion of agricultural products, animals, diseases, and human populations.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

In the late 1500s, a Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe, carefully recorded the movements of each known planet. When he died in 1601, his assistant Johannes Kepler continued his work. After carefully studying Brahe's data, Kepler formulated three laws of planetary motion: 1. the planets revolved around the sun in ELLIPTICAL orbits 2. planets move more rapidly as their orbits approach the sun 3. the time a planet takes to orbit the sun varies proportionately with its distance from the sun

David Ricardo (1772-1823)

Influenced by Malthus's pessimistic appraisal of the plight of the working class, this English economist formulated the "iron law of wages." According to him, labor is a commodity whose price is determined by the law of supply and demand. He contended that increasing working-class wages would prompt laborers to have more children. As the supply of workers increased, their wages would decline. The iron law of wages left no room for a better future for working-class families. It provided strong support for opposing labor unions and refusing to raise wages.

Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1632)

Lutheran king of Sweden. A charismatic ruler and brilliant military strategist, he defeated Wallenstein and the imperial forces in the Swedish Phase of the Thirty Years' War. The Swedish victories prevented the Habsburg from uniting the German states. He need up dying during this war.

Luddites

Named after Ned Ludd, frustrated English workers known as Luddites broke into early textile factories and smashed the machinery. These acts of despair could not stop the Industrial Revolution. Parliament quickly responded by passing a law making the destruction of machines a capital offense. Workers gradually came to realize that destroying machines would not improve their lives. Instead, they had to form labor unions and fight for higher wages and better working conditions.

Modern Art

New inventions such as the camera and the cinema posed a challenge to how artists traditionally portrayed people and places. Artists response with a variety of "modern" styles that marked a break with long-standing artistic traditions, such with Impressionism and Cubism.

Newtonian Universe

Newton demonstrated that the universe is governed by universal laws that can be expressed in mathematical formulas. He viewed the universe as a vast machine, created by God but working according to universal laws that could be discovered, mastered, and utilized to improve human life. Supernatural and miraculous forces played no role in Newton's universe. His mechanistic concept of the universe dominated Western thought until the discoveries of Albert Einstein in the early 20th century.

The Outbreak of War

On June 28 1914, a 19 year old Slav nationalist, Gavrilo Principles, assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne. The assassination set in motion a sequence of events that plunged Europe into war. In August 1914, millions of soldiers marched off into battle, convinced the war would be over in a few week.s

Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)

Portuguese prince who promoted the study of navigation and directed voyages along the west coast of Africa. By the time of his death in 1460, the Portuguese had established a series of trading posts along the West African coast. These posts did a thriving business in gold and slaves.

Detente

President Richard Nixon initiated a policy of detente to reduce tensions with the Soviet Union. The two superpowers agreed to limit nuclear arms and expand trade. The Helsinki Accords marked the high point of the Cold War Detente. The accords ratified the European territorial boundaries established after WWII and committed the signers to recognized and protect basic human rights.

militarism before WWI

Technology: the Industrial Revolution had a profound effect on the means of war-making. Military Values: patriotic national press, and popular notions that war is manly and heroic, were well-cultivated values. Standing armies were trained and ready to fight. Policy-making: secular leaders relied on generals and military experts to help shape public policy.

the NATO Alliance

Ten Western European nations joined with the United States and Canada to form a defensive military alliance called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). NATO coordinated defense preparations among the nations of western Europe. The NATO alliance marked a decisive break from America's tradition of isolationism.

Stalemate

The Shlieffen Plan narrowly failed, making a quick victory impossible. Both sides now constructed an elaborate system of trenches stretching more than 600 miles from the English Channel to the Swiss border. Trench warfare produced a stalemate that lasted about four years and claimed unprecedented casualties.

the Warsaw Pact

The Soviet Union resound to NATO by formed the Warsaw Pact. The alliance linked the Soviet Union with seven Eastern European countries: Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania

War with Austria, 1859

The combined French and Piedmont armies defeated the Austrians. Meanwhile, Italian nationalists staged revolts across northern Italy. Sardinia annexed all of northern Italy except Venetia.

Henry IV (1589-1610)

The death of Catherine de' Medici followed by the assassinations of the powerful Catholic Duke of Guise and King Henry III paved the way for the accession of Henry of Navarre, a leading politique who became Henry IV in 1589. Henry IV was the leader of the House of Bourbon and a Huguenot. Many Catholics, including the people of Paris, still opposed Henry. Knowing that the majority of the French were Catholics, Henry chose to become a Catholic saying "Paris is worth a mass." His decision to convert and issue the Edict of Nantes saved France and prepared the way for the resurgence of royal power in the 17th century.

Ferdinand and Isabella

The marriage of these two monarchs unified the Christian kingdoms of Aragon and Castile in Spain. They styled themselves as the "Catholic monarchs." They reorganized the military forces, developing a strong infantry force. They also controlled the Catholic Church, using this authority to institute reform. The royal council, which was supposed to supervise local administration and oversee the implementation of government policies, was stripped of aristocrats and filled primary with middle-class lawyers. Trained in the principles of Roman law, these officials operated in the belief that the monarchy embodied the power of the state. In 1492, they complete the Spanish Reconquista when they conquered Granada, the last Muslim kingdom on Spain. They financed the war partly through a "crusade tax," which brought more money in into the royal treasury. After conquering Granada, the Catholic monarchs proclaimed that all their subjects would be Catholic and that Muslims and Jews would be expelled from the country if they refused to convert. They authorized and supported the Spanish Inquisition partly to make sure that these conversos did not lapse into heresy. Together, they made Spain a strong Christian notion and also provided funding to overseas exploration, notably Christopher Columbus.

Mercantilism

The rulers of new nation-states adopted a system of economic principles and policies called mercantilism. Mercantilists wanted to build strong, self-sufficient economies. According to mercantilist theory, colonies should export raw materials and import finished goods. This would create a favorable balance of trade and the resulting growth of national reserves of silver and gold.

World War II

War fought from 1939 to 1945 between the Allies and the Axis, involving most countries in the world. The United States joined the Allies in 1941, helping them to victory.

Marshall plan

WWII left Western European devoted and vulnerable to Soviet influence. The Marshall Plan was a program of economic aid designed to promote the recovery of war-torn Europe while also preventing the spread of Soviet influence. The Marshall Plan was an integral part of Truman's policy of containment. The Marshall Plan dramatically increased American political and economic influence in Western and Southern Europe.

"Nation in Arms"

While the Terror crushed domestic dissent, Robespierre turned to the danger posed by the First Coalition. In 1793, the Committee of Public Safety proclaimed a "levee en masse" decreeing compulsory military service for all men between aged 18 and 40. The levee en masse created a national military based upon mass participation. This marked the first example of the complete mobilization of a country for war. The people's army would repel foreign enemies to the revolution. Motivated by patriotism and led by c corps of talented young officers that increased Napoleon, France's citizen-soldiers defeated the First Coalition's professional armies.

Aparthied

the former official south african policy of seperating people according to race

causes of WWI

Militarism Alliances Nationalism Imperialism Assassination of the Archduke

Peaceful Reforms in Britain, Age of Mass Politics

- the Franchise Act of 1884 extended voting rights to rural male laborers. By 1914, 80 percent of Britain's male population was enfranchised - Parliament laid the foundation fo the British welfare state by establishing a system of health and unemployment insurance.

Thirty Years War

(1618-1648 CE) War within the Holy Roman Empire between German Protestants and their allies (Sweden, Denmark, France) and the emperor and his ally, Spain; ended in 1648 after great destruction with Treaty of Westphalia.

Madame de Geoffrin

(1699-1777) A wealthy middle-class widow who hosted a famous Parisian salon. She created the salon to educate herself and to participate directly in the movement for reform. Brought together the most exciting thinkers and artists of the time and corresponded with influential people across Europe.

The Congress of Vienna

(1814-1815 CE) After the defeat of Napoleon, representatives from Russia, Prussia, Great Britain and Austria (Quadruple Alliance) along with a representative of the Bourbon monarchy, met from September 1814 to June of 1815 to restore the balance of power and contain the danger of revolutionary or nationalistic upheavals in the future. This congress was guided by four main principles as it refers the map and returned France to the boundaries it had in 1792. It enacted a settlement that was acceptable to both the victors and France. It created a balance of power that lasted until the unification of Germany in 1871, but it underestimated the forces of liberalism and nationalism unleashed by the French Revolution.

the Civil Constitution of the Clergy

(August 1790) This act, passed by the National Assembly, did the following: 1. confiscated the lands owned by the Roman Catholic Church 2. Decreed that bishops and priests would be elected by the people and paid by the state 3. required the clergy to take a loyalty oath to support the new government - It is important to note that Pope Pius VI condemned the act and that over half of the clergy refused to take the oath of allegiance. Alienated Catholics proved to be persistent opponents of the French Revolution.

Characteristics of the 18th century

(after the Age of Enlightenment) 1. Political - monarchy remained the most prevalent form a government - divine-right monarchy revolved into enlightened despotism in eastern Europe - aristocrats regained much influence. Powerful nobles and wealthy merchants influenced and sometimes dominated inept monarchs. 2. International Relations - the great powers of Europe included Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Spain, Holland, Poland, Sweden, and the Ottoman Empire were no longer considered great powers - the great powers fought limited wars: had specific territorial and economy objectives, and religion was not a factor among the great powers.

Concordat of Bologna (1516)

Francis I recognized the supremacy of the papacy over a universal council. In return, French rulers gained the right to appoint all French bishops and abbots. As a result of this concordat, the ruling Valois kings had no reason to support a revolt against Rome.

Key Demographic Trends, after 1950s

1. European brith rates rose in the 1950s but then began a sustained decline 2. as a result of decolonization, former colonial people migrated to Europe 3. immigration from North Africa and the Middle east created significant Muslim populations in many Western European countries 4. attracted by economic opportunities, souther Europeans migrated to Northern Europe

Old Imperialism

- European powers had practiced a form of imperialism between the 16th an 17th centuries. During this period, Portugal, the Dutch Republic, and England built trading-post empires along the coasts of Africa, India, and Indonesia. They did not penetrate inland to conquer entire regions or subjugate their populations. - The New World was a notable exception to this pattern. Spain established an enormous empire in Central and South American while England colonized the east coast of North America.

Anglicanism

- A Protestant denomination of the Christian faith founded by Henry VIII in England. - since Henry could not get an annulment from his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, he turned to a radical solution - In 1533, Henry defied the pope and married Anne Boleyn - the following year, Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy. This landmark act declared the English king to be the "Protector and Only Supreme Head of the Church and Clergy of England" - this meant that the English monarch now controlled the church in all matters of doctrine, clerical appointments, and discipline - although Henry VIII rejected papal supremacy, he remained a devout Catholic. In 1539, Parliament approved the Six Articles defining the doctrine of the English Church. With the sole exception of papal supremacy, the Six Articles reaffirmed Catholic teachings while rejecting Protestant beliefs

Hope and Failure in Germany 1848

- A growing number of German nationalists hoped for a more liberal German state. - In 1824, all the major German states except Austria formed the Zollverein, a free-trade union, to facilitate commerce - Riots broke out in Berlin in 1848. Frederick William IV (reigned 1840-1861) responded by issuing a series of reforms, including calling a Prussian assembly to draft a new constitution - Meanwhile, another assembly met in Frankfurt to draft a constitution for all Germany - the hopes of German reformers were soon crushed. Supported by the army, Frederick William dissolved the Prussian assembly. he then rejected the Frankfurt Assembly's plan for a constitutional monarchy with him as the king, declaring that he would refuse to "pick up a crown from the gutter" - the failures of the German reform movement had fateful consequences for Germany and the future of Europe

Revolution in France (1848)

- Affluent bourgeoise dominated France during the reign of Louis Philippe (reigned 1830-1848). A leading minister rejected demands for extending the franchise to the working class by proclaiming "Enrich yourself and you will have the vote." - unable to withstand public pressure, Louis Philippe's government collapsed in February 1848. - as tensions and unrest gripped Paris, liberals, socialists ,and Bonapartists all vied for power - following a bloody confrontation between workers and the capitalist-backed government, French voters overwhelmingly elected Louis Napoleon as president of the Second French Republic. The nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, Louis promised to restore order at home and glory abroad.

the Balkan Powder Keg

- As the power of the Ottoman Empire receded, the Balkan Peninsula became a powder keg of competing interests - with the exception of the Greeks and Romanians, most of the Balkan population spoke the same Slavic language. Many Slavs embraced Pan-Slavism, a nationalistic movement to unite all Slavic people - Bismarck recognized the potential danger of nationalistic aspirations in the Balkans. At the 1878 Congress of Berlin, he tried to reduce tensions by supporting Serbian Independence and Austria-Hungary's right to "occupy and administer" Bosnia and Herzegovina. This congress also gave independence to the Balkan states of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania - the newly independent nation of Serbia quickly became the leader of the Pan-Slavic movement. Serbian leaders hoped to unite the Slavs in the same way Piedmont had united the Italians and Prussia the Germans - Austria felt threatened by the growth of Slavic nationalism within its borders and across the Balkans. In 1908, the Austrians enraged the Serbs by annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina - Serbian nationalism threatened Austria. At the same time, it offered Slavic Russia an opportunity to advance its interests in the Balkans - Russia and Austria-Hungary were thus in a collision course in the Balkans. As one Balkan crisis followed another, Europe tottered on the brink of war

New Imperialism

- Beginning in 1870, European nations exercised increasing economic and political control over Africa and Asia. No longer content to trade with other people, European nations now aimed to directly rule vast regions of the world. - The Imperialist powers seized control over some areas such as German East Africa and French Indo-China. In other areas, they established protectorates where the dependent country had its own government but was still subject to the authority of the imperial power. And finally, the great powers established spheres of influence over large parts of China.

Bismarck wars

- Bismarck was a master of Realpolitik, taking advantage of opportunities as they presented themselves. In 1864, Denmark incorporated Schleswig and Holstein into the Danish kingdom, provoking a joint war with Prussia and Austria that was short and successful against Denmark. - Afterwards, the joint occupation of this territory created conflict, as Bismarck wanted Prussia to control this territory. Prussia went to war against Austria in 1866 and the Prussians defeated the Austrians, forcing them out of German affairs. - Prussia annexed the states of north Germany and created the Northern German Confederation. While the southern Catholic German states were not included here, Bismarck convinced them into an alliance if there was a war against France. - In 1870, Bismarck manipulated a war against France, easily defeating the French in the Franco-Prussian war and taking the French provinces of Alsace-Lorraine.

The Dreyfus Affair

- Captain Alfred Dreyfus, the first Jewish officer in the French general staff, was convicted of selling military secrets to the Germans and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island off the northern coast of South America. - Although Dreyfus was innocent, a coalition of Catholics, monarchists, anti-Semites, and military officers thwarted attempts to clear his name - Emile Zola, the famed realist novelist, wrote an article called "J'Accuse" (I accuse), charging that military judges had knowingly let the guilty party go, while Dreyfus remained imprisoned. - Dreyfus was ultimately completely exonerated (released) in 1906 - the Dreyfus Affair had a number of consequences. It created a nationwide furor that deepened political divisions and revealed widespread anti-Semitism. The Dreyfus Affair also played a key role in Theodor Herzl's decision to write "The Jewish State," calling for a national homeland for the Jewish people.

Treaty of Westphalia

- Ended Thirty Years War in 1648 - granted right to individual rulers within the Holy Roman Empire to choose their own religion, including Calvinist states - France gained parts of western Germany, part of Alsace, and the three cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, giving the French control of the Franco-German border area - the more than 300 states that made up the HRE were recognized as virally independent, since each received the power to conduct its own foreign policy and make treaties -Hapsburg emperor was reduced to a figurehead in the Holy Roman Empire - religion and politics were now separate; the pope was completely ignored in all decisions at Westphalia and political motives became the guiding focus in public affairs - led to the decline of the HRE; Austria and Prussia rise - independence of the Dutch Republic and neutrality of Switzerland were formally recognized - Sweden received additional territory around the Baltic Sea

The Irish Question

- Following the Act of Union in 1801, Ireland was united with Great Britain and governed by the British Parliament. Led by Charles Parnell, Irish nationalists sought to achieve home rule granting Ireland its own parliament. - Prime Minister William Gladstone supported Irish home rule. However, a coalition of Conservatives and anti-home-rule Liberals defeated his home rule bills in 1886 and 1892. Gladstone's support for Irish home rule split the Liberal Party, enabling the Conservatives to take power. - Parliament finally passed an Irish home-rule bill in 1914. However, the British government suspended the bill for the duration of World War I.

War and Republican France, 1791-1799

- Frederick William II of Prussia and Leopold II of Austria issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, promising to restore order and absolutism in France. In April 1792, the Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria and Prussia, and the king supported this, believing revolutionary France will lose and the monarchy will be restored. - In July, with the war going badly for France, Austria and Prussia issued the Brunswick Manifesto, threatening to destroy Paris if any harm came to the monarchs. This backfired. - Faced with defeat, recruits rushed to Paris and the rejuvenate French forces stopped the Austro-Prussian army. - During the summer of 1792, radicals called sans-culottes took control of the Paris Commune (city government). The revolutionary Paris Commune intimidated the Legislative Assembly into depositing Louis XVI and issuing a call for the election of a national convention. This new body would then form a more democratic government. - Violence once again exploded in Paris. Convinced that royalists would betray the Revolution, mobs of sans-culottes executed over a thousand priests, bourgeoises, and aristocrats. These "September massacres" marked the beginning of the second French Revolution dominated by radicals.

Post WWII

- Germany and Austria were divided into four occupation zones, each governed by one of the Allies: the Soviet Union, the United States, Britain, and France - East Germany, Hungary, and Romania, countries that had fought against Russia in World War II, were forced to pay substantial war reparations to the Soviet Union - after the created of Israel in 1948, over 330000 European Jews left for the new Jewish state, while others immigrated to the US, western Europe, South America, and Britain - postwar authorities were left to deal with those guilty of Nazi atrocities; almost 100,000 Germans and Austrians were convicted of wartime crimes, and many more are investigated or indicted - In Germany and Austria, occupation authorities set up "de-Nazification" procedures and meant to eradicate National Socialist ideology from institutions and to identify and punish former Nazi Party members responsible for the worst crimes

Germany and the New Balance of Power

- Germany's industrial capacity, population, and military power all dramatically increased. In 1900, Germany produced more steel than Great Britain and France combined. Germany's population increased from 41 million in 1871 to 64 million in 1910. In contrast, France had just 40 million people in 1910. - European leaders from Cardinal Richelieu to Prince Klemens von Metternich had feared a united Germany. Their fears now became a reality. As Germany's power surge, its leader demanded respect and a new "place in the sun"

Wars of Louis XIV

- Goals: Louis XIV wanted France to expand its "natural frontiers" along the Rhine River and Switzerland. He also wanted to make France a global power by inheriting the Spanish Habsburg possessions in the New World and Europe. - Louis XIV's powerful army and ambitious plans threatened to create a "universal monarchy" in which other nations would be subordinated to France's political will - Louis repeatedly sent French armies into the Netherlands in an attempt to extend his boundaries into the Rhine River. Each time, a coalition formed by the Dutch Republic thwarted him - War of Spanish Succession (see term 193 for details)

The French Revolutions of 1830

- In 1824, Charles X (reigned 1824-1830) succeeded his brother, Louis XVIII. A dedicated reactionary, Charles X vigorously opposed republicanism, liberalism, and constitutionalism. - Charles X's reactionary policies infuriated both his liberal and working-class opponents - On July 26, 1930, Charles issued a set of edicts (July Ordinances) that imposed right censorship of the press, dissolved the legislative assembly, and reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections - Discontent with Charles X's arbitrary policies ignited three days of rioting in July 1830 (July Revolutions). Eugene Delacroix captured the spirit of the uprising in his famous painting, "Liberty Leading the People" - Delacroix's tribute to liberty portrayed a unified people dedicated to overthrowing tyranny. The unity proved to be brief. While the workers wanted a republic, the bourgeoisie wanted a constitutional monarchy - the bourgeoisie prevailed. With their support, Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, became "King of the French." Louis Philippe prided himself on being a "citizen king" who supported France's business interests. House of Bourbon lost power to the House of Orleans.

Marxian Socialism

- In the Communist Manifesto, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels asserted that "the history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggles" - Marx understood that the history of class conflict is best understood through the dialectical process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. The thesis is the dominant state of affairs. It inevitably gives rise to a conflicting or contradictory force called antithesis. The resulting clash between the thesis and antithesis produces a new state of affairs called the synthesis. - Marx argued that 19th century society had split "into two great classes directly facing each other: bourgeoisie and proletariat." As the owners of the means of production, the bourgeoisie were the thesis. The proletariat or workers were the antithesis. - Marx contended that a class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat would lead "to the dictatorship of the proletariat" - the "dictatorship of the proletariat" would be a transitional phase leading "the the abolition of all classes and to a classless society" in which there would be no private ownership of the means of production - Marx and Engels argued that women were exploited by both men and capital

Economic Changes: Women

- It is important to remember that most working women were single. Few married women worked outside the home. - By the mid-1850s, women and children comprised half of the labor force in the cotton industry. Women were paid about half of a man's wages for similar work. - Opportunities for well-educated women were limited to teaching, nursing, and social work. - After 1800, many working-class women worked as clerks, typists, and telephone operators.

Glorious Revolution (1688)

- James II, a devout Catholic brought conflict between him and Parliament, as they were worried his Catholic son would take the throne - Whigs and Tories invited William and Mary to overthrow James II for the sake of Protestantism. - James II was replaced by Mary, James's daughter and her husband William of Orange - after they had assumed power, Parliament passed the Bill of Rights, which specified the rights of Parliament and laid the foundation for a constitutional monarchy - this bloodless (glorious) revolution allowed Parliament to have an unquestioned role in affairs of the state

the European Coal and Steel Community

- Jean Monnet, a French economic planner, convinced French Premier Robert Schuman that economic cooperation would be the key to future prosperity between France and West Germany - The Schuman Plan, as the project became known, led to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The ECSC called for tariff-free trade in coal and steel among France, West Germany, Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

- Khrushchev precipitated the Cuban Missile Crisis by constructing nuclear missiles in Cuba - President John F. Kennedy demanded their removal and announced a naval blockade of the island - after a tense confrontation with the US, Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the missiles in exchange for a US promise not the attack Fidel Castro. - the Cuban Missile Crisis underhand Khrushchev's credibility and played a key role in his ouster from power in 1964

The Struggle for Legal and Political Rights; Women

- Law codes in most European countries gave women few legal rights. - Divorce was legalized in Britain in 1857 and in France in 1884. However, Catholic countries such as Spain and Italy did not permit divorce. - Although the women's suffrage movement commanded wide attention, it achieved few successes. In 1900, no country in Europe allowed women to vote.

Edward Bernstein and Evolutionary Socialism

- Marx predicted that as the workers became more exploited they would unite to overthrow the bourgeoisie. Instead, as capitalism matured, working conditions improved - led by Edward Bernstein, "evolutionary" socialists began to revise Marxian doctrine to adjust to the new economic realities - Bernstein rejected Marx's concept of class struggle and instead sought to achieve socialist goals by a process of gradual reform

Napoleon's Final Battles

- Napoleon's enemies quickly took advantage of his weakness. Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria formed a Grand Alliance that defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Nations in October 1813 - the allied armies entered Paris in March 1814. Napoleon abdicated his throne and was exiled to the island of Elba - in March 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and formed a new army. Led by Great Britain and Prussia, the Grand Alliance defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. (the combined British and Prussian army was led by the duke of Wellington) - Napoleon abdicated a second time and was shipped to St. Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic. Once the master of Europe, Napoleon now lived in lonely exile writing his memoirs. He died in 1821.

industry in Great Britain

- PAST: because European society, like other societies, continued to rely mainly on wood for energy, and human beings and animals continue to perform most work, the world remained poor in energy and power sources - CHANGE: Britain looked toward coal as an alternative to increasingly scarce supplies of wood; a breakthrough occurred when industrialists began to use coal to produce mechanical energy and to power machinery. Britain's ready supplies of coal, iron ore, and other raw materials promoted industrial growth - Great Britain establish its industrial dominance through the mechanization of textile produce, iron and steel production, and new transportation systems such as canals and railroads. It had a large pool of labor for workers after the Agricultural Revolution (humans replaced by efficient machinery), and engineers, inventors, and capitalists - Great Britain had a favorable political climate for industrialization, with a government promoting commercial and industrial interests that were represented in Parliament - OUTSIDE: apart from Great Britain, France moved toward industrialization more gradually, while eastern and southern Europe lagged far behind because of lack of resources and government support

the Fourteen Points (1918)

- President Woodrow Wilson became the spokesman for a just and lasting peace. - Wilson's Fourteen Points included a call for the following: 1. Open Diplomacy 2. Freedom of the Seas 3. Reduction of national armaments 4. Return of Alsace-Lorraine to France 5. a free and independent Poland with access to the sea 6. national self-determination for oppressed minority groups 7. creation of a "general association of nations" to preserve the peace and security of its members - Wilson's idealistic proposals were undermined by secret treatises and by a desire to punish Germany.

Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

- Protestant ruler of England who inherited a difficult religious problem. Since Henry VIII's break with Rome in 1534, royal religious policy had changed direction several times. - She was a politique who placed political necessities above her own personal beliefs. She therefore strove to find a middle course that moderate Catholics and moderate Protestants would accept. - the Elizabethan Settlement restored the Church of England. Also known as the Anglican Church, the Church of England allowed priests to marry and conduct sermons in English. However, the Church of England retained archbishops and bishops who wore elaborate robes and conducted services that remained formal and traditional. - although Protestant in tone, the Church of England instituted dogmas that were deliberately broad and often ambiguous - what mattered most to this monarch was not the religious beliefs of her subjects but their loyalty. She wanted to avoid destructive religious civil wars. It was not her intention, she said, "to pry windows into men's souls" - her reign marked the beginning of a cultural golden age and a period of sustained economic growth and prosperity

Catholic Reformation Popes

- Renaissance popes such as Julius II concentrated their energies on commissioning art, building a new St. Peter's and enhancing the powers of their own families - beginning with Pope Paul III (1534-1549), a new generation of popes committed themselves to appointing reform-minded officials, enforcing strict moral standards, creating new religious orders

Vichy France

- Southern Pro-Nazi French; govern themselves as loyal to Nazis; traitors to the Free French in Northern France - During WWII, Germany divided France into two parts. The Germans occupied the north, and the southeast remained nominally independent under the aging Marshal Henri Philippe Petain, who formed the Vichy regime, which adopted many aspects of National Socialist ideology - Nazi administrators stole goods and money from local Jews and set currency exchanges at favorable rates, where soldiers were encourages to steal and to purchase goods at cheap exchange rates and send them home. Thus, a flood of plunder reached Germany and helped to maintain high living standards and preserve morale at home.

Khrushchev's secret speech

- Stalin's reign of terror came to an abrupt end with his death in 1953. After a brief period of "collective leadership," Nikita Khrushchev emerged as the Soviet Union's unrivaled leader. - In 1956, Khrushchev boldly attacked Stalin in a "secret speech" delivered at the Twentieth Communist Party Congress in Moscow - Khrushchev denounced Stalin's reign of terror and repudiated his "cult of personality" - claimed that there will be a better form of communism that is not as repressive (desalinization)

Italy before unification 1850

- The Carbonari had failed to incite a successful revolution - Giuseppe Mazzini and the Young Italy Movement failed to rally support for a republic - Austria continued to control Lombardy and Venetia while also dominating other small Italian states - a reactionary Bourbon regime continued to control the kingdom of the Two Sicilies - Pope Pius IX opposed the cause of Italian nationalism - Italian nationalists looked to the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia for leadership. It was the only Italian state ruled by an Italian dynasty, House of Savoy. - in 1852, Piedmont's King Victor Emmanuel II named Count Camillo di Cavour his prime minister

Concert of Europe Revolt and Repression

- The Congress of Vienna disappointed liberals and nationalists across Europe. Discontentment led to revolts that tested Metternich and the Concert of Europe - Uprisings in Spain and Italy: 1. The repressive policies of the restored Spanish Bourbon King Ferdinand VII provoked demands for a more representative government. Actin with the consent of the other great powers, the French forces intervened, enabling Ferdinand to regain absolute power. 2. Repressive monarchs in Naples and Sardinia-Piedmont also sparked rebellions. Metternich promptly responded by sending in Austrian forces who defeated the rebels - Repression in Germany 1. Young Germans continued to hope for liberal reforms and a free, united Germany. Disillusioned by the congress of Vienna, they formed student associations called Burshenschaften to discuss their concerns 2. Alarmed by these student activities, Metternich persuaded the major German states to issue the Carlsbad Decrees. The decrees dissolved the student associations, censored books and newspapers, and used secret police to harass dissidents. - The Decembrist Revolt in Russia 1. When Tsar Alexander I died in December 1825, a group of army officers rebelled, calling for constitutional reform and opposing the accession of Nicholas I (Decembrist Revolts) - Alexander's successor, Nicholas I ruthlessly suppressed the Decembrists - Under Nicholas I's oppressive regime, Russia became Europe's most powerful reactionary stronghold. Nicholas was called the "Policeman of Europe" because we was willing to use Russian troops to crush revolutions.

European Economic System (Common Market)

- The ECSC proved the be a success. As a result, in 1957 its six member nations signed the Treaty of Rome creating the European Economic Community (EEC), popularly known as the Common Market. - the EEC eliminated trade barriers among its members, thus closely resembling a tariff union. It rapidly emerged as the driving forced behind economic integration in Western Europe.

Balance of Power

- The leaders at Vienna wanted to weaken France so that it would no longer be able to wage wars of aggression and threaten the balance of power. At the same time, the victorious powers did not want to impose a punitive treaty that would humiliate and antagonize France. - France was forced to return to its 1790 borders and pay an indemnity of 700 million francs. However, France was allowed to keep most of its overseas possessions, its army, and an independent government. - To keep France from renewing its drive for power, the Congress encircled France with strengthened powers: 1. The Austrian Netherlands was united with the Dutch Republic to form a single kingdom of the Netherlands 2. A group of 39 German states were loosely joined into a newly created German Confederation, dominated by Austria 3. the Congress recognized Switzerland as an independent and neutral nation 4. the kingdom of Sardinia in Italy was strengthened by the addition of Piedmont and Savoy

Henry VIII (1509-1547)

- Tudor monarch, devout Catholic who detested Luther and created the Church of England with himself as supreme leader. - Since he was the only second king of the Tudor dynasty, he was determined to have a male heir. When his wife, Catherine of Aragon, failed to give birth to a son, Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage. - the Pope would normally have granted Henry's request. However, Catherine of Aragon was the aunt of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. At the time of Henry's request, Charle's armies controlled Rome. The pope delayed and finally refused to annul Henry's marriage. - after establishing the Anglican Church, Henry began a dissolution of monasteries - beginning in 1526, Parliament passed acts closing all English monasteries and seizing their lands - Henry sold much of the land to nobles and other members of England's increasingly prosperous merchant class. Enriched by the monastic lands, these groups became loyal supporters of the Tudor dynasty

nationalism

- a sense of national identity: unifying characteristics, e.g., common institutions, traditional, language, customs, and religion that became the focus of the individual's primary political loyalty - a sense of national belonging: extending voting rights, social welfare, and universal military conscription - ideologies excluding others: race and social Darwinist ideologies become more prominent. "us vs. them" leads to a belief in national superiority and ultimately to the denigration of "other" groups

Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529)

- for Renaissance humanists, the ideal individual strove to become a "universal man" who exceeded in many fields - in his book "The Courtier," he explained how upper-class men and women could become accomplished courtiers - according to him, the ideal courtier should be polite, charming, and witty. He should be able to dance, write poetry, sing, and play music. In addition, he should be physically graceful and strong. - upper class women were not ignored. the perfect court lady, this writer said, should be well educated and charming. Yet women were not expected to seek fame as men did

development from ECSC to EU

- after WWII, there was slow movement towards European economic integration. The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was founded in 1952, eliminating tariffs between the Inner-Six countries: France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg - the success of this arrangement prompted the 1957 meeting of the same six countries to agree to the Treaty of Rome, which created European Economic Community (EEC), also called the common market. This arrangement would allow for common politics and a free flow of capital without trade barriers - there would be several enlargements of the ECC, with Great Britain, Denmark, and Ireland joining in 1973; countries like Greece and Spain joining in the 1980s, once they had democracies; and then eastern European countries joining in 2004, after the fall of communism - in 1991, the Maastricht Agreement was signed, creating the European Union (EU) and adopting the euro as currency. While this had initial economic prosperity, the 2008 fiscal crisis and immigration issues presented challenges to the system, dividing Europeans and leading to disputes and a desire for some states to leave the EU, most recently with Brexit

Alliances before WWI

- alliances developed between 1870 and 1914 created two sides bound by commitments to protect sovereignty or intervene militarily - Three Emperor's League: an 1873 agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. Russia withdrew in 1878. - Dual Alliance: promise between Germany and Austria-Hungary to aid each other against Russia or if Russia assisted a nation with which either country was at war - Triple Alliance: between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy - Reinsurance Treaty: signed between Germany and Russia to prevent a French-Russian alliance - Entente Cordiale: agreement between France and Britain resolving colonial dispute and promising diplomatic support - Triple Entente: alliance between France, Russia, and Great Britain - Russia supported Serbia if attacked by Austria-Hungary

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

- between 1546 and 1555, a religious civil war between Catholics led by Charles V and Protestants led by German princes tore Germany apart. It is important to note that the Catholic king of France supported the Protestant nobles. This is an example of the long-standing French policy of maintaining a divided Germany. - this agreement ended the civil war. It formally acknowledged the division of Christianity, with Lutheranism granted legal standing with Catholicism. Moreover, the peace settlement accepted the right of each German ruler to determine the religion of his subjects. This did not provide for the recognition of Calvinists and other religious minorities.

"Europe was at my Feet"

- between 1805 and 1807, Napoleon defeated Austria, Prussia, and Russia in a series of brilliant military victories - his victory at Austerlitz solidified his reputation as a military genius - by 1808, French rule extended from the North Sea to Spain and included much of Italy - Lord Nelson's naval victory at Trafalgar thwarted Napoleon's goal of controlling the seas and mounting an invasion of Great Britain

Imperialism before WWI

- conflicts over imperial issues were not an immediate cause of World War I, but rather increased tension that provoked some countries to seek out and strengthen alliances. Countries wanted new markets and the prestige of global empires - an example of a conflict over imperialism: Moroccan crises of 1905 and 1911

New Imperialism: Causes (1880s)

- economic motives played an important role in the extension of political empires, especially for the British Empire that was losing its early economic lead and facing increasing competition in foreign markets. these nations wanted raw materials and new markets for their manufactured goods - each leading European power saw colonies as crucial to national security and military power; for example, safeguarding the Suez Canal played an important role in the British occupation of Egypt - many people were convinced that colonies were essential to great nations, an attitude that reflected both the increasing aggressiveness of European nationalism and Social Darwinian theories of brutal competition among races (National Rivalry). Strong nations had a natural right to dominate weaker people. These colonies would provide ports and coaling stations for their new navies - the industrial world's unprecedented technological and military superiority, as evidence by the rapidly firing Maxim machine gun, the use of quinine in controlling malaria, and the invention of the steamship and international telegraph - conservative political leaders manipulated colonial issues in order to divert popular attention from the class struggle at homes and to create a false sense of unity - imperialists developed additional arguments in order to satisfy their consciences and answer their critics. A favorite idea was that Europeans could and should civilize more primate nonwhite people; white man's burden. Missionaries believed they had to bring Christianity and the be blessings of advanced technology to less fortunate people.

Trench warfare

- employed primarily on the Western Front, long, narrow trenches were dug into the ground by soldiers who would occupy them for long periods of time. They were designed to protect troops from machine-gun fire and artillery attack from the air. - trenches for opposing sides were close together, with "no man's land"- an area that was dangerously unprotected and filled with mines and barbed wire- as the territory between the trenches - conditions were inhumane, as trenches were exposed to the elements. Trenches were often infested with rats and lice, and soldiers would die of exposure - the cost of lives was staggering and often resulted in minimal territorial gain and a stalemate

Treaty of Paris 1763

- ended the French and Indian War - the British acquired French Canada and the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. The British strengthened their global empire. - France retained her Caribbean sugar islands and a few commercial installations in India - Prussia retained possession of Silesia

Napoleon Bonaparte

- he was named First Consul of the Republic in France (1799) after ousting the Directory and disbanding the legislature at bayonet point. As first consul, he held all the power and made all the decisions. He then became emperor of France in 1804. - he appealed toe many, like Abbe Sieyes, who looked for a strong military leader to end France's upheaval. His popularity continued to rise as he restored order, stimulated prosperity, and defeated the Second Coalition. - he claimed that the new nation emerging from the revolution could live up to the revolution's ideas of equality, fraternity, and liberty - secure in his power, Napoleon enacted policies designed to transform France into an efficient modern state - he brought order and stability to France, but betrayed the ideals of the Revolution by violating the rights of free speech and press and free elections

Imperialism in Africa

- imperialism in Africa began with the International Congo Association in 1878 by Leopold II of Belgium. Leopold formed a financial syndicate under under his personal control and sent Henry M. Stanley to the Congo, where he established trading stations and signed unfair treaties with African chiefs - After Leopold's intrusion into the Congo, tensions mounted among European nations, as industrialized countries wanted a share of the valuable natural resources in Africa. to keep peace during this "Scramble for Africa," Otto von Bismarck arranged the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885. - the British already possessed the largest empire in the world and had valuable territory, including Egypt and South Africa. The competition of the Suez Canal in 1869 made Egypt vitally important to the British because it shortened the route to India. To protect Egypt, Britain also advanced into the Sudan. - France solidified claims on much of West African and acquired large portions of North Africa, which had vital natural resources such as iron ore and petroleum. By 1882, France was in full control of Algeria and had taken over Tunisia, to prevent both from falling into Italian hands. - Bismarck had little real interest in colonies but pursued an imperial policy to improve Germany's diplomatic position. Germany had acquired territory in central Africa in 1890, where it established a lucrative mining industry. This location in central Africa also blocked Great Britain's hopes of creating a railroad from Cape Town to Cairo.

Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

- in 1540, Pope Paul III formally authorized the Society of Jesus. Those who joined were called Jesuits. - led by Ignatius, the Jesuits were a spiritual army that emphasized iron discipline and absolute obedience - Ignatius wrote "The Spiritual Exercises," detailing a system of disciplined meditation, prayer, and study Activities of the Jesuits: - Catholic education: Jesuits found hundreds of schools for middle and upper class boys. They were especially prominent as confessors and advisors to royal families. To them, the thorough education of the young was crucial to combating the advance of Protestantism. - Missionary work: Jesuit missionaries played a key role in preaching Christianity in the Americas and Asia. - combating Protestantism: Jesuit spearheaded the revival of Catholicism in Bavaria, the southern Netherlands, and Poland

Italian Unification: North and South

- in 1860, Garibaldi's guerrilla band of a thousand Red Shirts landed in Sicily, capturing the imagination of the peasantry, who had revolted against their landlords, and outwitting the royal army to win battles, gain volunteers, and take Palermo - when Garibaldi and his men crossed to the mainland and prepared to attack Rome, the wily Cavour quickly sent Sardinian forces to occupy most of the Papal States (but not Rome) and to intercept Garibaldi. He didn't want Rome, who embodied Catholicism and was global, to be attacked. - Cavour also feared Garibaldi's radicalism and popular appeal, so he quickly organized a plebiscite (direct vote to change the Constitution) in the conquered territories that went unopposed by patriotic Garibaldi. The people of the south voted to join the kingdom of Sardinia - When Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel rode together through Naples to cheering crowds, they symbolically sealed the union of north and south, of monarch and nation-state - the Parliamentary monarchy under Victor Emmanuel II was neither radical nor democratic. Although it was politically unified, a growing social and cultural gap separated the progressive, industrializing north from the stagnant, agrarian south

Alliances and Issues before Cold War

- in 1949, the Soviets created the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, COMECON, to economically organize and rebuild the Eastern Bloc countries; however, the discrepancy between the Marshall Plan aid to the west furthered the divisions of the Cold War - Berlin became the focus of the Cold War in 1948-19, when the Soviets blockaded West Berlin, cutting off access for its two million citizens. The western Allies coordinated through hundreds to flights to supply provisions to the people. After 342 days, the Berlin Air Lift succeeded, and the Soviets lifted the blockade - two separate German states were declared in 1949; the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the Germany Democratic Republic (East Germany) - in 1949, the United States formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO, as an anti-Soviet military alliance with Western governments, including West Germany in 1955. The Soviets countered by forming the Warsaw Pact with its satellite nations in the East. - the two-sided conflict played out in proxy wars throughout the second half of the 20th century. Soviet-backed North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, and the US sent troops to quickly stop the spread of communism.

Italian Unification: Northern States

- in the 1850's, Count Camillo Benso di Cavour worked to consolidate (strengthen) Piedmont-Sardinia as a liberal constitutional state capable of leading northern Italy; he successfully built support for Sardinia through a program of highways and railroads, civil liberties, and opposition to clerical privilege - because Cavour realized that Sardinia could not drive Austria out of norther Italy without a powerful ally, he established a secret alliance with Napoleon III against Austria in 1858 - when Cavour goaded Austria into attacking Sardinia in 1859, Napoleon III came to Sardinia's defense and Austria was defeated (Napoleon created a secret alliance with Austria in 1859, however, which stooped the fighting) - Cavour returned to power in early 1860, gained the support of Napoleon III by ceding Savoy and Nice to France, and achieved his original goal of a northern Italian state when the people of central Italy voted to join a greatly enlarged kingdom of Sardinia under Victor Emmanuel II

The Defeat of Philip: England

- the English felt threatened by Philip II's aggressive actions in the Netherlands - Queen Elizabeth openly assisted the Dutch rebels with money and troops. She also encouraged English sea captains to raid Spanish treasure ships. - Outraged by Elizabeth's interference, Philip assembled a huge fleet known as the Spanish Armada to invade England. Philip hoped to depose Elizabeth and return England to Catholicism. - Harassed by fast English ships, the powerful but slow-moving Spanish Armada never reached England. Only 67 of the Armada's original 130 ships returned to Spain.

plans after WWII

- just after World War WWII, US President Truman stopped aid to the Soviet Union and declared that the United States would not recognize any government established by force. Churchill gave his famous Iron Curtain speech, explaining the two antagonistic camps that had emerged - In Romania, Bulgaria, Poland, and Hungary, communist politicians, backed by Moscow, repressed liberal opponents and created sham elections that endorsed (supported) communist regimes - the Truman Doctrine was introduced to contain communism at its current borders by promising to use diplomatic, economic, and even military resources to resist the spread of communism - the Marshall plan provided a program of economic aid for the reconstruction of Europe

Advances under Napoleon

- maintained orders and worked out important compromises - his Civil Code of 1804 granted equality for the middle class and safeguarded their right to won property - he confirmed the gains of the peasants - he centralized the governmental, strengthened the bureaucracy, and granted amnesty (official pardons) to nobles - singed the Concordat of 1801, which granted freedom of worship for Catholics

Crimean War Consequences

- marked the first great power conflict since the Congress of Vienna in 1815 - Napoleon III achieved his objective of breaking the alliance between Austria and Russia, since Austria remained neutral instead of assisting Russia - by entering the war on the side of France and Britain, Piedmont-Sardinia hoped to gain support for Italian unification - Russia's humiliating defeat forced Alexander II to launch an ambitious program of reforms

Technology in WWII

- new military technology would be important in WWII, as it was a in WWI, and would make industrialized warfare and genocide possible - new weapons, such as planes, tanks, and trucks, allowed Germany's blitzkrieg (lightning) warfare to bring the Axis powers early victories. An example of this is the Polish campaign of 1939, where Hitler's armies conquered Poland in only four weeks - radars detected airplanes, sonars detected ships and submarines

New Technologies of WWI

- new technologies confounded traditional strategies and led to trench warfare and massive troop losses - planes are used at first to observe troops, and then they were armed with machine guns - tanks were used by both sides; while they moved slowly, they could crush barbed wire and cross trenches - poisonous gasses, such as chlorine and mustard, were used by both sides. While this resulted in a small number of deaths, gas use was psychologically devastating - machine guns were widely used by both sides due to their portability and power - flame throwers were first used by the Germans near Verdun, France, in 1915 - submarines, known as German U-boats, sank merchant ships throughout the war

Anabaptism

- rebaptizers; they opposed infant baptism, insisting that only adult baptism conformed to Scripture - they advocated complete separation of church and state - these people later became mennonites and amish - Catholics, Lutehrans, and Calvinists all condemned leaders of this religion as radicals - modern historians have labeled Thomas Muntzer a "left wing" leader because he advocated the overthrow of the political and social order. He was executed in 1525

Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)

- replaced the National Assembly - members of the Legislative Assembly sat together in separate sections of the meeting hall. The political terms right, center, and left are derived from this seating arrangement. - conservatives who supported the king made up the Right - moderates comprised a large group in the Center - radicals who distrusted the king and wanted the Revolution to continue sat to the left. The left was divided into two groups 1. The Jacobins wanted to overthrow the monarchy and create a republic. They were closely tied to the sans-culottes and were more radical. Key Jacobin leaders include Jean-Paul Marat, Georges-Jacques Danton, and Maximilian Robespierre. It is important to note that the Marquis de Lafayette was not a Jacobin. 2. The Girondists wanted to involve France in a war that would discredit the monarchy and extend France's revolutionary ideas across Europe.

Philip II of Spain

- son of Charles V, who left him a vast empire that included Spain, Milan, Naples, and the Netherlands, and the overseas empire in the Americas - in the Battle of Lepanto (1571) a combine Spanish-Venetian fleet defeated the Turkish navy at Lepanto off the coast of Greece - this victory enhanced Philip's prestige as a champion of Catholicism Goals: 1. to advance Spanish power in Europe 2. to champion Catholicism in Europe 3. to defeat the Ottoman Turks in the eastern Mediterranean Consequences: - he was defeated in the Netherlands and by the English - although still a formidable military power, Spain began a long period of political and economic decline - now independent, the Dutch began a golden age of commercial prosperity and artistic creativity - as Spain's influence declined, England's power increased. The English were now free to develop their overseas trade and to colonize North America.

Ninety-Five Theses (1517)

- stunning indictment of the of the abuses in the sale of indulgences; this symbolized the starting point of the Protestant Reformation - Luther witnessed Johann Tetzel selling indulgences near Wittenberg - part of the income from the indulgences sold by Tetzel and issued by Pope Leo X was destined for Rome to help pay for the construction of the new St. Peter's Basilica - Tetzel's aggressive marketing tastings appealed Luther. He believed that salvation could not be sold by the pope; it was a free gift from God - On October 31, 1517, Luther dramatically nailed this to a church door in Wittenberg - aided by the printing press, Luther's defiant challenge was soon disseminated across Europe. they made an immense impression on Germans already dissatisfied with the ecclesiastical and financial policies of the papacy

Early Labor Unions in Britain

- the Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 prohibited British workers from organizing to improve their condition - under pressure from labor and middle-class reformers Parliament repealed the Combination Acts in 1825 - in 1875, British trade unions won legal status, including the right to strike

Dutch Art

- the Dutch Republic was a Protestant nation without an absolute ruler. This made Dutch art very different from the baroque art in Rome and Madrid. - lacking commissions from the Catholic Church and royal officials, Dutch artists turned to their nation's prosperous merchants. As self-made entrepreneurs, they wanted to purchase painting of themselves, their families, their possessions, and their land. - Dutch artists focused on painting individual and group portraits, landscapes and genre scenes of everyday life and moral lessons. - during the 1600s, the Dutch Republic supported an astonishing number of great artists. Led by Frans Hals, Rembrandt, and Jan Vermeer, the Dutch enjoyed a golden age of artistic achievement.

