AP Euro: Renaissance + Reformation

Spanish Armada

"Invincible" group of ships sent by King Philip II of Spain to invade England in *1588*; Armada was defeated by smaller, more maneuverable English "sea dogs" in the Channel. This marked the beginning of English naval dominance and fall of Spanish dominance.

Pope Alexander VI (Borgia Pope)

(*1492*) A corrupt Spanish Renaissance pope whose immorality sparked debate about the integrity of the Catholic Church. He used his power to ensure that his children would be well off.

Peace of Augsburg

(*1555*) This was the treaty that was reached that ended the Habsburg-Valois Wars which also made Charles V recognize Lutheranism as a legitimate religion in the HRE.

War of Three Henrys (1587-1589)

(*1588*) A civil war fought between Catholic Henry of Guise, Catholic King Henry III, and Protestant Henry of Navarre. Henry III was so focused on wanting to destroy Henry of Guise who wanted to be King that they ended up each killing each other, leaving Henry of Navarre the winner and new the king of France.

Dante

(1265-1321) Italian poet and Renaissance writer. His greatest work is "The Divine Comedy"-- told the soul's journey from hell to heaven.

Giotto

(1276-1337) Florentine Painter who led the way in the use of realism. His treatment of the human body and face replaced the formal stiffness and artificiality that had long characterized the representation of the human body.

The Great Schism

(1378-1417) Split that occurred in the Catholic Church with two Popes, one in Avignon, France and the other in Rome, Italy. The Schism caused many to question the Church's authority.

Girolamo Savonarola

(1452-1498) Dominican Preacher that condemned corruption and excess of Medici family. Medici family ended up turning over control to Savonarola, but people grew tired of his strict regulations on gambling, horses, painting, music etc. Savonarola was accused of heresy and sentenced to death after being excommunicated by the pope.

War of the Roses

(1455-1485) A bloody civil war between the York family and Lancaster family of England for the crown. This struggle was ended when Henry Tudor, who was on the Lancaster side, won. He became Henry VII, the first Tudor king.

Raphael

(1483-1520) Italian Renaissance painter who had a short but productive life. Worked in Florence and Rome. Well-known for Madonnas, humanized portrayals of the Virgin Mary with the baby Jesus. Painted frescoes in Vatican Palace. The School of Athens & The Triumph of Religion reflect artist's strong interest in classical antiquity and Christian religion.

Ignatius of Loyola

(1491-1556) Spanish churchman and founder of the Jesuits (1534); this order of Roman Catholic priests proved an effective force for reviving Catholicism during the Catholic Reformation.

Pope Clement VII (1523-1534)

(1523-1534) A Medici pope who refused to grant Henry VIII an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon; his indecisiveness in choosing alliances led to the Sack of Rome by Charles V and marked the end of the High Renaissance in Italy.

Mary I (Bloody Mary)

(1553-1558) Catholic queen of England married to Philip II of Spain. Daughter of Catherine of Aragorn. Executed hundred of Protestants when they refused to convert.

What were the 3 biggest complaints that led to the Reformation?

-Clerical immorality: Clergy at all levels had concubines/live-in mistresses/children/male lovers. -Clerical ignorance: Education for most clergy wasn't great, many couldn't read or write -Clerical pluralism/absenteeism: To get around absence, they would hire priests (usually poor, often illiterate) as substitutes.

Protestantism & Women

-Convents were closed by Protestants -Condemned prostitution due to belief that marriage was the only pious solution for sexual lust -Women's roles came to be seen as primarily related to marriage

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

A German monk who in 1517, took a public stand against the sale of indulgences by nailing his 95 Theses to the door of the castle church in Wittenburg; he believed that people did not need priests to interpret the Bible for them. He also believed faith alone is the key to salvation. His actions began the Reformation.

Humanism

A Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and achievements

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)

A Swiss reformer influenced by Christian humanism. He looked to the state to supervise the church. He banned music and relics from services. He followed Erasmus, and did not believe in consubstantiation nor transubstantiation. He believed the bread and wine was a symbol of the blood and body of Christ.

Petrarch

A Tuscan poet from Florence who lived during the early Renaissance. First to separate the "Middle Age" period (and first to say that it was a "dark" time). He also believed he was in a new "golden" age. He played a major role in the revival of classical texts of Latin antiquity due to his passion for these texts. Now he is known as the father of humanism.

Myticism

A category of religious experiences characterized by communicating or experiencing oneness with God.

Protestantism

A form of Christianity that was in opposition to the Catholic Church. Simple, personal religion based on individual faith—reforms northern humanists had wanted for a while.