HRE in 1600

- the Holy Roman Empire included approximately 300 small principalities, duchies, and independent cities - the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 gave each German prince the right to determine the religion of his state, either Roman Catholic or Lutheran - the Peace of Augsburg did not provide for the recognition of Calvinists. Nonetheless, a number of states including Palatinate, had adopted Calvinism

Revolution in Belgium (1830)

- the July Revolution in France helped spark discontent in Belgium - the Congress of Vienna united the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) with Holland to form a single kingdom of the Netherlands - Catholic Belgium and Protestant Holland had very little in common. In. 1830, riots in Belgium quickly turned into a widespread demand for independence - both Great Britain and France opposed intervention. In 1830, the great powers recognized Belgium as a neutral state

Spanish Conquests

- the conquering of the Native Americans by the Spanish - Hernando Cortes conquered the Aztec empire in Mexico - Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca empire in Peru Spanish America: - by the end of the 16th century, Spain possessed an American empire twenty times its own size - the Aztecs and other indigenous people were converted to Christianity and became subjects of the Spanish king - the king of Spain governed his American empire through a Council of the Indies in Spain and through viceroys in Mexico City and Lima, Peru

Factors leading the French Revolution

- the economic situation in France had reached a critical state by 1785, in which debt from wars, particularly French aid in the American Revolution, had bankrupted France - to make matters worse, poor grain harvests led to very high prices for bread, causing outrage and riots in the street. The demand for goods collapsed, and hundreds of thousands of artisans and traders were out of work - because of a depressed economy, Louis XVI's finance minister brought forward a proposal to impose taxes on all property (included the 1st and 2nd estate). He called an Assembly of Notables, mostly of the aristocracy and high-ranking clergy who declared that approval for such tax changes would need to be made by the Estates General- the legislative body representing all three estates that had not met since 1614. - the Third Estate wanted both more deputies and a vote by head rather than by estate, as the privileged First and Second estates could outvote them. Deadlocked over the issue of voting procedures, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly on June 17, 1789 - the National Assembly drew up the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen in 1789 - October 5: about 7000 women marched to Versailles and broke in to the Queen Marie Antionette's chamber, killing several of the royal guards and bringing the royal family back to Paris - the next day, the National Assembly followed the king to Paris. By June of 1790, the king swore to uphold a constitutional monarchy, with all the lawmaking power residing in the National Assembly, which consisted of French male property owners

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)

- the growing strength of the Huguenots alarmed the French king Charles IX and his powerful mother Catherine de' Medici - with Catherine's support, Catholics killed thousands of Huguenots gathered in Paris to celebrate the wedding of Margaret of Valois to the Huguenot leader Henry of Navarre. The violence quickly spread to the provinces, where as many as 20,000 Huguenots were killed - this massacre ignited a bloody civil war between Catholics and Huguenots that continued for 15 years, devastating French agriculture and commerce

decline of Poland

- the king of Poland was elected by Polish nobles who severely restricted his power - Poland had a central diet, but acute required the unanimous consent of each aristocratic member. Any member could break up or "explode' the diet by objecting to a policy of act -Poland's lack of centralizing power created a power vacuum that left it vulnerable to stronger and more aggressive nations

Enlightened Despotism

- the philosophes urged Europe's absolute rulers to use their power for the good of the people - Enlightened despots would combat ignorance and superstition by eliminating irrational customs, promoting religious toleration, reforming legal codes, and supporting education - NOTE: philosophies did not support democracy. Like Hobbes, they believed that the people could not be trusted with self-government - George III of England and Louis XV of France had little or no interest in either the philosophes or the concept of enlightened despotism. Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, and Frederick the Great of Prussia were Europe's best-known enlightened despots.

Diplomatic Revolution

- the time of changing alliances between the war of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War - the Austrian chancellor, Count Kaunitz, vowed to recover Silesia - Kaunitz successfully formed a coalition that included France, Austria, and Russia. One consequence of this new alliance was the marriage of Marie Antoinette, daughter of Maria Theresa, to the future Louis XVI of France - England then formed an alliance with Prussia to implement its policy of maintaining a balance of power on the continent - this did not change the basic rivalries between England and France and Austria and Prussia

The Holocaust Development

- the ultimate abomination of Nazi racism progressed from the condemnation of all European Jews and of other people considered racially inferior (disabled people), to extreme racial persecution and then to annihilation in the Holocaust - in 1941, Hitler and the Nazi leadership ordered the SS (secret police) to implement the "final solution of the Jewish question," which meant the mass murder of all Jews in Europe. - the Germans established an extensive network of concentration camps, industrial complexes, and railroad transport lines to imprison and murder Jews and other so-called "undesirables," and to exploit their labor before they died - the surviving residents of the ghettos were loaded onto trains and take to camps such as Auschwitz-Birkenau, where over 1 million people, mostly of the Jews, were murdered in gas chambers. Jews in Germany and occupied western and central Europe followed into that same fate.

context in which Cold War developed

- total war and political instability in the first half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during the Cold War and eventually to efforts at transnational union - as WWII ended, a Cold War between the liberal democratic West and the communist East began, lasting nearly half a century - the stresses of economic collapse and total war engendered internal conflicts within the European states and created conflicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and among democracy, communist, and facism - despite efforts to maintain international cooperation through the newly created United Nations, deep-seated tensions between the USSR and the West led to the division of Europe, which was referred to in the West as the Iron Curtain

The Defeat of Philip II: The Netherlands

- when Philip succeeded to the throne, the Spanish Netherlands consisted of 17 provinces. The seven northern provinces were largely Germanic in culture and Dutch speaking while the southern provinces were closely tied to France. - Philip threatened traditional liberties by imposing the Inquisition and dispatching troops to support it; he attempted to crush Calvinism. Philip's ill-considered actions provoked riots against the Spanish authorities by Calvinists, especially nobles - Philip responded to this challenge by sending 10,000 additional troops. Led by the ruthless Duke of Alva, the Spaniards levied new taxes and sentences thousands to death; the Council of Troubles inaugurated a reign of terror. - Alva's brutal actions united the Netherlands against the Spanish. During the struggle, many showed their opposition to Spain by converting to Calvinism - a new Spanish viceroy, the Duke of Parma, adopted more skillful tactics. By substituting diplomacy for force, Parma was able to induce the ten southern provinces to reaffirm their loyalty to Spain. They formed a Catholic Union in 1579. - To counter this, William of Orange organized the seven northern states into a Protestant Union, the Union of Utrecht, determined to oppose Spanish rule - the war for control of the Netherlands continued until 1609. Under the terms of a truce, the 7 northern and now heavily Calvinist provinces gained their independence and were known as Dutch. The 10 Catholic southern provinces were known as the Spanish Netherlands.

German Unification (1871)

- when Wilhelm I inherited the Prussian throne in 1861, he set out to reestablish Prussia's power and introduce reforms in the army. He called for expansion of the army through a military draft and introduced modernized weapons. The army was to be doubled in size and have 3 years of compulsory military service - as Germany industrialized, the power of the middle-class Liberal Party grew in Prussia and became resentful of the conservative influence of the army and the Junker class. They feared compulsory military service would incubate obedience to the monarchy and strengthen the influence of the conservative- military clique. After the Prussian legislature rejected the new military budget submitted, Wilhelm I looked to Otto von Bismarck. - Bismarck was made prime minister in 1862 and came into the position with widespread diplomatic experience. He declared that Wilhelm's government would rule without parliamentary consent. - addressing the opposition, Bismarck used the expression "Iron and Blood" to describe how the great moments in history are decided through conflict and warfare. Bismarck's phase was meant to assert that wars decide the major events of history, and it was delivered as an appeal for the Prussian Parliament to increase defense spending. - Bismarck went on collected taxes (bureaucracy), even though the budget had not been approved, and he reorganized the army. He then waged three separate wars against Austria, France, and Denmark, to unify Germany. - In 1871, the German Empire was declared with William I as Kaiser.

WWII Allies Retake Power

- with almost unchallenged air superiority, the US and Britain mounted massive bombing raids on German cities to maim industrial production and break civilian morale - the German campaign of 1942 against the Soviet Union turned disastrous when, at the Battle of Stalingrad in November 1942, the Soviets surrounded and systematically destroyed the entire German Sixth Army - Stalingrad represents that bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, with 1.8-2 million killed, wounded, or captured. Hitler, who had refused to allow a retreat, suffered a catastrophic defeat, and for the first time, German public opinion turned decisively against the war - On June 6, 1944, British and American forces landed on the beaches at Normandy, France, and broke through German lines - by the spring of 1945, the allies reached Germany, forced the Germans out of Italy, and captures Mussolini - the Soviets advanced into Poland and then south into Romania, Yugoslavia, and Hungary. They also entered Berlin in April 1945. * (Soviets take over Germany from the right with the Allies (Britain, US) coming through France from the left) - Hitler committed suicide on April 30th, and on May 7, 1945, German commanders surrendered, ending the war in Europe; V-E day

Thirty Years War causes

1) RELIGION, especially the struggle between Catholicism and Calvinism - The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 brought an end to religious warfare between German Catholics and Lutherans, but the two persisted in vying for control of various principalities - In addition, the treaty did not recognize the rights of Calvinists but a number of German states had adopted Calvinism as their state church - the Calvinist ruler of Palatinate, Frederick IV, formed a league of German Protestant states called the Protestant Union (1608) - to counteract it, Dude Maximilian of the south German states Bavaria organized the Catholic League of German states 2) POLITICS, Habsburg control - the desire of the Habsburg emperors to consolidate their authority in the HRE was resisted by the princes, who fought for their "german liberties," their constitutional rights, and prerogatives as individual rulers - the Habsburg emperors looked to Spain for assistance while the princes turned to the enemies of Spain, especially France 3) INTERNATIONAL INTERFERENCE - France opposed any policy that would create a strong power in Germany. So, although France was a Catholic power, it allied itself with Protestant princes - the Lutheran kings of Denmark and Sweden were prepared to defend protestant interests in the HRE (Gustavus Adolphus is a prominent one)

English Agriculture

1. Agricultural innovators - Charles "Turnip" Townshend advocated continuous crop rotation using turnips, wheat, barley and clover - Jethro Tull invented a seed drill that allowed for sowing crops in a straight row - Robert Bakewell pioneered selective breeding of livestock 2. the Enclosure movement - English landowners consolidated previously scattered pasture lands into compact fields enclosed by fences and hedges. This was done to increase the production of cash crops, increasing the size of farms held by large landowners. - the new enclosed farmland enabled landowners to rapidly implement agricultural innovations. This encouraged the development of market-oriented agricultural production. - the enclosure movement forced many poor rural people to move to cities and work in factories

Anti-Semitism

1. Although Jews comprised less than 1 percent of Germany's population, Hitler blamed them for Germany's problems. 2. In 1933, the Nazis passed laws forbidding Jews to hold public office. Two years later, the Nuremberg Laws deprived Jews of German citizenship and required them to wear a yellow Star of David as identification 3. Nazi violence against Jews steadily mounted. On November 9 and 19, 1938, the Nazis organized a "spontaneous" campaign of mob violence known as the Kristallnacht or Crystal Night.

The Fall of Napoleon

1. Aura of invincibility - Napoleon appeared to be invincible, as many called him the greatest military commander in European history. - His insatiable desire for power led him to make three disastrous mistakes that led to his downfall. 2. the Continental System - in 1806, Napoleon closed all European ports to British ships and goods - he hoped that his Continental System would create an economic depression in GB from promoting French prosperity. GB would lose their capacity to wage war. 3. Guerilla Warfare in Spain - In 1808, Napoleon deposed Spain's Bourbon rulers and installed his brother Joseph. This ill-advised action outraged the Spanish people - bands of Spanish fighters known as guerrillas repeated ambushed French troops and then fell into hiding. During the next five years, France lost almost 300,000 men. These losses contributed to Napoleon's ultimate defeat. 4. the Invasion of Russia - the Continental System prevented Russia from exporting grain to Great Britain. When Tsar Alexander I refused to stop this vital trade, Napoleon prepared to invade Russia. - Napoleon's Grand Army reached Moscow. however, Alexander refused to surrender, thus forcing Napoleon to retreat. A combination of bitterly cold weather, disease, and merciless Russian attacked decimated Napoleon's army. So did the scorched earth policy, where Russians retreated hundreds of miles while torching their own villages on the countryside to prevent Napoleon's army from finding food and forage.

Existentialism

1. Key Ideas - reason and science are incapable or providing insight into the human situation - God, reason, and progress are myth; humans live in a hostile world, alone and isolated - this condition of loneliness is a challenge and a call to action. Men and women give meaning to their lives through their choices. A person is therefore the sum of his or her actions and choices 2. Key Thinkers - Jean-Paul Sartre "Being and Nothingness" - Albert Camus "the Stranger"

The War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

1. Austrian-Prussian rivalry - the Pragmatic Sanction guaranteed Maria's Theresa's right to inherit the Habsburg throne and territories - Frederick the Great ignored the sanction and seized Silesia. Located on the northeastern frontier of Bohemia, Silesia boasted a million people, a prosperous linen industry, and rich deposits of iron ore. - supported by France, Frederick's army successfully captured Silesia 2. Anglo-French rivalry - the French supported Prussia and the English supported Austria - in Canada, American colonists captured the French fortress of Louisbourg - In India, the French seized Madras from the British 3. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle - Frederick retained control of Silesia, thus confirming Prussia's status as a great power and chief rival of Austria in German affairs - the English restored Louisbourg to France, and the French gave Madras back to England

Russia During Age of Mass Politics

1. Autocracy and Repression - the assassination of Tsar Alexander II ended Russia's brief period of reform - Both Alexander III and Nicholas II were committed to the traditional policies of autocracy, orthodoxy, and Russification - both tsars encouraged anti-Semitic attacks on Jews. Russia was the last European state to eliminate legal discrimination against Jews. 2. Political Movements - Russia's program of rapid industrialization spawned a wide range of political movements - The Constitutional Democrats or Kadets wanted a constitutional monarchy - The Social Democrats worked for economic and political revolution. In 1903, the Social Democrats split into two actions. The Mensheviks favored gradual socialistic reform. Led by Vladimir Lenin ,the Bolsheviks advocated a communist revolution spearheaded by a small elite of professional revolutionaries. 3. The Revolution of 1905 - Russian losses in the Russo-Japanese War exposed the weakness of the autocratic regime and led to increased unrest - On January 22, 1905, Cossacks opened fire on a peaceful crowd of workers outside the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg. The "Bloody Sunday" massacre provoked a wave of strikes and demands for change. - Nichola II reluctantly approved the election of a Russian parliament or Duma - Nicholas stubbornly refused to work with the Duma, insisting that it became an advisory rather than a legislative body

Rococo Art

1. Basic Characteristics - placed emphasis on grace and the carefree life of the aristocracy rather than on grand heroes or pious martyrs - reached its peak of popularity during the reign of Louis XV (1715-1774) - artists depicted lighthearted and often frivolous scenes of "nobles at play" - paintings featured light-colored pastels - architecture featured highly decorated interior ceilings - rejected geometrical patterns and had a fondness for curves; it liked to follow the wandering lines of natural objects, such as seashells and flowers - highly secular, its lightness and charm spoke of the pursuit of pleasure, happiness, and love 2. Leading artists and works - Antoine Watteau, "Pilgrimage to Cythera" - Francois Boucher, "Cupid a Captive" - Jean-Honore Fragonard, "The Swing"

English Civil War (1642-1649)

1. Cavaliers vs Roundheads - Cavaliers were aristocrats, nobles, and church officials who remained loyal to the king. They favored a strong monarchy and an Anglican Church governed by bishops appointed by the crown. - Roundheads included Puritans, townspeople, middle-class businessmen, and people from Presbyterian-dominated London. They favored a parliamentary monarchy and a Presbyterian church governed by elected "presbyters" or elders. 2. First Phase (1642-1646) - Parliament was victorious in the first phase, primarily due to the creation of the New Model Army. This was composed of more extreme Puritans known as the Independents, who believed they were doing battle for the lord. They were well disciplined and trained in the latest military tactics by Oliver Cromwell. - Parliament ended this phase with the capture of King Charlies I in 1646. 3. Second Phase (1648-1649) - a split now occurred in the Parliamentary forces between the Presbyterian majority and the army - Charles took advantage of this division to flee and seek help from the Scots, enraging Cromwell and engaging the army in a second civil war - the Presbyterian members of Parliament were purged leaving a Rump Parliament, and they tried and condemned the king on a charge of treason - On January 30, 1649, Charles was beheaded

the Crimean War Causes

1. Conflict over control of the holy places in Turkish-ruled Jerusalem brought France (the protector of the Catholics) and Russia (the protector of the Orthodox clergy) into diplomatic controversy with Turkey in the middle 2. Tsar Nicholas I saw an opportunity to dominate Turkey and secure entrance into the Mediterranean through the Turkish Straits. Russia's proximity to the Ottoman Empire and the religious bonds between the Russians and Greek Orthodox Christians in Ottoman-dominated southeastern Europe naturally give it special opportunities to enlarge its sphere of influence 3. Austria felt threatened by Russia's expansion into the Balkans. It also craved more land in the Balkans. 4. France and Britain opposed any change in the regional balance of power. They also were interested in commercial opportunities and naval bases in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Revolutions of 1848 Causes

1. Conservative leaders steadfastly refused to reason to the problems and social tensions created by industrialization and urbanization 2. working-class radicals and middle-class liberals were convinced that the repressive Metternich system had outlived its usefulness. 3. Nationalists in Italy and Germany yearned for unification. At the same time, national minorities in the Austrian Empire demanded independence. 4. Widespread crop failures, rising prices of food, and growing unemployment helped fuel demands for change

Consequences of the New Imperialism

1. Damaged and sometimes destroyed native cultures 2. Created a global economy 3. Intensified European rivalries

Henry VIII vs Martin Luther

1. Different: Henry rejected Luther's core doctrines, and the two exchanged derisive pamphlets filled with insults. Guided by his faith, Luther wanted to reform and change the Catholic Church. Guided by dynastic interests, Henry wanted a male heir in order to avoid a potentially bloody succession 2. They shared political attitudes. Both believed that the church should be subordinate to the state, rejecting papal authority. In addition, both followed policies intended to strengthen the nobility. Luther supported the nobility by encouraging them to suppress the rebellious peasants, while Henry allowed them to purchase monastic lands.

Decline of Spain 17th century

1. Economic Decline - the explosion of Jews and converted Muslims deprived Spain of prosperous merchants and skilled workers - the flow of silver and gold from Mexico and Peru proved to be a mixed blessing, as it enriched the economy and then caused inflation. This increased the cost of Spanish textiles and other products, declining Spanish exports. - a serious of costly wars with the Dutch Republic and France extended Spain's commitments beyond the nation's declining resources - Spanish industry, commerce, agriculture, and population all declined 2. Political decline - Spain suffered from a series of weak and inept rulers who pursued misguided and inefficient policies - Spanish rulers and aristocrats continued to lead extravagant lifestyles they would no longer afford - Spanish armies suffered a series of disastrous defeats

Reasons for British Leadership in the Industrial Revolution

1. Enclosure Movement - the movement, which privatized land formerly available to all for grazing and farming, concentrated land ownership in fewer hands - with no land to work, small farmers were displaced, thus forming a pool of cheap labor 2. Agricultural Revolution - crop rotation replaced the open-field system - landowners experimented with new crops such as turnips and new inventions such as the seed drill 3. Population Explosion - new farming methods produced more food - medical advances such as Edward Jenner's discovery of a smallpox vaccine reduced death rates - the combined population of Great Britain and Ireland increased from 10 million in 1750 to 30 million in 1850 4. Commercial Revolution - successful British merchants had capital for investments - Great Britain had the most highly developed banking system in Europe 5. The Enlightenment - the Royal Society exchanged scientific ideas - British society encouraged and rewarded inventors and entrepreneurs

Decline of Russia in WWI

1. End of Romanov Rule - the poorly equipped Russian army was no match for the German War machine. In 1917, more than 7 million Russian soldiers had been killed, wounded, or taken prisoner - Nicholas II proved to be an inept ruler. As battlefield losses mounted and shortages of food worsened, Nicholas moved his headquarters to the front in a futile attempt to rally his troops. - In early 1917, food shortages in Petrograd (formerly St. Petersburg) led to spontaneous demonstrations and strikes - Nicholas ordered his troops to restore order, but the soldiers refused and instead supported the demonstrators. On March 12, 1917, Nicholas II abdicated, ending three centuries of Romanov rule 2. The Provisional Government - a provisional government led by Alexander Kerensky replaced the tsar - despite mounting losses, the provisional government continued to wage war against Germany. This fateful decision to pursue an unpopular war weekend the provisional government and placed a key role in its demise

Fredrick the great (reigned 1740-1786)

1. Enlightened Reforms - called himself "the first servant of the state" and invited Voltaire to live in his palace at Potsdam - supported scientific agriculture - prepared a unified national code of law - abolished the use of torture except for treason and murder - encouraged Huguenots from France and Jews from Poland to immigrate to Prussia; had religious toleration 2. Junkers and the Serfs - a firm believer in social order, Frederick strengthened the Junker's privileges - they retained full control over their serfs 3. Rule - he centralized the government and put it under his control - he devoted his life to the Prussian army - his victory over Austria enabled Prussia to take control over Silesia and become a leading German power

Catherine the Great (reigned 1762-1796)

1. Enlightened reforms - She corresponded with Voltaire and invited Diderot to visit her court. She supported Russia's first private printing presses, restricted the use of torture, and allowed limited religious toleration to Jews - convened a legislative commission to draft a new enlightened law code. However, nobles refused to concede any of their privileges and very little was accomplished 2. Pugachev's Rebellion - from 1773 to 1775, a Cossack soldier named Emelian Pugachev led a dangerous uprising of serfs living along the Volga River. The rebellion finally ended when Pugachev was captured, tortured, and executed. - this rebellion marked the end of Catherine's program of enlightened reforms. Determined to prevent any future rebellions, Catherine gave the nobles additional privileges and absolute power over their estates and serfs 3. Territorial Expansion - Catherine ignored the philosophe's arguments against war. During her reign, Russia gained territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire and Poland. - Catherine's armies defeated the Ottomans and gained control over the Crimean Peninsula and most of the northern shore of the Black Sea. - Catherine along with Prussia and Austria annexed Polish territory in a series of partitions that took place in 1772, 1793, and 1795. As a result, Poland disappeared as an independent nation.

Napoleon III (reigned 1852-1870)

1. Establishment of the Second Empire - in 1848, French voters elected Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew of Napoleon I) the new president fo the Second French Republic - just four years later, Louis Napoleon proclaimed France an empire with himself Emperor Napoleon III. A vast majority of the French people endorsed these proclamations 2. Economic Progress - Napoleon III understood the importance of modern industrializations. His economic policies included the following achievements: ~ railroad mileage (miles traveled) increased by more than fivefold ~ moderate free-trade policies doubled exports - industrial production doubled, enriching the middle class - Napoleon did not ignore the working class. He legalized trade unions and improved public housing. 3. Rebuilding Paris - Napoleon named Baron Georges Haussmann to oversee a vast project to redesign Paris. - Haussmann replaced narrow streets and congested working-class neighborhoods with wide avenues, impressive public monuments, and expensive parks - the rebuilding project accomplished several objectives: ~ it transformed Paris into a symbol of France's prosperity and greatness ~ it made it much harder for rioters to blockade streets 4. Quest for Glory - Napoleon believed that the Concert of Europe limited France's foreign policy - Napoleon was determined to follow a foreign policy calculated to undermine the Concert of Europe and win international glory for himself and France

Reactions and Threats: Fall of the Old Regime

1. European Reaction - at first, European liberals supported the French Revolution and applauded the fall of the Old Regime - the English statesman Edmund Burke offered a conservative critique of the French Revolution. Burke warned that mob rule would lead to anarchy and ultimately military dictatorship. To many moderate Europeans, the September massacres and execution of Louis XVI vindicated Burke's dire predictions. 2. Foreign and Domestic Threats - England, Spain, Holland, and Sardinia joined Prussia and Austria to form the First Coalition. In the Spring of 1793, First Coalition armies converged on France - Internal strife also threatened the National Convention. Girondists and royalist Catholics rebelled against the tyranny of radical Jacobins.

Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary

1. Factors - Austria suffered humiliating military defeats at the hands of first France and Piedmont and then Prussia. - the empire's biggest problem was the discontent of the many nationalists under Habsburg rule. - the Magyars were the largest and most restive national group 2. Dual Monarchy - in 1867, Austria agreed to satisfy the Magyar's demands for independence by creating a dual monarchy - Austria and Hungary became independent and equal states under a common Habsburg ruler. The two states still had a united army and a common foreign policy. The new empire was known as Austria-Hungary. 3. Continued Slavic Discontent - the dual monarchy satisfied the Magyars but failed to solve the empire's nationalities problem - the Slavic regions called for but failed to receive a triple monarchy - slavic discontent posed a significant threat t the future of Austria-Hungary and the peace of Europe

forms of totalitarianism

1. Fascism - led by one leader and one party - condemned democracy, arguing that rival parties undermine national unity - supported state-sponsored capitalism - glorified war and aggressive nationalism - exercised control over the media 2. Communism - led by one party, the "dictatorship of the proletariat" - condemned capitalism, arguing that it exploits workers - supported state ownership of the means of production - glorified the working class - exercised control over the media

Consequence of the Columbian Exchange

1. For the NEW WORLD - European diseases decimated indigenous populations. Approximately 90% of the indigenous people of the Americas perished between 1492 and 1600 - the introduction of the horse transformed the culture of the Plains Indians of North America 2. for EUROPE - the new crops revolutionized the European diet and helped feed a growing population - the new Caribbean sugar plantations along with the rich silver and gold mines in Peru brought in influx of wealth to Spain that helped trigger inflation - the wealth generated by New World colonies dramatically increased the power of western Europe 3. For AFRICA - the wealth produced by New World sugar and tobacco plantations promoted the triangular trading system and the trans-Atlantic slave trade - between 1500 and 1800, Africans compromised the largest group of people transported to the New World

Formation of the Triple Entente

1. France immediately offered Russia financial investments and diplomatic friendship. The two nations signed a Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894. 2. Alarmed by Germany's growing naval power, Britain abandoned its policy of "splendid isolation." In 1904, Britain concluded a series of agreements with France collectively called the Entente Cordiale. With French support, the British concluded a similar agreement with Russia, thus forming the Triple Entente. 3. Germany tested the Anglo-French entente by challenging France's plan to dominate Morocco. However, Germany's belligerent actions only served to draw France and Britain closer together. 4. The rival alliances now confronted each other. A dispute between any two powers could easily escalate into a major war.

consequences of the 30 years war

1. GERMANY: - devastated the German economy and decimated its population. As many as 1/3 of German-speaking people dead from disease, famine, and combat. - Germany's long-term commercial growth suffered because the Treaty of Westphalia gave control of the mouth of the Rhine River to the Dutch - Germany was politically fragmented, thus delaying German unification for two centuries 2. FRANCE: - France achieved its primary goals of weakening the Habsburgs and keeping the HRE weak and divided - France emerged as the strongest power in Europe

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

1. Germany lost 13 percent of its land, including Alsace-Lorraine 2. Germany's territories in Africa and the Pacific were given as mandates to Britain, France, and Japan. A mandate was a territory that was administered on behalf of the League of Nations. 3. Poland once again became an independent nation. The new Poland received a large strip of German land called the Polish Corridor. This strip cut off East Prussia from the rest of Germany and gave Poland access to the sea. 4. Germany's army was limited to 100,000 men and forbidden to have artillery, aircraft, or submarines. 5. the east bank of the Rhine River was to be demilitarize and the Allies were to have the right to occupy the Rhineland for 15 years 6. German was declared guilty of starting the war (War Guilt Clause) and forced to pay huge payments called reparations 7. the Allies created a League of Nations to discuss and settle disputes without resorting to war. 8. The final signing ceremony took place in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, the same room in which Bismarck's German empire had been proclaimed in 1871.

Problems after WWI

1. Germany resented the Versailles Treaty's harsh terms, calling it a Diktat, or imposed settlement 2. the US rejected the Versailles Treaty and followed a policy of isolationism 3. France was determined to enforce the Versailles Treaty and make Germany pay reparations for the damage it had caused 4. Communist Russia remained outside the international system

the rise of Benito Mussolini

1. Growing numbers of Italians demanded action and waited impatiently for a strong leader 2. Mussolini used Italy's political power vacuum to seize power. As the leader of the Fascist party, he boldly promised to revive Italy's economy and rebuild its armed forces 3. In 1922, Mussolini called upon his followers to march on Rome. Although the government could have stopped Mussolini with a show of force, King Victor Emmanuel III gave in and named Mussolini prime minister

Social Darwinism

1. Herbert Spencer, an English sociologist, applied Darwin's theories to human society. Spencer agued that free economic competition was natural selection in action. The best companies make profits while inefficient ones go bankrupt. The same rules also apply to individuals. 2. Wealthy business and industrial leaders used Social Darwinism to justify their success and oppose social welfare programs. 3. Social Darwinists also applied the theories of natural selection and survival of the fittest to races and nations. Their theories helped rationalize and justify imperialism, racism, and militarism.

the March of Fascist Aggression

1. Hitler and the Versailles Treaty - 1933: Germany withdrew from the League of Nations - 1935: Hitler openly began a program of rearmament - March 1936: hitler ordered the German army to march into the demilitarized zone of the Rhineland 2. Mussolini and Ethiopia - October 1935: Mussolini ordered a massive invasion of Ethiopia - the invasion represented a crucial test of the League of Nations' system of collective security - although the League condemned Italy, its members did nothing. The British and French hoped that appeasing Mussolini would maintain its peace

The Nazi Totalitarian State

1. Hitler ruthlessly transformed Germany into a totalitarian state. A series of laws banned all political parties except the Nazis. A special secret police called the Gestapo used sweeping powers to arbitrarily arrest anyone who opposed Nazi rule. 2. the government supervised both labor and business. New laws banned strikes and dissolved independent labor unions 3. a ministry of culture supervised the media and shaped public opinion. Special films such as "Triumph of the Will" glorified Hitler's leadership 4. It is interesting to note that the Nazi party's ideal German woman was a mother, wife and homemaker

English society in the 17th century

1. Impact of the Commercial Revolution - the size of the English middle class increased. With the exception of the Dutch Republic, the middle class was proportionately larger than that of any country in Europe - English entrepreneurs financed joint-stock companies that played a key role in promoting English colonies in North America 2. Gentry - the gentry included wealthy landowners who dominated the House of Commons - it is important to note that unlike France, the English gentry was willing to pay taxes. The peasantry was not overburdened with excessive taxes. Consequently, the gentry and thus the House of Commons demanded a role in determining national expenditures. This created an inevitable conflict with the Stuart kings. 3. Religion - by the end of the 17th century, Calvinists comprised the largest percent of the English population - Puritans (English Protestants) continued to remand changes in the Anglican church

William II's Aggressive Policies

1. In 1890, Kaiser William II forced Bismarck to resign. 2. William II promptly set Germany on a new course by letting the treaty of friendship wit Russia lapse. 3. William II then challenged Britain's long-standing naval supremacy by embarking on an expensive program of naval expansion that poisoned relations between the two countries.

Five-Year Plans

1. In 1928, Stalin launched the first of a series of five-year plans designed to transform the Soviet Union's economic and social structure. The plans had the following goals: - end the New Economic Policy - create a socialist command economy in which the government makes all economic decisions - promote the rapid development of heavy industries - collectivize agriculture 2. Stalin's commitment to a program of massive, large-scale industrialism produced results. By 1940, the Soviet Union was a major industrial power, trailing only the United States and Germany. 3. Stalin's campaign to collectivize agriculture was less successful. Conservative Russian peasants opposed surrendering their land and joining a collective farm. Stalin denounced resisting peasants as kulaks and ordered party officials to "liquidate them as a class." Kulaks and other peasants were executed, starved, and deported to forced-labor camps.

Munich Conference

1. In 1938, Hitler successfully annexed Austria into Germany 2. Hitler's campaign of German expansion focused next on a mountainous region of western Czechoslovakia called the Sudetenland. This heavily fortified strategic region contained 3 million German-speaking people. - Hitler, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, Mussolini, and French Premier Edouard Daladier held an emergency conference in Munich to negotiate Hitler's demand that Czechoslovakia give up the Sudetenland - Chamberlain believed he could preserved the peace by appeasing Hitler and giving into his demands. - the Munich Conference marked a turning point in European history. Filled with confidence, Hitler now made plans to attack Poland. - The Munich Conference quickly became a symbol of surrender. Following WWII, democratic leaders vowed they would never again appease a ruthless dictator

Czechoslovakia and the Brezhnev Doctrine

1. In Czechoslovakia, a new communist leader, Alexander Dubcek, initiated a program of democratic reforms saying he wanted to create "socialism with a human face" 2. Alarmed by Dubcek's reforms, Brezhnev called on the other Warsaw Pact countries to invade Czechoslovakia and remove Dubcek from power 3. Brezhnev justified the invasion by claiming that the Soviet Union and its allies had the right to intervene in the domestic affairs of other Communist countries. This declaration became known as the Brezhnev Doctrine - the US refrained from taking any action because Czechoslovakia lay within the Soviet sphere of influence

Gorbachev's Reforms

1. In March 1985, members of the Politburo, the Communist Party's top decision-making group, selected Mikhail Gorbachev as the new leader of the Soviet Union. 2. When Gorbachev took power, the Soviet Union was still the world's most feared totalitarian dictatorship. But Gorbachev recognized that "something was wrong." Blaming poor living conditions on the country's rigid political system and stagnant economy, he launched an unprecedented program of reforms. 3. Glasnost: in 1986, Gorbachev introduced a new policy known as glasnost, or openness, which encouraged Soviet citizens to discuss ways to reform their society. 4. Perestroika: Glasnost gave Soviet citizens an opportunity to complain publicly about their economic problems. In 1986, Gorbachev launched a program called perestroika, or economic restructuring, to revitalize the Soviet economy. 5. Demokratizatsiya: In 1989, Gorbachev unveiled a third new policy called demokratizatsiya, or democratization. The plan called for the election of a new legislature, the 2250 member Congress of People's Deputies. 6. Gorbachev advocated private ownership of property and free markets

Bauhaus Architecture

1. Key Characteristics - Architecture should be practical, useful, and above all, functional - Architects should avoid using unnecessary exterior decorations and instead rely on clear straight lines - Builders should use modern materials and support materials including glass, steel, ferroconcrete, and cantilever. - It is important to note that the Bauhaus style originated in Germany and spread to the United States where it became known as the International Style 2. Key Architects and Buildings - Walter Gropius "The Fagus Shoe Factory" - Le Corbusier "Villa Savoye"

Surrealism

1. Key Characteristics - depicts the world of the unconscious mind as revealed in dreams and fantasies - reveals the influence of Freudian psychology - portrays strange objects and symbols that express the artist's inner mind 2. Key Artists and Works - Giorgio de Chirico "the Song of Love' - Salvador Dali "The Persistence of Memory"

20th Century Literature

1. Key Characteristics - questioned accepted values and practices - expresses disconentand alienation from middle-class conformity and materialism - focuses on the complexity and irrationality of the human mind - employs the stream-of-consciousness technique to explore the human psyche 2. Key Authors and Works - James Joyce "Ulysses" - Marcel Proust "Remembrance of Things Past" - William Faulkner "the Sound and the Fury" - T.S. Eliot "The Waste Land"

De-Stalinization

1. Khrushchev's program of de-Stalinization involved all of the following: - shifting some resources toward producing more consumer goods - curbing the power of the secret police - granting more freedom to writers and intellectuals 2. de-Stalinization permitted Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn to publish "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich." This short but powerful novel described the horrors of life in a Stalinist concentration camp. 3. Boris Pasternak's novel "Doctor Zhivago" illustrated the limits of de-Stalinization. The novel celebrate the human spirit and challenged the principles of communism. Although it was published in the West, Soviet censors denounced Pasternak and refused to allow him to receive the Nobel Prize for literature

Leading Realists

1. Leading Realist Authors - Charles Dickens "Hard Times" - Gustave Flaubert "Madame Bovary" - Henrik Ibsen "A Doll's House" - Fyodor Dostoyevsky "Crime and Punishment" 2. Leading Realist Artist - Gustave Courbet "The Stonebreakers" - Honore Daumier "The Third-Class Carriage" - Edouard Manet "Olympia"

Key Changes in Women's Rights and Roles before the 2000s

1. Led by Simone de Beauvoir, European feminists clued attention to social problems that women faces and also emphasized the need for women to control their own lives 2. Major feminist goals included: - expanded employment opportunities - expanded child-care facilities - improved access to birth control information - liberalized divorce laws 3. During the postwar period, European women married earlier and had fewer children 4. Employment rates for married women dramatically increased

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)

1. Lenin realized that the survival of the Bolshevik regime depended upon the ending of the war with Germany. 2. In March 1918, the Bolsheviks reluctantly agreed to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Under the terms of this treaty, Russia lost a quarter of its European territory and a third of its population. 3. It is important to note that Russia later repudiated the treaty, and it was declared null and void by the allies

Joseph Stalin versus Leon Trotsky

1. Lenin's death in 1924 created a power struggle between Trotsky and Stalin 2. As a charismatic leader since 1905, Trotsky was second only to Lenin in fame. Trotsky believed that Russia should support communist revolutions around the world 3. In contrast, Stalin was a quiet man who preferred to work behind the scenes. As general secretary of the Communist Partly, Stalin placed his supporters in key positions. Stalin argued that communism should first gain a firm hold in Russia before supporting a global revolution. 4. Stalin proved to be cunning and ruthless. He successfully expelled Trotsky from the Communist Party. By 1927, Stalin stood alone as the Soviet Union's undisputed leader.

The Bacterial Revolution

1. Louis Pasteur: conducted experiments that supported the germ theory of diseases. Discovered that heat could destroy many harmful bacteria. 2. Robert Koch: Identified the bacteria responsible for specific diseases. Identified the tuberculosis bacteria. 3. Joseph Lister: promoted the idea of sterile surgery. Introduced carbolic acid to sterilize surgical instruments and wounds. 4. Impact: the Bacterial revolution saved millions of lives, thus causing a dramatic decline in European death rates. Urban residents benefited the most from improvement in public health. Improved sanitation was coupled with medical knowledge and the usage of vaccines.

Reasons why the Weimar Republic Failed

1. Many Germans refused to believed that their army had been defeated in battle. They believed instead that the German army had been betrayed by socialist and liberal politicians associate with the new Weimar Republic. 2. The Versailles Treaty outraged German nationalists who resented the war-guilt clause and the loss of territory to Poland. Constant nationalistic agitation undermined support for the Weimar Republic. 3. Conservatives wanted a strong leader who would restore order and reduce the power of labor unions. 4. Runaway inflation during the 1920s destroyed middle-class savings, thus eroding confidence in the government. 5. the Great Depression had a particularly devastating impact on Germany. Millions of workers lost faith in the Weimar Republic 6. Article 48 of the German constitution helped to undermine the republican government by allowing the president (atm Hindenburg) to rule by decree in cases of national emergency

Life in 18th century

1. Marriage and family before 1750 - most young married European couples lived in nuclear families. Large multigenerational households were not the norm - most couples postponed marriage until they were in their mid to late twenties - couples delayed marriage in order to acquire land or learn a trade - a combination of parental authority and strict laws exercised tight control over marriage 2. Patterns of Marriage and the Family after 1750 - the growth of the cottage industry increased income and helped young people become financially independent - as income rose, arrange marriages declined - increased mobility reduced parental and village controls - young peasant women increasingly left home to work as domestic servants 3. Child rearing - because of the high mortality rate among infants, parents were reluctant to become emotionally attached to their children - Rousseau encouraged parents to provide a warm and nurturing environment - upper-middle-class parents began to place greater emphasis on child rearing 4. Increased Life Expectancy - during the 18th century, the life spans of Europeans increased from 25 to 35 years - new foods such as the potato combined with better farming techniques improved the diet of the poor - improved sanitation and the beginning of the science of immunology reduced death rates. Edward Jenner performed the first smallpox vaccination in 1796. The conquest of smallpox was the greatest medical triumph of the 18th century.

The Corporate Economy

1. Mussolini believed that capitalists and workers must be forced to cooperate for the good of the state. He organized 22 state corporations to run all parts of the Italian economy. Each corporation included employers, employees, and government arbitrators 3. the corporations outlawed strikes and set wages and prices - it is important to note that Mussolini's corporate state combined private ownership with state control over economic decisions

The Fascist State: Italy

1. Mussolini quickly consolidated his power and organized a Fascist state. 2. He outlawed all political parties except the Fascists 3. Mussolini's propaganda encouraged Italians to accept his leadership without question. Slgans such as "Mussolini is Always Right" covered billboards across Italy

Columbian Exchange Specific Items

1. New world to Old World.. - agricultural products: potatoes, maize, tomatoes, peanuts, tobacco, vanilla, and chocolate - animals: turkey - diseases: syphilis 2. Old world to New world - agricultural product: coffee, cane sugar, wheat, and rice - animals: horses, cows, pigs, sheep, goats and chickens - diseases: smallpox, measles, and diphtheria - human populations: European colonists and African slaves

Germany before Unification 1860

1. Obstacles to Unity - Germany remained politically divided into a number of small states that jealously guarded their independence. - the German Confederation remained a loose grouping of 39 states dominated by Austria - French foreign policy continued to support German rivalries while opposing German unity 2. Prussia's Growing Strength - Prussia's population increased from 11 million in 1815 to more than 18 million in 1850 - led by Prussia, the Zollverein promoted German economic growth while demonstrating the advantages of unity

The Intellectual Crisis

1. Old Certainties - belied in the power of reason to understand the universe and discover natural laws - belief in progress and the power of science and technology to improve living standards - belief in liberty and the power of individual rights to promote a just society 2. Impact of WWI - caused unprecedented death and destruction - overthrew established monarchies and social orders in Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary - led many people to question the optimistic belief in reason, progress, and individual rights 3. Terrible Uncertainties - a widespread feeling of disillusionment, uncertainty, and anxiety - new doubts about the ability of individuals to control their lives - an intellectual crisis that affected every field of thought

The Old Regime Problems

1. Peasant Distress - peasants compromised over 4/5 of France's 26 million people - peasants lost half their income in taxes. They paid feudal dues to nobles, tithes to the church, and royal taxes to the king's agents. In addition, they paid a land tax called the taille and performed forced labor called the corvee. - grain shortages led to sharp increases in the price of bread. The rising cost of bread was a major cause of discontent 2. Government Debt - Louis XIV's profligate spending left a massive public debt that consumed half the nation's tax revenues - the cost of fighting the Seven Years' War and financing the American War for Independence worsened the fiscal crisis 3. Aristocratic Resistance - French nobles were exempt from paying taxes - the nobles successfully resisted all attempts to reform the tax system 4. Royal Weakness - Louis XV (reigned 1715-1774) was a weak and indecisive ruler - Louis XVI (reined 1774-1792) and his Austrian wife Marie Antoinette were particularly unpopular and frivolous - the high court of Paris- the Parlement- assumed the right to approve or disapprove the king's decrees, thus further eroding royal power

The Dutch Republic

1. Political Independence. Each of the seven Dutch provinces (United Provinces) were politically independent. Unlike the other continental nations, the Dutch were not governed by an absolute ruler. Instead, political power passed not the lands of wealthy merchants. 2. Religious Toleration. Calvinism was the dominant religion, however, Catholics, Lutherans, Anabaptists and Jews all enjoyed religious freedoms. This religious toleration helped create a cosmopolitan society that promoted commerce. 3. Economic Prosperity. The Dutch Republic was Europe's leading commercial power during most of the 17th century. Amsterdam remained Europe's financial center until the French Revolution. Shipbuilding played a key role in the Dutch economy. The Dutch Fleet of 10,000 ships was the largest int the world. As trade routes shifted to the Atlantic, the Dutch replaced the Italians as the bankers of Europe. Founded in 1609, the Amsterdam Exchange Bank quickly won a reputation as the safest, soundest bank in Europe. The Dutch East Indies Company displaced the Portuguese and gained control of the lucrative spice trade in the East Indies 4. Economic Decline. Costly wars with England and France damaged the Dutch Republic. As it declined, England and France became dominant European powers.

Second IR: Population Growth and Urbanization

1. Population Growth - as a result of the falling death rates and improved agricultural and industrial production, Europe's population rose from 193 million in 1800 to 423 million in 1900 - in 1900, Europeans compromised 24 percent of the world's population. the figure today is just 12 percent 2. Urbanization - during the 19th century, rural people left their villages and crowed into urban tenements - by 1914, the urban population reached 80 percent in Britain, 60 percent in Germany, and almost 45 percent in France

Truman Doctrine (1947)

1. President Harry Truman's policy of providing economic and military aid to any country threatened by communism or totalitarian ideology 2. the immediate goal was to block the expansion of Soviet influence into Greece or Turkey 3. On March 12, 1947, Truman asked Congress for $400 million in economic aid for Greece and Turkey. 3. Truman justified the aid by declaring that the US should support "free people who are resisting attempted subjugations by armed minorities or by outside pressures." The sweeping pledge became known as the Truman Doctrine

Enlightenment Key Ideas

1. REASON. To the philosophes, reason was the absence of intolerance, bigotry, and superstition. Reason meant informed thinking about social problems. Humans should rely on reason, not miracles to improve society. 2. NATURE AND NATURAL LAWS. The philosophes believed that natural laws regulate both the universe and human society. These natural laws can be discovered by human reason. 3. HAPPINESS. Philosophes had little interest in the medieval belief that people should accept misery in this world to find salvation in the hereafter. They believed that happiness in this world was an inalienable human right. 4. PROGRESS. The discovery of laws of economic and government would improve society and make progress inevitable. 5. LIBERTY. The philosophes lived in societies that placed restrictions on speech, religion, and trade. They wanted to removed these limitations on human liberty. They believed that intellectual freedom was a natural right. freedom of expression = progress 6. TOLERATION. They questioned institutional religious beliefs, arguing that they preserved superstition, intolerance, and bigotry (prejudice). The philosophes advocated full religious toleration.

Raphael vs Picasso

1. Raphael's "School of Athens" - demonstrates the humanist interest in Greek and Roman philosophy - utilizes the Renaissance artistic techniques of idealized human portraits and linear perspective - exhibits harmony, proportion, and balance - pained for Pope Julies II, illustrating the importance of church patronage 2. Picasso's "Les Demoiselles d' Avignon" - demonstrated the modernist interest in the ugly underside of real life by depicting five prostitutes inside a brothel - utilizes the Cubist artistic techniques of flat forms, fragmented space, and multiple views of the same person - exhibits lack of harmony and proportion - painted for a limited group of artists, dealers, and critics

War with Austria (1866)

1. the Seven Weeks' War - in 1866, Bismarck provoked Austria into declaring war on Prussia - Prussia's revitalized army easily crushed the Austrians in a belief conflict known as the Seven Weeks' War 2. Consequences - Austria greed to the dissolution of the German Confederation - with Austria excluded from German affairs, Bismarck organized a North German Confederation dominated by Prussia - as Prussia's ally, Italy annexed Venetia

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

1. Reaffirmed Catholic doctrines. - this council reaffirmed that salvation is achieve by BOTH fait hand good works - rejected the Protestant belief in the supremacy of the Bible and reaffirmed that equal weight should be given to scripture and to traditional Catholic teachings - seven sacraments confirmed, clerical celibacy (no clergy can marry) 2. Reformed church abuses. - the council decreed that indulgences should no longer be sold in exchange for financial contributions - forbade simony, the sale of church offices - council instructed bishops to live in the dioceses they served 3. Reasserted traditional practices. - reaffirmed the veneration of relics and image as valid expressions of Christian piety. - confirm the Vulgate as the authoritative Catholic edition of the Bible - Latin continued to be the language of worship 4. Resisted limiting papal authority. - no act of council could be valid unless accepted by the Holy See - preserved the papacy as the center of Catholic unity

Cavour

1. Realpolitik - Early Italian nationalists such as Mazzini had been inspired by romantic ideals of nationalism. - Cavour was a realist guided by the dictates of political power. He believed that shrewd diplomacy and well-chosen alliances were more useful than grand proclamations and romantic rebellions. - Cavour's successful combination of power politics and secret diplomacy is called Realpolitik, "the politics of reality" 2. Strengthening Piedmont - Cavour launched an ambitious economic program that included building railroads and expanding commerce - he modernized Piedmont's army 3. Franco-Piedmont Alliance - Cavour understood that Austria was the greatest obstacle to Italian unity - Cavour formed an alliance with Napoleon III to drive Austria out of northern Italy

Agricultural Innovations in the Low Countries

1. Reasons for Low Country leadership in farming - The Low Countries were the most densely populated region in Europe. Dutch farmers were thus forces to seek maximum yields from their lands - the Low Countries contained a growing urban population that created demand for farm products 2. New Innovations in the Low Countries - enclosed fields - continuous crop rotation - use of manure as fertilizer - planting of a variety of crops - use of drainage to reclaim marshes

Luther: revolutionary or conservative?

1. Religious Revolutionary - Luther's core bellied went well beyond attempting to reform the Roman Catholic Church. His doctrines of justification by faith, priesthood of all believers, and the Bible as the sole authority marked a major departure from long-standing Catholic principles. - Luther's revolutionary actions included abolishing monasteries, reducing the number of sacraments, encouraging priests to marry (no clerical celibacy), and repudiating the pope's authority to interpret the Bible. 2. Political Conservative - Luther insisted that Christians owed obedience to established authority. he gave his support the German nobility as they brutally suppressed the peasant rebellion

Germany: the Weimar Republic

1. Reparations - the new German republic- generally known as the Weimar Republic- faced staggering reparations payments - when the Weimar Republic proposed a three-year suspension on making reparation payments, the French occupied the Ruhr Valley and seized goods as payments 2. Inflation - the Weimar Republic supported itself by printing vast amounts of paepr money. By December 1923, one dollar was wroth 4 trillion German marks - the 1923 inflation destroyed the savings and incomes of the German middle class. Feeling betrayed by their government, embittered Germans would later be susceptible to Nazi propaganda

Stuart Monarchy

1. Role of the monarchs - the Stuart kings believed that their authority came from God and wanted a monarchy free from parliamentary restraints 2. Role of the House of Commons - the House of Commons was dominated by the gentry, merchants, and lawyers - members were determined to preserve traditional privileges such as freedom of open debate and immunity from arrest - they demanded a stronger voice in political affairs 3. Organization of the Anglican Church - the Stuartts favored the established Episcopal form of church organization. In this hierarchical arrangement, the king, Archbishop of Canterbury, and bishops determined doctrine and practice - the Puritans favored a Presbyterian form of church organization. This arrangement allowed church members a much greater voice in running the church and expressing dissenting views

Louis XIV

1. Rule - he was the most powerful monarch in French history. Unlike the English monarch, he did not share his power with a parliament. He and the nation were the same, as he claimed "I am the state" - he increased the powers of the intendants, refused to appoint a chief minister, and regularly attended meetings of his four great councils - he continued Richelieu's policy of reducing the political power of the French nobility. He excluded nobles from key positions and instead appointed men from bourgeoisie and recently ennobled families. 2. the Versailles Palace - as an absolute monarch, Louis XIV determined foreign policy, commanded the army and supported the arts. His description of himself as the "Sun King." was accurate. In France, all aspects of political life and culture revolved around him. - Louis XIV understood the power of the arts as propaganda and the value of visual imagery for cultivating a public image. The Versailles Palace was designed to be a visible symbol of Louis's absolute power and greatness. - it underscored France's cultural dominance. French art, philosophy, architectures, and fashion were envied and copied throughout the continent. 3. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes - in the beginning, 1/19 million French people were Huguenots. The Huguenots enjoyed religious toleration and had remained loyal to the crown during the Fronde. - Louis's goal of having "one king, one law, one faith" precluded religious diversity. Supported by the French Catholic clergy and his Jesuit advisors, Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Royal officials closed Protestant churches and orders all Protestant children baptized as Catholics. - to escape persecution, some 200000 Huguenots fled to England, the Dutch Republic, Protestant German states, and the New World. As a result, France lost many skilled workers and business leaders

Territorial Settlements at Congress of Vienna

1. Russia acquired more Polish territory 2. Sweden retained Norway 3. Prussia acquired 2/5 of Saxony and territory in the Rhineland along the border of France 4. Austria acquired the northern Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia as compensation for its loss of Belgium 5. Britain gained valuable territories for its overseas empire, including Malta, the Cape of Good Hope, Trinidad, and Tobago

Luther's Key Beliefs

1. Salvation is achieved by faith alone, not good works. 2. The Bible is the only valid authority for Christian life. - Luther insisted that all church teachings should be based on the Word of God as revealed in the Bible. Christ established just two sacraments: baptisms and the Eucharist or holy communion. Thus, Luther rejected the Catholic teaching that there were 7 sacraments. 3. The church consists of a priesthood of all believers. - the Roman Catholic Church was a hierarchical organization led by the pope. Luther insisted that because all Christians are spiritually equal, the Church consists of entire community of the Christian faith. 4. All vocations have equal merit. - the Catholic Church taught that the monastic life was superior to the secular life. Luther rejected this belief, arguing that all honest work has equal merit. Each person should serve God in his or her own individual calling. - Luther abolish monasteries and convents. He declared that he clergy should marry 5. Church should be subordinate to state

The Great Depression Causes

1. Several long-term problems negatively affected the US economy: - companies overproduced consumer goods - consumers did not have enough money or credit to purchase goods - farmers overproduced agricultural products, driving down prices and income 2. the American stock market crash caused enormous financial losses and triggered a global financial crisis 3. worried American bankers recalled loans to European banks. Austria's largest bank failed, starting a financial panic in central Europe 4. the financial crisis led to sharp declines in global trade and manufacturing 5. the United States raised protective tariffs, forcing other nations to retaliate 6. governments cut budgets and reduced spending, helping to accelerate the downward economic spiral

Socialism

1. Shared Beliefs - the existing distribution of wealth is unjust. The "haves" possess more than they need while the "have-nots" possess barely enough to survive - the resources and means of production should be owned by the community - the profits of human labor should be equitably distributed

Germany during Age of Mass Politics

1. Social Welfare programs - during the 1880s, Germany became the first European country to develop a state social welfare program - Otto von Bismarck's social welfare legislation included programs for health insurance, accident insurance, and a system of old-age and disability pensions. - Bismarck wanted to prove that the state was a benevolent institution and not an oppressor. He hoped that his social welfare programs would secure the loyalty of workers to the new German empire. 2. William II (reigned 1888-1918) - William I died in 1888 at age of 90. His grandson, William II became the new German kaiser. Arrogant and impulsive, William II was determined to rule on his own. - William II forced Bismarck to resign in 1890. During the next 14 years, he expanded Bismarck's social reforms. At the same time, Germany's economic and military power continued to grow.

Spanish Civil War

1. Spain was a deeply divided country. Between 1931 and 1936, a democratically elected government tried to cope with the Great Depression. Led by General Francisco Franco, army leaders supported by the clergy and aristocracy favored a fascist-style government. 2. the Spanish Civil War began in 1936 when Nationalist forces led by Franco rebelled against the Republic. 3. the civil war escalated into an international ideological war when Hitler and Mussolini sent men and materials to support the Nationalists. The Russians countered by supporting the Republican, or Loyalist, side 4. During the war, a squadron of German planes bombed the defenseless village of Guernica, killing hundreds of men, women, and children. Pablo Picasso painted "Guernica" to protest this atrocity. 5. Republican resistance finally collapsed in 1939. Franco then established an authoritarian regime that remained in power until his death in 1975. It Is important to note that Spain was officially neutral during World War II.

Soviet Union under Brezhnev

1. Stagnation - conservative leaders believed that Khrushchev's program of de-Stalinization posed a threat to the Communist Party's dictatorial powers 2. Now led by Leonic Brezhnev, the Communist Party clamped down on Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Andrei Sakharov, and other outspoken dissidents 3. Brezhnev's hard-line policies led to a prolonged period of political repression and economic stagnation.

The Great Terror

1. Stalin was a totalitarian dictator who was more powerful than the most autocratic tsar 2. During the mid-1930s, Stalin launched a program of state-sponsored terror that began with show trials to eliminate Old Bolsheviks. The Great Terror expanded to include intellectuals, army officers, party members, and ordinary citizens 3. At least 8 million people were arrested. Millions of innocent people died in forced-labor camps called gulags 4. created a new Communist Party staffed with members who demonstrated total loyalty to Stalin 5. justified by claiming the existence of a plot masterminded by Trotsky along with Fascist enemies to overthrow Stalin

Social Effects of Industrialization

1. The Factory System - the factory was a place where large numbers of workers used machines to manufacture goods. As the factory system spread, the putting-out system disappeared. 2. Working-Class Misery - early factories exposed workers Wii dangerous machines and deadly diseases - the demand for cheap labor led to the widespread employment of women and young children - workers had no health insurance and little job security 3. Urbanization - the factory system transformed many small towns into crowded cities. For example, between 1760 and 1850, the population of Manchester surged from 45k to 300k. - Between 1800 and 1850, the number of European cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants rose from 22 to 47 - workers lived in crowded slums that lacked sanitation. Entire families lived in a single dark room. 4. Middle-Class Prosperity - the middle class, or bourgeoisie, enjoyed unprecedented prosperity, political power, and leisure tie - the haute bourgeoisie included wealthy bankers, merchants and industrialists - the petite bourgeoisie included shopkeepers, skilled artisans, professional men, and clergy

The Textile Industry

1. The Incentive - the global demand for cotton cloth was enormous - promoted by huge potential profits, British entrepreneurs financed new ways of spinning and weaving cotton 2. The Inventions - 1733: John Kay invented the flying shuttle, enabling a single weaver to work twice as fast - mid-1760s: James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny, a machine that made it possible for a single weaver to work six to eight threads at a time - 1769: Richard Arkwright invented a water frame that used waterpower from fast-moving streams to drive spinning machines - 1779: Samuel Crompton invented a spinning machine called the mule that combined the best features of the spinning jenny and the water frame to produce threads that was stronger, diner, and more uniform than the earlier spinning machines - 1785: Edmund Cartwright invented a power loom that used waterpower to dramatically speed up weaving - 1793: Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, making it possible to efficiently remove seeds from the cotton fiber 3. As a result of these continuous technological improvements, the output of cotton fiber from British textile factories rose from 40 million years in 1785 to more than 2 billion yards in 1850

Factors for Overseas Exploration

1. The Renaissance Spirit of INDIVIDUALISM - the explorers embodied the same spirit and curiosity that characterized Renaissance artists and humanist scholars - the renewed interest in ancient writings gave explorers new knowledge about mathematics, astronomy, and geography 2. SEARCH for SPICES and PROFIT - Crusades helped stimulate a growing demand for Indian pepper, Chinese ginger, and Malukan cloves and nutmeg - by the 14th century, European demand for Asian spices and luxury items far exceeded the supply. Muslims and Venetians controlled trade routes to the east. - the new monarchs in Spain and Portugal wanted direct access to the lucrative Asian markets 3. The desire to cultivate CASH CROPS - a strong and growing demand for sugar motivated Europeans to look for lands suitable for cultivating this prized cash crop - Europeans hoped to find lands where they could establish sugar plantations 4. The desire to spread CHRISTIANITY - the Crusades left a legacy of hostility between Christians and Muslims - led by Spain and Portugal, the Europeans hoped to reconquer northern Africa from the Muslims - Europeans believed they had a duty to spread Christianity 5. Ability to use TECHNOLOGY - the newly designed caravel had square sails for running before the wind and triangular sails for tacking into the wind - the magnetic compass and the astrolabe enabled mariners to determine their location at sea

Revolutions of 1848 Key Points

1. The Revolutions of 1848 failed because of internal divisions, a lack of popular support outside the cities, and the continued strength of conservative forces. 2. Peaceful reforms enabled England to avoid violent revolts. 3. Repressive policies stiffed reform in Russia. 4. The idealistic romantic spirit now yielded to a new age of political realism.

Containment

1. The Soviet Union dominated much of eastern Europe in the aftermath of World War II. Winston Churchill warned that "an iron curtain has descended across the continent" 2. Containment was a foreign policy designed to contain or block Soviet expansion 3. Containment was the primary US foreign policy from the announcement of the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989

Collapse of the Soviet Union (1991)

1. The collapse of the Communist regimes in Eastern Europe inspired ethnic groups within the Soviet Union 2. Gorbachev's policy of glasnost loosened controls, enabling ethnic protests to spread across the Soviet Union 3. In a last desperate effort to preserve the Soviet Union, Communist hard-liners attempted to overthrow Gorbachev with a military coup 4. The hard-liners assumed that a show of forced would ensure obedience. They were wrong. Under Gorbachev's reforms, people had lost their fear of the party and were willing to defend their freedom. 5. Led by Boris Yeltsin, president of the Russian Republic, the Russian people thwarted the coup 6. On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of a country that by then had ceased to exist

Conservative Authoritarianism

1. Traditional form of antidemocratic government 2. committed to the existing social order 3. opposed to popular participation in government 4. revived in eastern Europe, Spain, and Portugal

Russia under Alexander II

1. Tsarist Russia in the 1850s - Tsar Alexander II was an autocrat whose will was law - Russia's aristocracy continued to own almost all the land and be exempt from taxes - Russia had a very small middle class. 95% of the people were peasants, most of whom were serfs 2. Alexander's Reforms a. the Emancipation of the serfs, 1861 - In 1861, Alexander II issued an Emancipation Edict freeing the serfs. - although they were free, the peasants still did not own the land b. Creation of the Zemstvos - In 1864, Alexander introduced a system of local and regional self-government through elected assemblies called zemstvos - although the zemstvos did provide some opportunity for public discussion, they did not lead to the creation of a national assembly

The Age of Mass Politics Key Trends

1. Universal male suffrage - between 1871 and 1914, most European countries extended the franchise to working-class men - universal male suffrage led to the creation of mass political parties 2. Trade Unions and Socialist Parties - trade unions gained rights and played an increasingly important role in Great Britain, France, and Germany - workers supported socialist political parties in many European countries 3. the Welfare State - demands for reform by socialist parties and labor unions persuaded European governments to begin enacting legislation to help the lower class. These programs laid the foundation for the welfare state. - it is important to note that a desire to counter the growing strength of socialist parties motivated many of these reforms

Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks

1. While the Russian army was falling apart, the Germans helped Lenin return to Petrograd. Lenin arrived at the Finland Station on April 3, 1917, and promptly argued his followers to overthrow the provincial government. 2. Lenin's key ideas - denounced gradual reform, arguing that capitalism could only be destroyed by class conflict - insisted that a communist revolution was possible to a non-industrialized country such as Russia - argued that Russia's relatively small working class could not develop a revolutionary class consciousness. Instead, leadership would have to come from a highly disciplined group of professional revolutionaries 3. Lenin's slogan of "Peace, Land, and Bread" captured the popular imagination and enabled the Bolsheviks to win widespread popular support 4. Lenin sensed that it was time to act. "History will not forgive us," Lenin wrote, "if we do not seize power now." On the night of November 6, 1917, the Bolsheviks occupied most government buildings. The next day Lenin proclaimed establishment of a new Bolshevik government.

the New Economic Policy

1. Widespread famine, a deteriorating economy, and increasing unrest all plagued Russia following the civil war. 2. Lenin pragmatically realized that he needed to make a tactical retreat. In March 1921, he launched the New Economic Policy. It called for a temporary compromise with capitalism. Small private businesses were denationalized and peasants were allowed to establish free markets in agricultural products (less communist state ownership). The Communist Party still maintained control of large industries such as oil and steel, since they were "the commanding heights" of economy. 3. the NEP successfully revived the Russian economy. By 1928, the country's farms and factories produced as much as they had before WWI.

Rise and Fall of Witchcraft

1. Witchcraft persecutions - during the 16th and 17th centuries, between 100k and 200k people were officially tried for witchcraft - between 40,000 and 60,000 people were executed for witchcraft - elderly, widowed women were the most like to be accused 2. Reason for growth of Witch Hunts - religious reformers stressed the great powers of the Devil. The Devil's diabolical activities reinforced the widespread bleed in the witchcraft - women were believed to be weak and thus susceptible to the Devil's temptations - religious wars and economic uncertainty caused great social and economic stress. Older, widowed women usually lacked power and thus became convenient scapegoats 3. Reason for Decline of Witchcraft - religious wars finally came to an end, thus restoring social stability. - Protestants emphasized the concept of a supreme God, thus making the Devil seem less threatening. - the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment emphasized reason and uniform laws of nature. Support for superstition and witchcraft declines as educated Europeans turned to rational explanations of natural events.

Key Romantic Writers, Artists, and Composers

1. Writers - William Wordsworth and Samual Taylor Coleridge, lyrical ballads - Friedrich von Schiller "Ode to Joy" - Johann Wolfgang von Goethe "Faust" - Sir Walter Scott "Ivanhoe" - Victor Hugo "the Hunchback of Notre Dame" - Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm "Grimm's Fairy Tales" 2. Artists - Caspar David Friedrich "Wanderer Above the Mist" - Eugene Delacroix "Liberty Leading the People" - John Constable "the Hay Wain" - J. M. W. Turner, "Hannibal Crossing the Alps" 3. Composers - Ludwig van Beethoven "Ninth Symphony" - Richard Wagner "The Ring of the Nibelung"

Classical British Economic Theory

1. accepted the laissez-faire policies advocated in Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations" 2. insisted that the supply and demand would act as an "invisible hand" so that selfish individual acts would ultimately benefit the whole society 3. opposed government regulations that interfered with the competitive free market 4. believed government policies should be limited to enforcing contracts, protecting private property, and ensuring national defense

Commercial Revolution consequences

1. decline of early commercial centers - during the 1400s, a confederacy of Baltic towns known as the Hanseatic League dominated northern European trade. As the center of European trade shifted to the rising nation-states in western Europe, the Hanseatic League rapidly declined - led by Venice, Italian city-states had controlled the lucrative trade with India. the Portuguese broke this monopoly by pioneering a new sea route to Asia 2. rise of capitalism - capitalism is an economic system in which capital, or wealth, is invested to produce more capital - it is based upon the private ownership of property such as land, raw materials, and equipment - capitalists are motivated by a desire to earn profits - the Age of Discovery ushered in a new economic era dominated by commercial capitalism 3. rise of then bourgeoisie - as commercial capitalism expanded so did the class of entrepreneurs. The new middle class is called the bourgeoisie - as commercial capitalism expanded, so did the wealth and power of the bourgeoisie

Characteristic of Baroque Art

1. dramatic use of light and dark called tenebrism 2. subject matter focused on dramatic moments 3. portrayal of everyday people who are not idealized 4. baroque buildings featuring grandiose scale and ornate decorations

Commercial Revolution Key Features

1. new entrepreneurs - the expansion of commercial activity created large geographic markets. The new trading areas opened new opportunities while also requiring a new kind of economic leadership - as the commercial revolution replaced the town-and-guild framework, merchants and bankers emerged as influential and successful entrepreneurs - the Italian Medici family and the German Fuggers were prominent examples of the new economic entrepreneurs 2. new industries - the printing press created a national an d even international market for books - the new ocean trading routes sparked a rise in shipbuilding - the emergence of nation-states supported the large-scale manufacture of cannons and muskets 3. new domestic or putting-out system - strict guild regulations stifled competition and restricted production. In order to avoid this, entrepreneurs provided cloth, looms, and other equipment to rural families - the putting-out or domestic system led to a significant increase in the production of cloth and other manufactured goods 4. new joint-stock companies - the new international trade required unprecedented amounts of capital - English and Dutch merchants formed join-stock companies to maximize products and limit risks - investors in a join-stock company bought shares of ownership. If the company went bankrupt, its owners lost their investments. If the companies prospered, the investor's share of ownership entitled them to collect a proportional share of the profits

Commercial Revolutions Causes

1. new ocean trade routes - the trade in spices, sugar, and precious metals brought great wealth to the European trading nations - the wealth supported increased investments and a wide array of new economic ventures 2. growth of populations - the introduction of new foods played a key role in supporting population growth - the population of Europe increased from 70 million in 1500 to 90 million in 1600 - the steady rise in population increased overall demand for goods and services 3. price revolution - during the 16th century, the western European economy experienced a steady inflation in prices - the influx of gold and silver from the New World and the rising demand created by the growth of population contributed to the price revolution 4. new nation-centered economic system - prior to 1500, the western European economy was organized around towns and guilds. both relied upon strict regulations to ensure their survival. as a result, there was very little innovation - as commercial activity increased, a new nation-centered economic system began to replace the old town-and-guild framework

Great Depression Impact

1. replaced the optimistic spirit of the late 1920s with a growing sense of doubt and fear 2. created uncertainty and insecurity for millions of unemployed workers 3. prompted increased government economic intervention 4. created opportunities for demagogues and dictators to exploit people's fears

Great Britain: Prosperity and Reform

1. the "Workshop of the World" - Great Britain continued to enjoy unprecedented prosperity - British shipyards led the world in the construction of iron ships - British bankers invested surplus capital in projects all over the globe 2. The Reform Bill of 1867 - Britain's rapidly growing working class continued to demand electoral reform - led by Benjamin Disraeli, the Conservatives (formally the Tories) supported a new reform bill - the Reform Bill of 1867 extended the suffrage to most of Great Britain's urban workers - it is important to note that British women were still denied the right to vote

Berlin Airlift

1. the Allies failed to agree on a peace treaty with Germany 2. IN 1945, the Allies divided Germany into four occupation zones, one each for the US, GB, France, and the Soviet Union. The city of Berlin lay 110 miles inside the Soviet occupation zone. Like Germany, it was divided into four occupation zones. 3. Fearing a resurgent Germany, the Soviet Union cut off western land access to West Berlin. This action provoked the first great Cold War test of wills between the US and the Soviet Union. 4. President Truman ordered a massive airlift of food, fuel, and other supplies to the beleaguered citizens of West Berlin 5. the Berlin Airlift marked a crucial and successful test of containment 6. Following the Berlin Airlift, the US, GB, and France created the Federal Republic of Germany or west Germany. The Soviet Union responded by establishing the East German state, the German Democratic Republic.

War with France, 1870

1. the Causes - France feared the sudden emergence of a strong and aggressive Prussia. It is important to note that France and opposed German unity for centuries - Bismarck adroitly exploited a minor dispute between France and Prussia over the search for a new Spanish monarch. By skillfully editing the Ems Dispatch, Bismarck inflamed reactions between France and Prussia - Napoleon III declared war on Prussia on July 19, 1870 2. The War - The Prussians successfully invaded France and forced Napoleon III to surrender on September 2, 1870 - On January 18, 1871, King William I was proclaimed German emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles 3. the Consequences - Bismarck imposed a a harsh settlement. He forced France to pay a huge indemnity of 5 billion francs and cede Alsace and most of Lorraine to the new German empire - the loss of rich deposits of coal end iron ore was a severe blow to France's economy. The loss of these provinces was an even greater blow to French national pride - the unification of Germany created a new European balance of power. As the German empire rapidly industrialized, it became the strongest state on the continent of Europe and a formidable rival to Great Britain.

Seven Years' War 1756-1763

1. the Colonial War - In Canada, the British defeated the French and gained control of Quebec - in the West Indies, the British gained control of major French sugar islands - in India, the British gained control over key French trading posts - in North America, this is known as the French and Indian War 2. war on the Continent - the anti-Prussian alliance achieved a series of victories that threatened to crush Prussia - Prussia was saved from defeat when its new tsar, Peter III, who admired Frederick the Great, dropped out of the war

Reasons why Democracies Failed to Act

1. the Great Depression forced the US, GB, and France to focus on domestic issues 2. the horrific loss of life in WWI created a deep desire for peace 3. American isolationists believed that US involvement in WWI had been a mistake. They wanted to avoid becoming entangled in European affairs 4. the democracies repeatedly underestimated Hitler's thirst for power and conquest

the Holocaust

1. the Nazi nightmare did not stop on the battlefields of Europe. Hitler ordered the systematic killing of Jews and other alleged inferior people. This horrible destruction of life is known as the Holocaust. 2. Factors that contributed to the Holocaust - Jews were a small and vulnerable minority - Hitler's propaganda convinced German's that Jews were an inferior race that should be eliminated - Hitler's secret police successfully stifled dissent - the Nazis successfully secured collaborators in occupied territories

Consequences of the Portuguese Trading-post Empire

1. the Portuguese ended the Venetian and Muslim monopoly of trade with Asia 2. the center of European commerce shifted from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean 3. the new sea routes reduced the importance of the Baltic Sea thus leading to the decline of the Hanseatic League

Romantic Movement Key Characteristics

1. the Primacy of Emotion - The Enlightenment stressed reason as a way to understand nature - Romantics rejected reason, and instead stressed emotion, intuition, and subjective feelings 2. A Different Past - Neoclassical artists looked to Greece and Rome for models of order and clarity - Meanwhile, Romantics looked to the medieval periods for models of chivalrous heroes, miraculous events, and unsolved mysteries 3. A New View of Nature - Enlightened thinkers relied on the scientific method to study and understand nature. They viewed nature as a well-ordered machine - Romantics preferred to contemplate the beauty of nature. They were inspired by raging rivers, great storms, and majestic mountains veiled in mist. 4. Religion - Romantics believed in a loving, personal God. They stressed emotion, inner faith, and religious inspiration. They embraced the owners and mysteries of nature as a way to feel the divine presence.

Reasons why Adolf Hitler Rose to Power

1. the weakness of the Weimar Republic helped prepare the public fo a bolder leader who would restore German pride 2. Hitler concluded that he would not attempt to overthrow the Weimar Republic by revolutionary means. Instead, he would use the electoral process to legally gain power. 3. Hitler was a spellbinding demagogue who denounced the Weimar Republic and the Versailles Treaty. He skillfully used modern propaganda techniques to convince the German people to follow his leadership. 4. Hitler offered the German people an ideology that exploited their fears. The Nazi program included the following key points: - Nationalism: German national honor would be avenged by regaining lands taken by the Versailles Treaty - Master Race: the Germans were a master race who needed land in eastern Europe and Russia. - Anti-Semitism: Jews were an inferior race responsible for many of Germany's problems - Anticommunism: Marxists were responsible for fomenting labor unrest. Much of Hiter's anti-Semitism focused on alleged Jewish responsibility for the rise of communism - the Fuhrer: Parliamentary government produced weak, vacillating politicians. Hitler believed that Germany required an absolute leader or a furrier who would embody the national will.

Totalitarianism

1.. exercised total control over the lives of individual citizens (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.) 2. used modern technology and communication to manipulate and censor information 3. used education to mold loyal citizens and demonize scapegoats and enemies

Portuguese Trading Post Empire

1450-1750 The Portuguese created this in the Indian Ocean 1. Key Explorers - Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope and returned to Portugal in 1488 - Vasco de Gama reached port of Calicut on the southwestern coast of India in 1498 and returned to Portugal with a cargo of pepper and cinnamon worth 60 times the cost of the expedition - Pedro Cabral accidentally discovered Brazil in 1500 while sailing to India. He returned to Portugal with 300,000 pounds of spice. 2. Commercial Trading posts - the Portuguese did not attempt to conquer territories or large populations. Instead, they built fortified trading posts designed to control trade routes and commerce. This was a form of imperial dominance based on control of trade rather than on control of subject peoples. - the most important Portuguese trading posts were located at Goa on the Indian coast, at Malacca on the Malay peninsula, and at Macao on the southern coast of China. Goa became the headquarters for Portuguese operations throughout the entire region.

Petrarch

14th century Italian poet who developed an interest in classical texts from ancient Rome. He journeyed through Italy in search of lost classical texts, and was able to recover many of the writings of the ancient philosopher Cicero. Petrarch is known as the "Father of Humanism" for his role in reviving scholarly interests in classical studies.

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)

18th century English intellectual who made a theory on population. He argued that human population grows geometrically, while food supply expands arithmetically. production. He insisted that human population would inevitably outstrip food production, thus making famine and mystery inevitable.

The Wealth of Nations

18th century book written by Adam Smith. Key Ideas: 1. Governments must not interfere with the free functioning of the market. They should limit their role to defending the state against foreign invasion, protecting property, and enforcing contracts. 2. Free markets. In a free market, the economic laws of supply and demand will create a self-regulating economic system. Regulations such as tariffs hinder free trade and should be abolished. 3. Self-interest and the "invisible hand." Smith maintained that every individual is motivated by self-interest. Competition and self-interest are socially beneficial: "Self-interest drives people to action and the Invisible Hand of competition acts as an automatic regulator so that the market will generate wealth for a nation."

the Lateran Accord

1929; between Mussolini and the pope. Mussolini successfully negotiated an end to the long dispute between the papacy and the Italian state. Pope Pius XII recognized the legitimacy of the Italian state. In return, Mussolini recognized Vatican City as an independent state ruled by the pope.

Romanticism

19th century artistic movement that swept across Europe and influenced religion, art, music, and philosophy. The rise in Romanticism was a response to the emphasis on rationality in the Enlightenment. It glorified emotion, inner feeling, and individualism by lifting up natural and aesthetic experiences. Individualism was an interest in the unique traits of each person. The Romantics' desire to follow their inner drives led them to rebel against middle-class conventions. Long hair, beards, and outrageous clothes served to reinforce the individualism that young Romantics were trying to express. Sentiment and individualism came together in the Romantics' stress on the heroic. The Romanic hero was solitary genius who was ready to defy the world and sacrifice his life for a great cause.

Realism

A 19th century artistic movement in which writers and painters sought to show life as it is rather than life as it should be. 1. Key Characteristics - disenchanted with Romanticism - focused on the daily concerns of real people such as workers and peasants - criticized the cruelty of industrial life and the greed and insensitivity of the wealthy

Dutch East India Company

A company founded by the Dutch in the early 17th century to establish and direct trade throughout Asia. Richer and more powerful than England's company, they drove out the English and Established dominance over the region. It ended up going bankrupt and being bought out by the British

Napoleonic Code

A comprehensive and uniform system of laws established for France by Napoleon. This preserved most the the revolutionary gains by recognizing the principle of the equality of all citizens before the law, the right of individuals to choose their professions, religious toleration, and the abolition of serfdom and feudalism. Property rights continued to be carefully protected, while the interests of employers were safeguarded by outlawing trade unions and strikes. This curtailed the rights of women, however, making them "less equal than men." The control of fathers over their families was restarted, and divorce was more difficult for women to obtain. Women and children were legally dependence on their husband or father.

English Civil War causes

A conflict between supporters of the English monarchy and members of the English parliament, who sought a constitutional state. - James I was an absolute monarch who, asserting the divine right theory, felt no obligation to meet with Parliament. - the Parliament was supported by the gentry, who were large landowners, and religious dissenters like the Puritans and English Calvinists - James's son, Charles I, refused to meet with Parliament until it became necessary, when he needed money; Parliament forced Charles to agree to the Petition of Right, which limited taxation and forbade arbitrary arrest and imprisonment. - Charles I pursued a policy of personal rule and ended up passing a tax called ship money, a levy on seacoast towns, without Parliament's consent - Charles and William Laud, the archbishop of Canterbury, tried introducing more ritual into the Anglican Church, striking the Puritans as a return to Catholic popery - the king and Archbishop Laud attempted to impose the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on the Scottish Presbyterian church, causing the Scots to rise in rebellion; Charles ended up having to call Parliament because it was financially strapped and unable to raise troops as defense - The Long Parliament met and sought to limit the authority of the monarch: abolition of arbitrary courts, abolition of taxes collected without their consent, and the Triennial Act (Parliament will meet once every 3 years) - Charles responded in 1642 by leading a group of soldiers into Parliament in an attempt to arrest his biggest critics; a large group in Parliament led by John Pym and his Puritans decided that the king had gone too far

Paris Commune of 1871

A leftist revolt against the national government that was crushed by conservatives with much bloodshed. - The Franco-Prussian War left France defeated and humiliated. France's Third Republic began with the bitter task of ceding the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany - the people of Paris rejected both the treaty and the new conservative government. Radicals called Communards formed a revolutionary municipal council or the "commune" - Government troops besieged Paris for two months. The army finally overwhelmed the Communards and mercilessly crushed all opposition - the bloody suppression of the Paris Commune left a legacy of class hatred that poisoned French politics

Steam Engine

A machine that turns the energy released by burning fuel into motion. James Watt patented the first steam engine in 1769. This machine rapidly replaced waterpower in British textile factories. It played a key role in boosting iron production.

Scientific Revolution

A major change in European thought, starting in the mid-1500s, in which the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs.

Berlin Conference (1884-1885)

A meeting at which representatives of European nations agreed upon rules for the European colonization of Africa. This recognized Leopold's personal rule over a neutral Congo Free State and agreed to work toward stopping the slave trade in Africa. European powers then pushed into the interior of Africa so that no single power would be able to claim the continent.

Revolutions in the Austrian Empire

Austria was a huge dynastic state in which a dominant German-speaking nation ruled a large number subject nationalities and ethnic groups. Revolutionary fervor's quickly spread from Paris to Vienna. As tensions mounted, Metternich resigned and fled to England. An Austrian consistent assembly abolished the robot, or forced labor, thus removing a major source of peasant discontent. Revolution quickly spread from Vienna to Hungary were Louis Kossuth demanded self-government. Despite initial setback ,the Austrian government regained control. Only Hungary remained defiant. The new Austrian emperor Francis Joseph (reigned 1848-1916) accepted the offer of Tsar Nicholas I to help defeat. the Hungarians. A joint invasion of Russian and Austrian forces crushed Hungarian resistance.

A New Map of Europe

Austria-Hungary was dissolved and the Habsburg monarchy eliminated. Austria and Hungary became separate states. In addition, territories from Austria-Hungary were given to the newly created states of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The Serbs dominated Yugoslavia. Finland and the three Baltic states- Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania- emerged from the statist empire.

Metternich

Austrian foreign minister who led the Congress of Vienna. As a conservative, he attempted to maintain the European status quo by supporting traditional religious and political authority. He wanted to promote peace, conservatism, and repression of liberal nationalism. He viewed liberalism and nationalism as threats to European stability and the survival of the Austrian empire.

Scientific Method

Bacon's inductive reasoning and Descartes deductive method proved to be complementary parts of a systematic and logical way of seeking truth known as the scientific method. The scientific method include the following characteristics: - belief in the existence of regular patterns in nature - use of controlled experiments to systematically record facts and verify hypothesis - search for mathematical formulas to describe natural phenomena

War with Denmark (1864)

Bismarck led Prussia into war with Denmark to win two border provinces, Schleswig and Holstein. The victory combined with shrewd diplomacy enabled Bismarck to begin the process of eliminating Austria from German affairs.

the Berlin Wall

Between 1949 and 1961, more than 3 million East Germans fled to West Germany by crossing into West Berlin. On August 13, 1961, the East Germans, with Khrushchev's support, began construction of a concrete wall along the border between East and West Berlin. The Berlin Wall stopped the flow of refugees while at the same time becoming a symbol of Communist oppression.

Emile

Book by Jean Jacques Rousseau that spelled out the principles of education. Rousseau argued that a "natural education" should replace the rigid schooling typical of his time. The key principles included: 1. Children are naturally good and entitled to an education that emphasizes freedom and happiness 2. People develop through various stages, and individuals vary within these stages. Education must therefore be individualized since "every mind has its own form" 3. children should be encouraged to draw their own conclusions from experiences. This principle anticipated what is now called "discovery learning"

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

British writer, philosopher and feminist who wrote "Thoughts on the Education of Daughters." Later, during the French Revolution, she wrote "A Vindication on the Rights of Woman." She argue that only physical strength separated the sexes, and it was inequity in educational opportunities that was the real difference in the sexes. Women deserved the same fundamental rights as men, and are not naturally inferior.

Utopian Socialism

Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, and Robert Owen were the most prominent Utopian Socialists. They advocated social and economic planning to create a society and self-sustaining communities based on cooperation rather than competition. Although the Utopians founded a number of cooperative communities, their experiments all failed.

Christian Democrats

Christian Democratic parties endorsed economic growth, European integration, national health insurance, aid to farmers, and political democracy. Key Christian Democrat leaders include Konrad Adenauer in West Germany, Alcide de Gasperi in Italy and Robert Schuman in France. The Christian Democrats accepted Keynesian economic theory. According to Keynesian economics, governments should play a leading role in stimulating economic growth.

Thomas More (1478-1535)

Christian humanist and leading humanist scholar in England. A renowned author, lawyer, and statesman, he held many high public offices including lord chancellor under Henry VIII. He is best known for writing Utopia (meaning "Nowhere), a novel describing an imaginary society located somewhere off the mainland of the New World. The country of Utopia featured religious toleration, a humanist education for both men and women, communal ownership of property. Possessing abundant leisure time and relived of competition and greed, Utopians were free to lead wholesome and enriching lives. IN serving King Henry VIII, he came face to face with the abuses and corruption he had criticized in Utopia.

contextualizing decolonization

Colonial groups around the world sought independence from colonizers in the 20th and 21st centuries. - in the postwar era, Europe's long-standing overseas expansion was dramatically reversed in a process that Europeans called decolonization; the retreat from imperial control remade the world map, as some hundred new nations in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East joined the global community. The most basic cause of imperial collapse was the rising demand of non-western people for national self-determination, racial equality, and personal dignity - before 1939, empires had rester on self-confidence and self-righteousness; Europeans had believed their superiority to be not only technical and military, but also spiritual, racial, and moral. The horrors of the First and Second World Wars undermined such complacent arrogance, and the economically weakened imperial powers preferred to avoid bloody colonial wars and concentrate on rebuilding at home - popular anticolonial politicians and intellectuals, such as India's Gandhi provided determined leadership and trenchant critiques of imperial power, inspiring colonized people to resist and overturn imperial rule - Western Europe and the US offered a competing vision of independence, based on free-market economies and liberal democracies, and they promoted cautious moves toward self-determination while attempting to limit the influence of communism in newly liberated states

Crimean War (1853-1856)

Conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires fought primarily in the Crimean Peninsula. War erupted between them in 1853 when Russia demanded the right to protect Christian shrines in Palestine, a privilege that had already been extended to the French. When the Ottomans refused, the Russians occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. Faluire to resolve the dispute by negotiations led the Ottoman Empire to declare war on Russia on October 4, 1853. The following year, on March 28, Great Britain and France declared war on Russia. France, Britain, Turkey, and a contingent of 10,000 men from Piedmont-Sardinia captured the strongly defended Russian fortress at Sevastopol. The new Russian tsar, Alexander II, sued for peace after the fall of Sevastopol. The war claimed over 500,000 lives, most caused by diseases and inadequate medical care.

Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)

Determined to reassert royal authority, Louis XVI ordered a mercenary army of Swiss guards to march toward Paris and Versailles. In Paris, angry mobs were already protesting the soaring price of bread. As tensions rose, a mob stormed the Bastille, a royal fortress and prison. The mob freed ad handful of prisoners and seized the Bastille's supply of gunpowder and weapons. The fall of the Bastille marked an important symbolic act against royal despotism. IT also pushed Paris to the forefront of the ongoing revolution.

New Monarchs

During the Middle Ages, monarchs were not very powerful and often had to defer to the power of the Church and the nobility. In the 15th century, monarchs in England (Henry VII), France (Louis XI), and Spain (Ferdinand and Isabella) began to centralize power by collecting taxes directly and exercising more influence on the religious life of their subjects. They retained their feudal incomes while also taxing towns, merchants, and peasants. They created professional armies that were paid from the royal treasury, and developed a more centralized administrative bureaucracy that relied upon education and loyal middle-class officials. These new monarchs set the stage for absolute monarchies that rule much of Europe two centuries later.

De-Christianization

During the Reign of Terror, the Catholic Church was linked to real or potential counter-revolutions. Religion was linked with the Ancient Regime, and Superstition, and so the Committee of Public Safety enacted measures to reduce its influence. This included: New Calendar, abolishment of religious holidays, new names for months, 7-day weeks replaced with 10-day decades, and the Cult of Supreme being.

Erasmus

Dutch humanist scholar who was one of the best-known proponents of Christian humanism. He believed that Christianity should be a guiding philosophy for the direction of daily life rather than the system of dogmatic beliefs and practices that the medieval church seemed to stress. In other words, he emphasized inner piety and de-emphasized the external forms of religion (sacraments, pilgrimages, relics). He also thought that the Latin edition of the Bible, known as the Vulgate, contained errors, so he edited the Greek text of the New Testament from the earliest available manuscripts and published it, along with a new Latin translation in 1516. In his book "The Praise of Folly," Erasmus used the Gospels to criticize several Catholic Church practices, such as the wealth of bishops. In the Gospels, the Apostles were poor. If the bishops sought to be like the Apostles (as they claimed to be their successors), they should be poor as well. In this way, Erasmus used a classical text in order to advocate for social reform.

Pragmatic Sanction (1713)

Emperor Charles VI (1711-1740) did not have a male heir. Determined to insure a safe succession for his daughter, Maria Theresa, Charles drew up a document called the Pragmatic Sanction. It stated that the territories of the Habsburg empire were indivisible and that Maria Theresa would inherit the throne and all Habsburg lands. England and other foreign powers forced Charles to make a number of concessions before agreeing to the sanction. Charles died believing he had guaranteed the peace and integrity of his reign.

Neoclassical Art

Emphasized a return to the past with moral thees and ideas from classic Roman/Greek stuff. It idealized citizenship and political participation, being formed in the 18th century following the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment. 1. Basic Characteristics - this style supplanted Rococo during the 1780s. - key figures were depicted as classical heroes - portrayed the classical virtues of self-sacrifice and devolution to the state; patriotic duty - compositions emphasized the Greek ideals of restraint, simplicity, and symmetry 2. Leading artists and work - Jacques-Louis David, "Oath of the Horatii." This recreated a scene from Roman history in which three Horatius brothers swore an oath before their leather, proclaiming their willingness to sacrifice their lives for their country. - Jean-Antoine Houdon, "Voltaire Seated" - Thomas Jefferson, "Monticello"

Isaac Newton

English mathematician and scientist. He published "Principia Mathematica" in 1687 which integrated the astronomy of Copernicus, corrected by Kepler's Laws (elliptical orbits), with the physics of Galileo and his predecessors. He put forward three laws of motion and mechanics. The key feature in Newton's synthesis was the law of universal gravitation- every body in the universe attracts every other body in a precise mathematical relationship. The Newtonian world machine displayed that the universe was one huge, regulated, and uniformed machine that operated according to natural laws in absolute time, space, and motion.

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist and biologist. His watershed book "the Origin of Species" challenged the idea of special creation by proposing a revolutionary theory of biological evolution. Informed by Thomas Malthus's "Essay on Population," Darwin concluded that every living plant and animal takes part in a constant "struggle for existence." Only the fittest survive this struggle. The fittest are determined by a process of natural selection in which new species emerge after gradually accumulating new modifications.

William Harvey (1578-1657)

English physician and scientist who described the circulation of the blood. He wrote "On the Motion of the Heart and Blood" in 1628, which dealt a severe blow to Galen's theories. He demonstrated that the heart and not the liver was the beginning point of the circulation of blood in the body, that he same blood flows in both veins and arteries, and most important, that the blood makes a complete circuit as it passes through the body. His theory of circulation of the blood laid the foundation for modern physiology.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

English political philosopher that was negative about the nature of man and believed that humans would compete violently for power and wealth if left to themselves. He viewed human beings are naturally self-centered and prone to violence. They are motivated to increase pleasure and minimize pain. In a state of nature, people knew neither peace nor security. Life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." In his work "Leviathan" (1651), he outlined a social contract in which all members of society were ruled by an absolute monarchy that would maintain peace and order. The horrors of the English Civil war left a deep impression on him. He feared the dangers of anarchy more than the dangers of tyranny. Without government, life would be intolerable and civilization impossible. Government is the result of human necessity rather than divine ordination. People gave up their personal liberty to attain security and order.

the Directory

Established after the Reign of Terror; the National Convention wrote a new constitution and granted executive power to this five-man body, which ruled France for four years. It was dominated by rich bourgeoisie who failed to deal with inflation, food shortages, and corruption. After years of corrupt and ineffective rule, Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup d'erat and replaced a weak dictatorship with a strong one in 1799.

the Population Explosion 1800

FACTORS: - The agricultural revolution produced a more abundance food supply. - The potato became a key food staple during the 18th century. A single acre of potatoes could feed a family for a year. - Advances in transportation reduced the impact of local crop failures. - 18th century wars were fought by professional armies with specific geographic and economic objectives. As a result, 18th century wars were less destructive than the 17th century religious wars. - it is important to note that medical advances did not play an important role STATISTICS: - Europe's population increased from 120 million in 1700 to 190 million in 1800 - the population of England rose from 6 million in 1750 to more than 10 million in 1800 - the population of France increased from 18 million in 1715 to 26 million in 1789

Reign of Terror (1793-1794)

Faced with foreign invaders and the threat of domestic rebellion, the National Convention established the Committee of Public Safety to defend France and safeguard the Revolution. Led by Robespierre, the Committee of Public Safety exercised dictatorial power as it carried out a Reign of Terror. In the name of creating a Republic of Virtue, Robespierre executed the queen, his chief rivals, and thousands of "dangerous" class enemies. Thousands were executed for "disloyalty."

Brunelleschi

Florentine architect who was the first great architect of the Italian Renaissance. He drew much inspiration from the architectural monuments of Roman antiquity. His first project involved the challenge of building a dome for the unfinished cathedral of Florence (the Duomo). He also designed the Church of San Lorenzo. Inspired by Roman models, he created a church interior very different from that or the great medieval cathedrals. San Lorenzo's classical columns, rounded arches, and coffered ceiling created an environment that did not overwhelm the worshipper materially and psychologically, as Gothic cathedrals did, but comforted as a space created to fit human, not divine, measurements.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

He argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical research, and he formalized the general theory of inductive reasoning, or empiricism. He began with systematic organizations and experimentation and generalized from this knowledge. He believed that science should be useful and make people's lives longer and more comfortable. In 1660, followers of him created the Royal Society to discuss the findings of scholars all over Europe. (inductive reasoning = derives general principles from scientific observations)

European Economic Community (EEC)

Free trade zone in Western Europe crated by Treaty of Rome in 1957. Often referred to as the "Common Market," this collection of countries originally included France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. This arrangement would allow for common politics and a free flow of capital without trade barriers.

Huguenots

French Calvinists - despite royal opposition, Calvinist ideas gained a strong foothold in France. By the 1560s, one-tenth of France's 18 million people had become Calvinists, also known as Huguenots - Calvinism had special appeal to French nobles. By the 1560s, between 2/5 and 1/2 of the nobility had become Calvinists. For many nobles, Calvinism provided a means of expressing opposition to the Valois kings.

French Physiocrats

French economic reformers that were the first to question mercantilist policies. Led by Francois Quesnay, the physiocrats argued that economic activities should be freed from artificial restrictions. Governments should follow a laissez-faire policy of noninterference with the economy.

Duke de Sully

French minister, staunch Huguenot, and faithful right-hand man who assisted king Henry IV of France. During this time, the French tax system was both inefficient and inevitable. Nobles were exempt from paying taxes, so peasants bear the burden. Sully could not make the tax system more just, but he made it more efficient by reducing the royal debt, building new roads and canals, reviving industry and agriculture, and encouraging colonization in the New World. Henry IV and Sully began the process of raising revenue by selling government offices that conferred nobility, creating a nobility of the robe from prosperous bourgeoisie.

Montesquieu (1689-1755)

French nobleman and attorney who wanted to limit the abuses of royal absolutism, writing "The Spirit of the Laws" in 1748. Here, he expressed his favor for governments in Britain, in which there was a separation of powers and checks and balances on major political interest. He advocated the separation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. This system of divided authority would protect the rights of individuals by preventing one branch of government from gaining unrestricted control over the entire society. His ideas had a significant influence on the writers of the American Constitution.

Voltaire (1694-1778)

French philosophe that was a fierce proponent for religious toleration, shown in his famous cry, "crush the infamous thing!" (religious dogma). This ringing exclamation reminded his readers to continue the battle against the enemies of reason- bigotry, ignorance, and religious fanaticism. He believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government. His "Philosophic Letters on the English" (1733) expressed a deep admiration of the English life, especially its freedom of the press, political freedom, and religious toleration. He used it to criticize many of the ills oppressing France, especially absolutism. This criticism of absolute monarchy reflected the broader dissatisfaction of middle-class individuals with their society. In 1763, he penned "Treatise on Toleration," in which he argued that religious toleration had created no problems for England and Holland and reminded governments that "all men are brothers under god." Voltaire championed religious toleration and deism.

Olympia de Gouges (1748-1793)

French playwright, political activist, and easy feminist. She wrote "Declaration of the Rights of Women and of the Female Citizen" in 1789. She demand that French women be given the same rights as French men.

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)

Genoese explorer during the age of exploration. Although he believed he had reached Asia, he had discovered the Caribbean islands that were part of a vast New World. His voyages helped to propel Spain into the forefront of European exploration, conquest, and settlement.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)

German philosopher who said that "God is dead" because people killed him with their false values. He said that Christianity and all religion is a "slave morality." He also said that the only hope of mankind was to accept the meaninglessness as a source of personal integrity and liberation. Middle-class morality led to false and shallow existence. It was incapable of any real cultural creativity, primarily because of its excessive emphases on the rational faculty at the expense of emotions, passions, and instincts. Conventional notions of good and evil are only relevant for the ordinary people; and the irrational should be embraced rather than reason. The 'will-to-power' of a few heroic "supermen" could successfully reorder the world.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

German physicist 1. Theories - he proposed his special theory of relativity in 1905, stating that time, space, and motion are relative to each other and not fixed. This challenged traditional conceptions - his famous equation E=mc^2 declared that mass and energy are interchangeable. This discovery laid the foundation for the development of nuclear power. 2. Implications - instead of living in a rational world with few uncertainties, humans lived in a new universe with few certainties. Everything was "relative" or dependent on the observer's frame of reference - it is important to note that Einstein's theories did not immediately affect the average person's outlook on life. However, intellectuals and popular writers realized that by pulling the rug out from under perceived reality, the new physics contributed tot he uncertainties of the postwar world. - it undermined the confidence that people lived in a predictable and orderly world

Schlieffen Plan

Germany faced the daunting task of simultaneously fighting France on its western border and Russia along a lengthy eastern front. In order to prevent a two-front war, General Alfred von Schlieffen drew up a master plan calling for an all-out attack against France. The Shlieffen Plan gamble that France could be knocked out of the war before Russia had a change to fully mobilize its forces. A lightning attack on France meant invading neutral Belgium. Germany's unprovoked attack on Belgium outraged Britain. On August 4, 1914, Britain declared war on Germany.

Fall of the Berlin Wall

Inspired by the events in Poland, the people of East Germany demanded change in their government. On November 9, 1989, a new East German leader opened the Berlin Wall. The reunification of Germany occurred less than one year later. These watershed events marked the end of the Cold War in Eastern Europe.

Galen

Greek anatomist whose theories formed the bases of European medicine until the Renaissance. He described heart valves and studied arteries and veins.

David Hume (1711-1776)

He believed that a "science of man," or social sciences, was possible and emphasized civic morality and religious skepticism. In his "Treatise on Human Nature," Hume argued that observation and reflection, grounded in systemized common sense, made conceivable a science of man. Careful examination of the experiences that constituted human life would lead to the knowledge of human nature that would make this science possible.

John Locke (1632-1704)

He disagreed with Thomas Hobbes's negative view of man, believing instead that man is basically rational, and that a man's natural rights of life, liberty, equality and property come prior to the development of society. Humans were creatures of reason and goodwill. His "Second Treatise on Government" (1690) explains the social contract he believes in: one in which the government should provide order and arbitrate disputes, one that can be removed if it becomes abusive to natural rights. People form governments to protect their natural rights, so rulers should promise to safeguard them. He also wrote "Essay Concerning Human Understanding," in 1690, in which he argued that humans learn from experience and are born tabula rasa, or blank slate, rather than born with innate ideas. They are shaped by their environment.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

He glorified the idea of the noble savage, exemplified by American Indians who used instinct and emotion rather than reason. He wrote the "Social Contract," in which he argued that the general will needed to be realized through pursuing the common good. He believed that humans are naturally good and free and can rely on their instincts. Liberty was achieved through being forced to follow what was best for all people because, he believed, what was best for all was best for each individual. Despite the principles of equality espoused by the Enlightenment, Rousseau offered controversial arguments for the exclusion of women from political life. He argued that men and women are radically different by nature and women should play roles limited to the domestic sphere.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

He was a brilliant mathematician who argued for a deductive approach to knowledge, one that moved from general principles to more particular cases through steps of reason, in his "Discourse on Method" in 1637. He began by doubting all notions based on authority or custom. Instead, he started with self-evident statements known to be true and used logical reasoning to deduce various inferences. He is also known for his idea of dualism, the idea that nature is made up of both a tangible substance that takes up space we call matter, and an intangible substance, the mind. His coordinate system was useful for architecture and engineering.

The Great Exhibition, 1851

In 1851, the British organize the first industrial fair at London in the Crystal Palace. The fair had 100,000 exhibitions that showed a wide variety of products made in the Industrial Revolution. It was a display of Britain's wealth to the world, celebrating its undisputed economic and technological dominance. Britain's Hall of Machinery featured the locomotive engines, hydraulic presses, and power looms that had powered the IR.

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)

In 1862, William I chose as his prime minister a Junker and staunch conservative named Otto von Bismarck. As a master of Realpolitik, Bismarck set out to strengthen Prussia, governing the area by largely ignoring Parliament. He enlarged and reequipped the Prussian army so that he could take advantage of opportunities for further territorial expansion. Disavowing liberalism as frivolous and misguided, Bismarck firmly declared, "The great questions fo our day cannot be solved by speeches and majority votes- that was the great error of 1848 and 1849- but by iron and blood."

Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911)

In 1905, Germany, fearing an alliance between France and Britain, supported Moroccan Independence in order to provoke France and drive a wedge between the two countries. Again in 1911, Germany and France came into conflict over the region, foreshadowing the conflict that would arise in 1914.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

In 1928, 62 countries including the US signed a pact promising to "renounce war as an instrument of national policy," hence making wars illegal. At the time, the Kellogg-Briand Pact appeared to bolster collective security and promote a renewed spirit of optimism.

Outbreak of WWII

In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union stunned the world by announcing a 10-year nonaggression pact. In addition, they secretly agreed to divide eastern Europe. On September 1, 1939, German forces attacked Poland. Two days later, GB and France declared war on Germany. Germany's blitzkrieg or "lightning war" combined fast moving armor and air power to overwhelm Poland

Problems after Italian Unification

In March 1861, an Italian parliament formally proclaimed the kingdom of Italy with Victor Emmanuel II as king "by the grace of God and the will of the nation." Tragically, Cavour died just two months later. The new unified kingdom of Italy faced a number of persistent problems: 1. Unification was still not complete. Venetia remained under Austrian control and the papacy led by Pius XI remained hostile to the new Italian state. Thus, they did not cede Rome. 2. Northern Italy was urban, sophisticated, and increasingly industrialized. Southern Italy remained rural, backward, and poor. 3. The new government was burned by a heavy debt.

Leonardo da Vinci

Italian painter, engineer, musician, and scientist. He stressed the need to advance beyond realism and initiated the High renaissance's preoccupation with the idealization of nature, or the attempt to generalize from realistic portrayal to an ideal form. His "Last Supper," painted in Milan, is a brilliant summary of 15th century trends in its organization of space and use of perspective to depict subjects 3-dimensionally in a 2-dimensional medium. The words of Jesus that "one of you shall betray me" are experienced directly as each of the apostles reveals his personality and his relationship to Jesus. Through gestures and movements, Leonardo hoped to reveal a person's inner life.

Garibaldi (1807-1882)

Italian patriot whose conquest of Sicily and Naples led to the formation of the Italian state. He believed in nationalism and republicanism, and personified the idea of a romantic revolutionary.

Machiavelli (1469-1527)

Italian political theorist who wrote "the Prince," where he expressed his major concerns, which were the acquisition and expansion of political power as the means to restore and maintain order. He rejected the belief that princes should act ethically, behaving based on Christian moral principles. In his view, a prince's attitude toward power must be based on an understanding of human nature, which is self-centered. Political activity, therefore, could not be restricted by moral considerations. The prince acts on behalf of the state and for the sake of the state must be willing to let his conscience sleep: "the ends justify the means."

Galileo (1564-1642)

Italian scientist who was the first to make systematic observations of the heavens using a telescope, thereby inaugurating a new age in astronomy. After turning his telescope to the skies, he made remarkable discoveries: mountains and craters on the moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter, the phases of Venus, and sun-spots. This demolished an aspect of traditional cosmology, since he demonstrated that the universe was composed of material substance similar to the earth, and not ethereal or perfect and unchanging substance. He wrote "The Starry Messenger," which led to his encounter with the Inquisition. In his study of mechanics, he created laws of motion and the principle of inertia, where he argued that a body in motion continues in motion forever unless deflected by an external force. Pope Urban VII accused Galileo of meddling "with the most important and dangerous subjects which can be stirred up in these days." In 1633, the pope summoned him to Rome to stand trial. Under threat of torture, Galileo retracted his support for the Copernican theory.

Maximilien Robespierre

Jacobin that was an important member of the Committee of Republic Safety. He collaborated with the sans-culotte and enforced compliance, putting more than 40,000 French men and women on trial for political crimes, all of whom were either executed or dead in prison. Terror was a weapon against all suspected of opposing the revolutionary government. In July of 1794, Robespierre himself was guillotined. Many of his supporters, educated and middle-class members of the Third Estate, reasserted their authority during this time, called the Thermidorian Reaction.

Calvinism Key Beliefs

John Calvin's doctrines are clearly and systematically explain in his landmark book, "The Institutes of the Christian Religion." 1. Calvin asserted that while God is just, perfect, and omnipotent, humans are corrupt, weak, and insignificant 2. Since men and women are by nature sinful, they cannot actively work to achieve salvation. Because God is all-knowing, he has determined "both whom he would admit to salvation and whom he would condemn to destruction." This terrible decree constitutes the theological principle of predestination. 3. By God's grace, a very few people will be saved from sin. Calvin called these people the "elect" 4. The elect have a duty to rule society so as to glorify God; to Christianize the state. The Ideal government should therefore be a theocracy in which church leaders dominate civil authorities.

Cubism

Key Characteristics - presented multiple views of the same object - fragmented forms into flat, jagged shapes - focused on geometry shapes, complex lines, and overlapping planes - portrayed flat, two-dimensional space without traditional linear perspective - since geometry shaped replaced traditional forms the viewed had t ore-create reality in his or her own mind Key Artists and Works - Pablo Picasso, "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon" - Georges Braque "Violin and Candlestick"

Impressionism

Key Characteristics - sought to capture a moment in time; a slice of life - painted what they observed and felt in order "not to lose the first impression" - interested in the fleeting effects of light on color - depicted leisure activities of the Parisian bourgeoisie Key Artists and Works - Claude Monet, "Impression Sunrise, Gare St.-Lazare" - Pierre-Auguste Renoir, "Le Bal au Moulin de la Galette, Luncheon of the Boating party"

Defeat in Italy in 1848

Led by Giuseppe Mazzini, the "Young Italy" movement sought to establish a liberal republic embracing all Italy. The Austrians once again proved to be too strong while the Italians proved to be too divided.

Decline of Ottoman Empire

Led by Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottomans threatened Vienna. In the middle of the 17th century, a series of ambitious rulers revitalized the Ottoman Empire. In 1683, a powerful Turkish army once again besieged Vienna. Austrian forces reinforced by Poles and Germans successfully repelled the Turks. This marked the beginning of a steady decline in Ottoman power. In addition, the Ottomans fell behind in industrial and political developments. They were invaded by powerful countries and too much European influence was put in the empire.

the Reform Bill of 1832

Legislation passed in Great Britain that extended the vote to most male members of the middle class. - the House of Commons was less representative of the British people than at any time in its 500 year history - many boroughs (electoral districts) were sparsely populated, and a few had no people at all. Meanwhile, new industrial cities such as Manchester had no representatives. - After a decade of pressure from factory owners and merchants, Parliament passed the Reform Bill of 1832. It created a number of new districts representing heavily urban areas. It also doubled the number of votes to include most middle-class men. - It is important to note that under this reform bill, only about one in five adult males could vote. Workers, women, and the poor were all disenfranchised.

Charles I (1625-1649)

Like his father, this English king was a firm believer in the divine right of kings. He was always in need of money and opposed the Puritans and supported the Anglican Church. In return for grants of money, he agreed to the Petition of Right (1628), which claimed that no one should be compelled to pay any tax or loan without parliament's consent. Also, no one should be imprisoned without due process of law and no quartering of soldiers in private homes. With this king's encouragement, William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, attempted to transform the Church or England into a Catholic church without a pope. IN 1639, Laud foolishly attempted to impose the English Prayer Book on the Scottish Presbyterian Church. Determined to defend their religion, the Scots formed an army and occupied northern England. Desperate for money to fight the Scots, Charles reluctantly recalled Parliament into session, thus precipitating a constitutional and religious crisis. Determined to undo what they saw as royal tyranny, the Long Parliament (1640-48) executed Laud and passed a number of laws limiting royal power.

Frederick William I (1713-1740)

Like the Great Elector, this king of Prussia wanted a build a powerful army. During his reign, the Prussian military doubled to over 80,000 men. Although Prussia had Europe's 13th largest population, it boasted the continent's third or fourth largest army. Under the Hohenzollerns, military priorities and values dominated all aspects of Prussian life. Led by the Junkers the officer corps became Prussia's most prestigious class. As noted by one foreign diplomat, "Prussia is not a state that possesses an army, but an army that possesses a state."

France under Louis XV

Louis XV (reigned 1715-1774) was a weak leader who was dominated by his royal mistress and court favorites. The nobles regained much of the power and privileges they lost during the reign of Louis XIV. Although France was a prosperous and potentially powerful country, government debts continued to mount.

Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu

Louis XIII inherited the throne at 9, appointing Cardinal Richelieu to be his chief minister in 1624. Richelieu was the real ruler of France from 1624 until his death in 1642. He worked tirelessly and successfully to enhance royal power. Like Henry IV, he was a politique who placed public order above religious zeal. Determined to weaken the nobility, he adopted the intendant system. In terms of international affairs, Richelieu continued France's long-term policy of limiting Habsburg power. he supported the Protestant powers during the 30 Years' War and his skillful diplomacy and well-timed interventions helped defeat the Habsburg and make France the leading European power.

Jean Baptiste Colbert

Louis XIV named Jean-Baptist Colbert as controller general of finances. Colbert worked tirelessly to strengthen France's economy by implementing strict mercantilist policies. He expanded manufacturing by abolishing domestic tariffs that inhibited trade At the same time, he protected French products by placing high tariffs on goods coming into the country. Colbert recognized the importance of colonies as a source of raw materials and a market for manufactured goods. He encouraged people to emigrate to Canada where the lucrative fur trade promoted French commerce. He was able to raise royal revenues and promote economic growth. However, the was unable to make the tax system more equitable. Nobels continued to enjoy exemptions while peasants bear a disproportionate tax burden.

spread of Lutheranism

Lutheranism became the dominant religion in northern and eastern Germany. It is important to remember that most of southern Germany, Austria, and the Rhineland remained Roman Catholic. Lutheranism became the predominant religion in Denmark and Scandinavia.

decolonization in Africa

Many African countries were given independence after WWII. - In Algeria, a nationalistic group known as the National Liberation Front began a guerrilla war, in 1954, that lasted 8 years and resulted in atrocities on both sides. French President Charles de Gaulle eventually granted Algeria independence in 1962 - In South Africa, European settlers had dominated control over the political system. The African National Congress, formed 1912, began as a reform group seeking economic and political reforms, but with little success. In the 1950s, South African whites in government were creating and strengthening laws creating a system known as Apartheid. The ANC leader, Nelson Mandela, was arrested in 1962, and apartheid persisted until 1994. - most African countries achieved their independence in the late 1950s and 1960s, and by the late 1960s, only parts of southern African and Portuguese Mozambique and Angola were under European control. These territories would gain independence by the 1970s.

Loss of Liberty under Napoleon

Napoleon censored the pressman and suppressed all political opposition, also establishing a secret police. Despite the loss of individual liberties, France enjoyed security, stability, and prosperity. Supported by a grateful nation, Napoleon declared himself emperor on December 2, 1804.

Geocentric Theory

Medieval philosophers accepted a geocentric view that held that the earth was a motionless body located at the center of the universe. The sun, moon, and planets all moved around the earth in perfectly circular paths. Medieval philosophers believed that different physical laws applied to the east and to the heaven. Both Greek philosopher Aristotle and the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy supported the geocentric theory. The Church taught that God had deliberately placed the earth at the center of the universe. Earth was thus a special place on which the great drama of life took place.

the Concordat of 1801

Napoleon understood the importance of ending the strained relationship between the French government and the Catholic Church. This concordat granted the Catholic Church special statues as the religion of "the majority of Frenchmen," The pope regained the right to confirm church dignitaries appointed by the French government, depose French bishops and reopen religious seminaries. In return, the pope recognized the French government and accepted the loss of church properties confiscated during the Revolution.

Reorganization of Germany: Napoleon

Napoleon's victories enabled him to dissolve the HRE. He consolidated previously independent German states into a French-dominated Confederation of the Rhine. Posing as a champion of the Revolution, Napoleon abolished feudalism and granted peasants freedom from manorial duties. It is important to note that Napoleon unwittingly sparked a new wave of German nationalism that fueled resistance to his rule. People who at first welcomes the French as liberators now felt they were being exploited by foreign invaders. Napoleon thus inadvertently accelerated the cause of German unification.

the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

On August 26, 1789, the National Assembly adopted this charter of basic liberties reflecting the ideas of the major philosophes of the French Enlightenment. The declaration began with the ringing affirmation of "the natural and imprescriptible rights of man" to "liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression." It went on to affirm the destruction of the aristocratic privileges by proclaiming an end to exemptions from taxation, freedom and equal rights for all men, and access to public office based on talent. The monarchy was restricted and all citizens were to have the right to take part in the legislative process. Freedom of speech and press were coupled with the outlawing of arbitrary arrests. People could now petition the government and have religious freedom.

Women's March on Versailles

On October 5, 1789, thousands of women marched to Versailles demanding cheap bread and insisting that the royal family move to Paris. The king quickly capitulated, and a few days later the National Assembly also moved to Paris.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

One of the editors of the Encyclopedia, a 17-volume work that quite ambitiously tried to alphabetically arrange the sum of human knowledge. It applied principles of the Scientific Revolution to society and human institutions. Diderot's goal was to bring together all the most current and enlightened thinking about science, technology, art, and government. The Encyclopedia disseminated enlightened thinking across Europe and North America. It undermined established authority by including articles about controversial political and religious subjects.

Paris Peace Conference 1919

Peace conference run by the allied powers to discuss terms of the Treaty of Versailles at end of WW1. Although nearly 30 countries were represented, Great Britain (David Lloyd George), France (Clemenceau), and the United States (Woodrow Wilson). Germany and Austria-Hungary were not allowed to attend the conference. Russia, which had suffered the greatest loss of life, was in the midst of a civil war and not invited to attend the conference.

Peter the Great Importance

Peter the Great provided a model of how an energetic and ruthless autocrat would change a nation. He successfully transformed Russia into a great power that would play an increasingly important role in European history. His policies increased the disparities between the nobles and the peasants. Millions of exploited serfs formed an estranged class that did not share in Russian society. His successes include his program of modernization, construction of St. Petersburg, and victory over Sweden in the Great Northern War.

Copernicus (1473-1543)

Polish astronomer who wrote "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres." He created a heliocentric, or sun-centered conception that crashed with the medieval geocentric model. He argued that the universe consisted of eight spheres with the sun motionless at the center and the spheres of fixed stars at rest in the eight sphere. The planets revolved around the sun while the moon revealed around the earth. Moreover, what appeared to be the movement of the sun and the fixed stars around the earth as actually the daily rotation of earth on its axis and the journey of earth around the sun each year.

spread of Calvinism

Protestant reformers from France, England, and Scotland hailed Calvin's Geneva as "the most perfect school of Christ since the days of the Apostles." Geneva thus became both the center of Calvin's reformed church and a compelling model for other protestant leaders. - in the late 1550s, John Knox brought Calvinism to Scotland. Within a decade, the Presbyterian Church founded by Knox and his followers became the basis for Scotland's established religion. - Calvinism soon spread to France, where followers were called Huguenots - Calvinists also founded Puritan churches in England and later in New England

Deism

Religion of the Enlightenment. It though of God as a cosmic watchmaker who created the universe and let it run according to immutable natural laws, denying that God communicated to man or influenced his life. Most of the educated elite in western Europe and America embraced this. However, deism's reliance upon reason and lack of emotion had little appeal for many people. A new religious movement known as pietism stressed faith, emotion, and "the religion of the heart"

Peter the Great (1682-1725)

Romanov Ruler who embodies absolutism 1. Modernization - he recognize that Russia had fallen behind western Europe. Determined to learn from his rivals, he visited Holland and England, where he toured shipyards and examined new military equipment, and observed western customs - he returned to Moscow vowing to transform Russia in to a great power. He began by expanding Russia's army and constructing a new navy. - he improved Russian agriculture by introducing the potato, strengthened the Russian economy by importing skilled workers, and liberated Russian women by allowing them to appear in public without veils. In a famous sand much resented act, Peter forced nobles to shave off their traditional long beards and cut their coats at the knees. 2. Defeating Sweden - the 30 Years' War left Sweden in control of the Baltic's entire eastern shore - after suffering initial defeats at the hands of Sweden's king Charles XII, Peter ultimately won the war, thus gaining control over warm-water outlets on the Baltic shore - the defeat contributed to Sweden's decline as a major European power. At the same time, Russia now became the dominant power on the Baltic Sea 3. St. Petersburg - Peter began building this in 1701 to have a window on the West, a symbol that Russia was looking westward to Europe - St. Petersburg quickly became a symbol of Peter's new and more powerful Russia 4. Controlling the Boyars - the Boyars were the old nobility who supported traditional Russian culture - in addition to shaving beards and wearing western clothing, Peter compelled them to construct costly town houses in St. Petersburg and required every noble to serve in the army or civil administration 5. Exploiting the Serfs - Russia's peasants did not enjoy the benefits of Peter's reforms. Instead, they were conscripted to the army and forced to build St. Petersburg - in central Europe, serfs were bound to the land. In contrast, Russia serfs could be sold apart from the land. This enabled nobles to force serfs to work in mines and factories

The Social Contract

Rousseau's treatise on politics and government. Unlike Hobbes and Locke, Rousseau argued that individuals entered into a social contract with one another. This create a community of organized civil society. The sovereign power in a state does not lie in a ruler. Instead it resides in the general will of the community as a whole. The general will or "public spirit" is defined as any action that is right and good for all. Rulers are servants of the community. If they fail to carry out the people's will, they should be removed. Rousseau's concept of the general will and sovereignty of people influenced leaders of both the French and American revolutions. 20th century dictators justified their rule by claiming to embody their nation's general will

politiques

Rulers who put political necessities above personal beliefs. This began in France, where a group of moderate Catholics and Huguenots realized that the disorder and destruction between them had to be stopped or France would collapse. They supported a strong monarchy and official recognition of the Huguenots. Two strong examples of this term are Henry IV and Elizabeth I.

Adam Smith

Scottish economist who wrote the "Wealth of Nations," a precursor to modern Capitalism. He argued against laws and regulations that prevented commerce from reaching its full capacity, presenting a strong attack on mercantilism. First, he condemned the mercantilist use of tariffs to protect home industries. If one country can supply another country with a produce cheaper than the latter can make it, it is better to purchase the product than to produce it. He also created the labor theory of value. Like the Physiocrats, he claimed that gold and silver were not the source of the nation's true wealth, but unlike the Physiocrats, he did not believe that land was either. Rather labor constituted the true wealth of a nation. Finally, he believed that the state should not interfere in economic matters; laissez-faire.

Cartesian Dualism

Separation of mind and matter, allowed something to be investigated independently by reason

Cult of the Supreme Being

a religion based on deism devised by Maximilian Robespierre, intended to become the state religion after the French Revolution

Scientific Societies

Sponsored by governments and monarchs, scientist organized societies to promote research and spread scientific knowledge. Found din 1660, the Royal Society in England enjoyed international prestige. Other scientific societies were founded in Florence, Paris, and Berlin. The scientific societies helped create an international scientific community.

The Railroad

Steam power enabled inventors to build railroad locomotives. English entrepreneurs wanted a railroad line to connect the port of Liverpool with the inland city of Manchester, the heard of the spinning and weaving industry. Liverpool-Manchester Railway opened in 1830. By 1850, Britain had over 6000 miles of railroad track. Railroads had the following far-reaching effects: 1. stimulated further industrial growth 2. created regional and national markets for agricultural and industrial goods 3. reduced the cost of shipping freight 4. promoted leisure travel

Second Industrial Revolution

Steel, chemicals, electricity. This is the name for the new wave of more heavy industrialization starting around the 1860s. 1. New Industries - the Bessemer process increased steel production while reducing costs. By 1900, steel had replaced iron in machinery, ships, railroad tracks, and building construction. - led by Germany, the chemical industry grew rapidly. New produced included soaps, dyes, fertilizers, and explosives 2. New Sources of Power - coal and steam gave way to electricity, oil, and gasoline - electricity proved to be especially versatile. It lit homes and powered everything from industrial machinery to the new streetcar 3. New forms of Communication and Transportation - first demonstrated by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the telephone quickly became an essential part of modern life - the invention of the internal combustion engine enabled mechanics to build gasoline-powered automobiles 4. New Industrial Powers - although Great Britain continued to be a major industrial power, its rate of growth slowed - Germany and the US emerged as new and formidable industrial rivals - Germany's emergence as Europe's leading industrial power altered the European balance of power, posing a challenge to Great Britain's political and economic leadership

James I (1603-1625)

Stuart monarch that believed in the divine right of kings, that royal authority came directly from God. This alienated Parliament, which had grown accustomed under the Tudors to act on the premise that monarch and Parliament together ruled England as a "balanced polity." Parliament expressed its displeasure with the king's claims by refusing his request for additional money needed to meet the increased costs of government. Puritan members of Parliament urged James to "purify" the Church of England with "popish remnants" including the authority of bishops. James was convinced that the Presbyterian system of church government would destroy royal control of the church and threaten the monarchy. He reportedly summed up his opposition by declaring, "No bishop, no king."

Repeal of Corn Laws 1846

The Corn Laws placed high tariff on imported corn, wheat, and other grains. The tariff benefitted large landowners by providing them with a protected market for their crops. Prominent industrialists formed the Anti-Corn Law League. They advocated a free-trade policy that would lower the price of food and increase the profits of industry. Wealthy landowners stubbornly resisted all reform proposals. However, the Iris potato famine dramatically strengthened support for cheaper imported grains. Parliament finally voted to repeal the Corn Law in 1846. This marked a victory for Britain's urban population and for the proponents of free trade.

European Union

The EU was created by the Maastricht Treaty, which entered into force on November 1, 1993. The treaty was designed to enhance European political and economic integration by creating a single currency (the euro), a unified foreign and security policy, and common citizenship rights and by advancing cooperation in the areas of immigration, asylum, and judicial affairs. This international organization of (27) European countries would reduce trade barriers and increase cooperation among its members.

The Revival of Habsburg Power

The Habsburg were one of the oldest dynasties in Europe. Beginning in the early 1400s, most of the HRE emperors were Habsburgs. Their power suffered a series of setbacks following the devastating fo the Thirty Years' War and the extinction of the Habsburg line in Spain. Despite these defeats, the Habsburg rulers successfully reaffirmed their power over Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary. In addition, the Treaty of Utrecht gave the Habsburgs control of Naples, Sardinia, and Milan in Italy and the Spanish Netherlands. Its s important to note that the Habsburg empire embraced a large number of ethnic groups who were unified only by their Catholic faith and loyalty to the Habsburg dynasty.

Tennis Court Oath

The National Assembly found themselves locked out of their meeting place. They gathered at a nearby tennis court, pledging to keep meeting and not disband until they had written a constitution for France. (1789) The king's response to this proved disastrous. He began assembling troops, signaling the possibility of trying to disperse the National Assembly by force. On July 14, 1789, as knowledge of this spread, hundreds of people stormed the Bastille prison in Paris to obtain weapons.

the Restoration

The Restoration following the Commonwealth restored the monarchy under Charles II, the Church of England, and Parliament. Nonetheless, central issues concerning the relationship between the king and Parliament and the conflict over religion remained unresolved. Charles II passed the Declaration of Indulgence, which suspended laws that parliament had passed against Catholics and Puritans, angering Parliament. Since Charles had no ligament children, his brother James was next in line to the throne. Despite opposition from the Whigs, James II (1685-1688) inherited the throne. He promptly adopted policies that antagonized both Whigs and Tories. Determined to return England to Catholicism, he appointed Catholics to influential positions of power. He also passed a new Declaration of Indulgence, which suspended all laws barring Catholics and Dissenters from office, leading to Parliamentary outcries.

End of WWI

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk enabled the Germans to transfer divisions from the east to help launch a great spring offensive. Reinforced by the newly arrived American troops, the British and French halted the German offensive. Realizing that defeat was imminent, William II abdicated his throne and Germany became a republic. Two days later on November 11, 1918, World War I came to an end.

England under Walpole

The first two Hanoverian monarchs spoke little English and exercised little real power. A ruling aristocracy of landed gentry and wealthy merchants dominated Parliament. Robert Walpole emerged as England's first prime minister. He led the Whig party in Parliament and was the government's leading minister.

Collective Security

The great powers agreed to meet periodically to ensure peace and stability. This Concert of Europe would provide a degree of security through the first half of the 19th century.

"The Angel in the House"

The ideal middle-class woman was an "angel in the house." Her most important role was to be the family's moral guardian. Middle-class women were expected to supervise the domestics, manage the household, and direct the children's education. Rising standards of living made it possible for men and women to marry at a younger age. At the same time, the rising cost of child-rearing caused a decline in the size of middle-class families.

Emancipation Edict (1861)

The imperial law that abolished serfdom in Russia and, on paper, freed the peasants. In actuality they were collectively responsible for redemption payments to the government for a number of years. Peasants ended up being responsible to their mir, or village commune, which was collectively responsible for the land payments to the government.

International Congo Association

corporation set up by Leopold II to benefit economically from Africa

Northern Renaissance Art

The medium is different: paint on wood and oil paint, architecture is still Gothic influenced, painted lots of biblical figures and portraits, genre was typically every day life, used lots of minute details

Principle of Legitimacy

The monarchy was restored to nations that had been deposed by the French Revolution and Naploeon, such as the Bourbon monarchy in France. As the younger brother of Louis XVI, Louis XIII returned as the legitimate Bourbon ruler of France. Bourbon rulers were also returned to their thrones in Spain and Naples. The Congress of Vienna restored the House of Orange in Holland and the House of Savoy in Sardinia-Piedmont. The power in many countries reverted to the monarch, the church, and the aristocracy.

the "Scramble for Africa"

The most aggressive example of the new imperialism took place in Africa. The "Scramble for Africa" became so frenetic and rapacious that Otto von Bismarck called for an international conference in Berlin. The 14 nations that attended the 1885 Berlin Conference establish rules for dividing Africa. Led by Great Britain, France, and Germany, the European powers successfully partitioned almost the entire continent of Africa. Britain obtained most of Eastern Africa while France obtained most of Western Africa. Only Liberia and Ethiopia remained independent.

Execution of Louis XVI

The newly elected National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared that France was now a republic. The convention then had to decide Louis XVI's fate. The Girondists favored imprisonment while the Jacobins demanded that he be executed as a tyrant and a traitor. After a contentious debate, the National Convention passed a resolution condemning Louis XVI to death. The solution passed by one vote. Supported by the sans-culottes, the Jacobins branded the Girondins as counterrevolutionaries and ousted them from the National Convention.

Poland and Solidarity

The people of Poland were the first to test Gorbachev's new policies. Led by Lech Walesa, Polish workers formed a democratic labor union called Solidarity. Pope John Paul II provided crucial support fo the Solidarity labor movement in Poland. In 1989, Polish voters overwhelmingly rejected the Communist Party and elected Solidarity candidates. This marked the first time the people of a nation peacefully turned a Communist regime out of power.

Commonwealth (1649-1660)

The period during which England was ruled without a monarch, following the victory of the Parliamentary forces in the English Civil War and the subsequent execution of King Charles I. Oliver Cromwell and a one-house Parliament exercised political power. In late 1653, Cromwell took the title Lord Protector, establishing a one-man rule supported by the army. 1. Foreign Policy: - Cromwell brutally crushed a royalist uprising in Ireland. Protestant landlords replaced Catholic property owners. Nearly half of Ireland's population may have perished from famine and plague - England passed the Navigation Act of 1651. The act barred Dutch ships from carrying goods between other countries and England. This act was also designed to give England greater control over its American colonies. England waged a series of wars that weakened the Dutch. 2. Domestic Policy: - the Puritans attempted to impose a strict moral code that censored the press, prohibited sports, and closed theaters. - Cromwell opposed radical groups such as the Levellers (advocated universal male suffrage & written constitution guaranteeing equal rights to all) and Quakers (who rejected religious hierarchies and allowed women to preach at meetings) 3. Decline - Oliver Cromwell ruled until his death in 1658. His son Richard did not command the same respect as his father. Parliament invited Prince Charles Stuart, the eldest son of Charles I to return from exile.

Giuseppe Garibaldi and the Red Shirts

The pragmatic Cavour and romantic Garibaldi agreed that Italy should be freed from foreign control. While Cavour was initing the north, he also secretly supported Garibaldi in the south. In May 1860, Garibaldi and his small but zealous force of so-called Red Shirts successfully invaded and liberated the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Garibaldi agreed to step aside and let Victor Emmanuel rule the areas he had conquered.

enclosure movement

The process of consolidating small landholdings into a smaller number of larger farms in England during the eighteenth century.

Sputnik

The world's first space satellite. In 1957, a beaming Khrushchev proudly announced that the Soviet Union had successfully launched a 184-pound satellite named Sputnik into orbit around the earth. Sputnik quickly became a symbol of Soviet technological prowess. Sputnik's success played a key role in contributing to the space race between the Soviet Union and the United States.

Luther vs. Calvin

They both challenged the pope and relied on the Bible as the sole authority. However, they disagreed on the emphasis placed on predestination and the relationship between church and civil authorities. While Luther believed that the church should be subordinated to the state, Calvin stressed that the elect have a duty to Christianize the sate. He devised a system of church government that resisted control by the state.

philosophes

Thinkers of the Enlightenment; Wanted to educate the socially elite, but not the masses; claims they were bringing the light of reason to their fellow human beings; were not allowed to openly criticize church or state, so used satire and double-meaning in their writings to avoid being banned; Salons held by wealthy women also kept philosophes safe; They considered themselves part of an intellectual community, and wrote back and forth to each other to share ideas. They dedicated themselves to exposing social problems and proposing reforms based upon implementing natural laws.

Frederick William, the Great Elector (1640-1688)

This European prince began his reign with a disjointed, devastated group of territories that had not yet recovered from the Thirty Years War. Although scattered and weak, the Hohenzollern possessions were the second-largest block of territory in the HRE. Only the Habsburg could claim more land. Known as the Great Elector, this prince began the process of forging the Hohenzollern territories into a strong power. He recognized that a well-equipped army would protect his territories and enable him to play a role in the European balance of power. He demanded and received the loyalty of the Junkers, the German landowners. In exchange, the Junkers received full power over the serfs who labored on their estates.

English Bill of Rights (1689)

This bill laid the foundation of a constitutional monarchy. It... - affirmed Parliament's rights to make laws and levy taxes; both could only be made with parliamentary consent - made it impossible for kings to oppose or do without Parliament by stipulating that standing armies could be raised only with the consent of Parliament - both elections of members and debates in Parliament had to be free, meaning that they king could not interfere - Parliament would frequent sessions and could only be dissolved by its own consent - the rights of citizens to petition the sovereign, keep arms, have a jury trial, and not be subject to excessive bail were also confirmed

Medici Family

This family dominated Florence's economic, political, and artistic life for much of the 15th century, during the Renaissance. They earned their wealth as bankers. Led by Cosimo (1389-1464), Piero (1416-1469), and Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-1492), the Medici financed libraries, built churches, sponsored the Platonic Academy of Philosophy, and commissioned hundreds of artworks. The Florentine Renaissance reached its peak during the lifetime of Lorenzo the Magnificent.

perspective

This is a geometric method of creating the illusion of depth on a flat, two-dimensional surface. It enabled artists to create paintings that opened "a window to the world." This way of presenting space became the foundation of European painting for the next 500 years.

Concordat of 1801

This is the agreement between Pope Pius VII and Napoleon that healed the religious division in France by giving the French Catholics free practice of their religion and Napoleon political power.

Johannes Guttenburg

This man is credited with inventing the first printing press with movable type. In 1456, the first full work ever printed by movable type, the Mazarin Bible, was published. Printing quickly spread across Europe. By 1500, presses in over 200 cities printed between 8 million and 20 million books, far more than the number of books produced in all of previous Western history.

The French Revolution (1789)

This revolution exploded in the 18th century as a result of a combination of long-simmering tensions among the French social classes and economic crises. The initial liberal phase of the French Revolution established a constitution, abolished hereditary noble privilege, and nationalized the Catholic Church, but these attempts at reform were quickly supplanted by a more radical phase dominated by the Jacobins and sans-culottes. They had a policy of dechristianization and heavy economic regulation.

Treaty of Utretch (1713)

This treaty created a new balance of power that preserved the peace for 30 years following the War of Spanish Succession. 1. French gains - Louis's grandson, Philip V, was allowed to remain king of Spain as long as the thrones of Spain and France were not united. France could retain all of Alsace. 2. English gains - England gained valuable Spanish naval bases at Gibraltar and in the Balearic Islands. - England gained valuable French colonies in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, as well as the Hudson Bay Territory 3. Austrian Gains - Austria gained the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) which then became known as the Austrian Netherlands - Austria obtained Naples, Milan, and Sardinia 4. Duke of Savoy - As a reward for joining the Grand Alliance, the Duke of Savoy received Sicily and the title of king - in 1720, Savoy seceded Sicily to Austria in exchange for Sardinia 5. Elector of Brandenburg - Brandenburg-Prussia gained territories - the Elector of Brandenburg was recognized as king of Prussia

Treaty of Paris 1856

This treaty effectively ended the Crimean War. Russia had to give up Bessarabia at the mouth of the Danube and accept the neutrality of the Black Sea. In addict, the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under the protection of all five great powers. Russia had to renounce claims of protection over the Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

Hohenzollerns

This was the royal dynasty of electors in Brandenburg-Prussia. Brandenburg was a small state located between the Oder and Elbes rivers with its center in Berlin. This family became the hereditary rulers of Brandenburg in 1417. In the early 17th century, they inherited Cleves and some neighboring lands on the Rhine River and duchy of Prussia on the Baltic Coast to the northeast. These diverse and geographically separated possessions had no natural boundaries, few resources, and a population of 1.5 million.

Committee of Public Safety

To administer the government, the National Convention gave broad powers to this executive committee (1793), a 12-person executive body led by Maximillian Robespierre, a Jacobin who held dictatorial powers.To save the Republic from its foreign enemies, the committee decreed universal mobilization. They also instituted the "Reign of Terror" to meet the domestic crises.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Viennese doctor and founder of psychoanalysis, a controversial theory about the workings of the unconscious mind 1. Theories - Freud believed that the human psyche included three distinct parts, which he called the id, the superego, and the ego - the id consists f inborn sexual and aggressive urges - the superego acts as the conscience that seeks to repress the id. It develops as the children learn their culture's moral values - when the superego checks the pleasure-seeking impulse of the id, it drives them into the realm of the subconscious mind. the subconscious is irrational and recognizes no ethical restrictions - the ego is the center of reason. It attempts to find a balance between the conflicting demands of the id and superego 2. Implications - Freud's theories undermined the Enlightenment's belied that humans are fundamentally rational beings. Instead, humans are irrational beings capable of destroying themselves and society. - Freud's emphasis upon the power of controlled irrational and unconscious drives provided an unsettling explanation fo the seemingly incomprehensible horrors unleashed by World War I - Freud's studies of the world of the unconscious mind had a significant influence on modern art and literature

Marshall Plan

a foreign-aid program aimed at combating the poor economic conditions that existed in western Europe, where food was scarce and inflation high. The Marshall Plan would give over 13 billion dollars in aid to western Europe, but it would be rejected by the Eastern Bloc states that feared Western influence in the Soviet sphere. This plan ultimately was set to revived war-torn economies.

The Rights of Women during the French Revolution

Women gained increased rights to inherit property and to divorce. They did not, however, gain the right to vote or to hold political office. In her book "A Vindication of the Rights of Women," Mary Wollstonecraft argued that women are not naturally inferior to men. The appearance of inferiority is created by a lack of education.

Catholic Reformation

a 16th century movement in which the Roman Catholic Church sought to make changes in response to the Protestant Reformation. It was led by a series of reform popes, who hoped to halt the spread of Protestantism and reenergize the faithful.

Printing Press

a mechanical device for transferring text of graphics from a woodblock or type to paper using ink; first appeared in 1450. This had a revolutionary impact upon European life and thought. It enabled the works of humanists such as Erasmus and More to be quickly disseminated across Europe. The profusion of printing technology made it difficult for authorities to suppress dissenting views. Like today's Internet, this promoted freedom of expression, spread information ,and challenged the power of established authorities to control divergent views.

Militarism definition

a policy of aggressive military preparedness in particular, large armies based on mass conscription and complex, inflexible plans for mobilization that most European nations had before WWI; it was the belief that governments should maintain a strong military capability

conservatism

a political philosophy that favored obedience to political authority, believed that organized religion was crucial to the social order, hated revolutionary upheavals, and are unwilling to accept either the liberal demands for civil liberties & representative governments or the nationalistic aspirations generated by the French revolutionary era. The community took precedence over individual rights; society must be organized and ordered, and tradition remained the best guide for order. After 1815, the political philosophy of conservatism was supported by hereditary monarchs, government bureaucracies, landowning aristocracies, and revived churches. The conservative forces appeared dominant after 1815.

Concert of Europe

a series of alliances among European nations in the 19th century, devised by Prince Klemens von Metternich to prevent the outbreak of revolutions 1. The Congress System - England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia formed a Quadruple Alliance committing them to preserve the conservative order - the great powers also agreed to hold periodic meetings or congresses to prevent crises from escalating into wider wars - the effort to achieve consensus on foreign policy issues wars known as the Concert of Europe. It marks the first significant experiment in collective security.

putting-out system

a system developed in the 18th century in which tasks were distributed to individuals who completed the work in their own homes; also known as cottage industry. Merchant-capitalists would "put out" raw materials to cottage workers.

Raphael

acclaimed for his numerous madonnas, in which he attempted to achieve an ideal of beauty far surpassing human standards. He is well known for his frescoes in the Vatican Palace; his "School of Athens" reveals a world of balance, harmony, and order- the underlying principles of art of the Classical world of Greece and Rome. It depicts a gathering of ancient philosophers from various eras. The sages seem to move freely in a carefully 3-D space. The toga clad figures of Plato and Aristotle dominate the center of the painting.

liberalism

an ideology based on the belief that people should be as free from restraint as possible . Political liberalism is the idea that there should be restraints on the exercise of power so that people can enjoy basic civil rights in a constitutional state with a representative assembly.

conservatism

an ideology based on tradition and social stability that favored the maintenance of established institutions, organized religion, and obedience to authority and resisted change, especially abrupt change

join-stock companies

businesses formed by groups of people who jointly make an investment and share in the profits and losses

The German Peasants' War 1525

combined a whole series of agrarian grievances with an awareness of the new religious spirit preached by Martin Luther CAUSE: - German peasants originally supported Luther, hearing his message as one that promised freedom from oppression by the landlords and clergy - complaints that nobles had seized village common lands and imposed exorbitant rents soon escalated to open attacks on monasteries, castles, and prosperous farms CONSEQUENCE - Luther, who knew how much of his reformation depended on the full support of German princes and magistrates, supported the rulers, although he also blamed them for helping to set off the rebellion by their earlier harsh treatment of the peasants - this conflict strengthened the authority of the German nobility - Lutheranism became closely allied with the established political order controlled by the German nobility

the Maastricht Treaty (1991)

created the European Union (EU), the world's largest single economic market; also created a central bank for the European Union

dialectical process

each arrangement of power contains contradictions which make the arrangement unstable and which must be resolved

Edict of Nantes (1598)

edict of Henry IV that granted religious toleration in France. It acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion but guaranteed Huguenots the right to worship in select places in every district and allowed them to retain a number of fortified twos for their protection. In addition, Huguenots were allowed to enjoy all political privileges, including the holding of public offices.

Albrecht Durer (1471-1528)

first Northern Renaissance artist to fully absorb the innovations of the Italian Renaissance, as is evident in his mastery of the laws of perspective and the Renaissance theories of proportion. He us best known for his wood-cuts and self portraits. In his famous "Adoration of the Magi," he didn't reject the use of minute details characteristic of northern artists. He did, however, try to integrate those ideas more harmoniously into his works and, like the Italian artists of the High Renaissance, to achieve a standard of ideal beauty by a careful examination of the human form.

Renaissance Art

focused on the naturalistic portrayals of human subjects in imitation of the classical art of ancient Greece and Rome. Renaissance paintings placed great emphasis on balance, the use of liner perspective to give a 3-dimensional appearance, and bright colors. Scenes from classical literature were favorite subjects of Renaissance artists, showing the influence of humanistic studies on Renaissance art. This humanistic influence is especially evidence in Raphael's famous painting "the School of Athens" which has the famous Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle, in the center of a congregation of philosophers from classical antiquity.

European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)

founded in 1951, eliminating tariffs between the Inner-Six countries: France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. They coordinated iron and steel production to ensure peace among member countries

Jan van Eyck (1390-1441)

most acclaimed Flemish artist of the 15th century. He among the first to use oil paint, a medium that enabled the artist to use a variety range of colors and create fine details. In the famous "Giovanni Arnolfini and his Bride," van Eyck's attention to detail is staggering. Although each detail was rendered as observed, it is evident that van Eyck's comprehension of perspective was still uncertain. His work is truly indicative of norther Renaissance painters, who, in their effort to imitate nature, did so not by mastery of the laws of perspective and proportion but by empirical observation of visual reality and the accurate portrayal of details.

Age of Metternich

ran from the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 to the starts of the revolutions of 1848; saw the development of a conservative ethos across Europe that opposed revolutionary movements, attempted to weaken the forces of nationalism, and used the political authority of Prussia, Russia, Britain, France, and Austria to maintain the balance of power

Palace of Versailles

residence of the king, a reception hall for state affairs, an office building for members of the king's government, and the home of thousands of royal officials and aristocratic courtiers. It became home to the high nobility and princes of the blood. By keeping them involved in the myriad activities that made up daily life in the court of Versailles, Louis excluded them from real power while allowing them to share in the mystique power as companions of the king. Versailles became a symbol for the French absolutist state and the power of the Sun King. As a visible manifestation of France's superiority and wealth, this lavish court was intended to overawe subjects and impress foreign powers.

Joseph II (1780-1790)

son of Maria Theresa and Austrian Enlightened Despot. 1. Enlightened reforms - abolished serfdom and feudal dues - abolished the system of forced labor known as the robot - proclaimed religious toleration for all Christians and Jews - reduced the influence of the church - reformed the judicial system toward greater equality for all classes - abolished torture and ended the death penalty - guaranteed freedom of the press 2. Protest and reaction - the nobles bitterly opposed Joseph's program of reforms - following Joseph's death, the new emperor, Leopold II, placated the nobles by repealing many of Joseph's reformed - serfdom and the robot remained in effect until 1848

intendant system

system used by French monarchy to limit power of the nobles. Richelieu replaced nobles with royal officials called intendants, who were sent into the provinces to executer orders of the central government. They were typically middle-class or minor nobles drawn from the nobility of the robe. This system played an important role in strengthening royal power. While it curbed the nobles' political power, it did not lessen their economic or social privileges.

The Home Front

the civilian population and activities of a nation whose armed forces are engaged in war abroad. 1. Total War - when it became clear that the war would not be over quickly, governments mobilized all human and industrial resources in order to wage total war - governments tightly controlled the news and used propaganda to rally public morale and arouse hatred of the enemy 2. Role of Women - As more and more men went to war, millions of women replaced them in factories, offices, and shops. World War I marked the first time that the employment of women was essential to a sustained war effort - In the decade prior to WWI, British women led by Emmeline Pankhurst waged an aggressive campaign for women's suffrage. During the war, Pankhurst called a a halt to militant suffrage activities, urging women to contribute to the war effort - 1918: Parliament granted the suffrage to women over the age of 30

the Fronde

the deaths of Richelieu in 1642 and Louis XIII the following year left the monarchy in the hands of Louis XIV and his chief minister Cardinal Mazarin. Mazarin attempted to increased royal revenue through additional taxes and expand state bureaucracy, leading to a serious of rebellions against royal authority by nobles. These rebellions were intended to limit rather than overthrow the monarchy. Increasing violence and instability forced the young king to flee Paris to Versailles. Louis remembered this humiliation and vowed to control the nobility.

Great Depression

the economic crisis beginning with the stock market crash in 1929 and continuing through the 1930s

Commercial Revolution

the expansion of the trade and buisness that transformed European economies during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Tories and Whigs of Parliament

the first political parties in the English-speaking world Tories: completely controlled by landed aristocracy, conservative, controlled government until 1830. During the restoration, they felt strong loyalty to the monarchy and supported Jame's right to the throne, despite their dislike of James as a Catholic. Whigs: liberal, opposed strong monarchy/government. During the restoration, they were deeply suspicious of Catholics and wanted to lawfully exclude James from the throne. Instead, a Protestant king should be established with toleration to Dissenters.

The Columbian Exchange

the most important legacy of the Age of Exploration. Although Columbus was not the first European to find the New World, his voyages began a permanent exchange of peoples, good, animals, ideas, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds. Europeans introduced livestock in the America and returned to Europe with tomatoes, potatoes, and tobacco. A lack of immunity to European diseases had a devastating effect on native populations. Spanish and French missionaries spread the Christian religion throughout North and South America.

god, gold, glory

the three main reasons for the European age of exploration

empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556)

unknown Spanish soldier who suffered a severe injury while fighting the French. During his recovery, he experienced a religious conversion. He resolved to becoming a soldier of Christ and dedicate his life to fighting for the pope and the Catholic Church. As the founder of the Jesuits, his order of Roman Catholic priests proved an effective force for reviving Catholicism during the Catholic Revolution.

Christian Humanists

wanted to combine the classical ideals of calmness and stoical patience with the Christian virtues of piety, humility, and love; they believed this fusion would create the best code of virtuous conduct. These individuals were committed to moral and institutional reform.