Anabaptists

A member of a radical movement of the 16th-century Reformation that viewed baptism solely as an external witness to a believer's conscious profession of faith. They rejected infant baptism, and believed in the separation of church from state, in the shunning of nonbelievers, and in simplicity of life.

Secularism (Secular Humanism)

A philosophy that rejects any reference to God or religion and seeks the improvement of human society through purely human means, i.e., science, social organization, and human reason. (An indifference to religion and a belief that religion should be excluded from civic affairs and public education.)

Court of Star Chamber

A secret court that was created in 1487 in England by Henry VII. The king's councilors sat as judges so that nobles couldn't use intimidation or bribery to sway the vote.

Rennaissance

A time of renewed interest in learning and the arts that lasted from the 14th through 16th centuries. It began in the Italian city-states and spread north to all of Europe. Became an age of recovery from the reckless 14th century (plague/instability). Italians became very interested in Greek + Roman culture, which affected their politics, art, and philosophy.

Michelangelo

An Italian painter, sculptor, and architect of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Among many achievements in a life of nearly ninety years, Michelangelo sculpted the David and several versions of the Pietà, painted the ceiling and rear wall of the Sistine Chapel, and served as one of the architects of Saint Peter's Basilica, designing its famous dome. He is considered one of the greatest artists of all time.

Hanseatic League (Hansa)

An alliance of Northern European trading cities that developed in the Baltic and North Sea (1400s-1600s); encompassed the commercial centers of Poland, northern Germany, and Scandinavia; linked to the Mediterranean through the Rhine and Danube Rivers. They traded grain, fish, furs, timber, and pitch. This frequency of trade led to the adoption of credit and banking systems, which made trade possible on a large scale. Commercial partnerships further increased the volume of trade in Europe + impact on class structure of northern Europe made social mobility possible.

Mannerism

An artistic movement that emerged in Italy in the 1520s and 1530s; it marked the end of the Renaissance by breaking down the principles of balance, harmony, and moderation

Council of Trent

An assembly of high church officials summoned by the Catholic Church (Pope Paul III) to clarify doctrine and address reform in response to the challenges raised by the Protestant Reformation.

Northern Renaissance

An extension of the Italian Renaissance to the nations Germany, Flanders, France, and England; it took on a more religious nature than the Italian Renaissance. Art will also focus more on depicting the illusion of the surface reality of objects versus the Italian Renaissance that will focus more on depicting real illusion of 3 -D space.

John Calvin (1509-1564)

An influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism.

Christian Humanism

An intellectual movement in northern Europe in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries that combined the interest in the classics of the Italian Renaissance with an interest in the sources of early Christianity, including the New Testament and the writings of the church fathers.

John Hus

An outspoken German critic of the Church who spoke out against corruption in the church and was burned at the stake in Prague, the capital of Bohemia, in 1415. (charged with heresy)

Huguenots

Any of the Protestants (French Calvinists) in France in the 16th and 17th centuries, many of whom suffered severe persecution for their faith. The Edict of Nantes (1598) granted them tolerance in France and ended the French civil wars of religion.

Baroque Art in Italy

Art that originated in Rome and is associated with the Catholic Reformation. Characterized by emotional intensity, strong self-confidence, spirit and DRAMA!

Diet of Worms

Assembly of the estates of the empire, called by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1521. Luther was ordered to recant but he refused. Charles V declared Luther an outlaw.

Pope Leo X (1513-1521)

Authorized the sale of indulgences to help finance the construction of St. Peter's Basilica. He disregarded Luther's Theses and ignored Protestant complaints.

Why do historians sometimes refer to the monarchies of the late 15th century as "new monarchies" or "Renaissance states"?

Because after the Middle Ages, France, Spain, and Europe (major powers in Europe) went under large changes in regards to their monarchies. These monarchies were strengthened and more power was given to the monarch rather than the Church.

Lady Jane Grey

Before Edward VI died, he made this woman the next in line to take the throne in England, depriving Mary I of her rightful rule. Days after her crowing, she was removed and beheaded. Mary I became queen.

Transsubstantiation

Belief that Jesus is really present in the bread and wine at the Lord's Supper. During the "Mass," the "bread and wine" are changed into the body and blood of Christ, even though they still look like bread and wine.

Predestination

Calvinist belief that God long ago determined who would gain salvation

Baldassare Castiglione

Castiglione (1478-1529) was an Italian courtier, diplomat, and writer. His handbook, The Book of the Courtier, was widely read for its advice on the manners, skills, learning, and virtues that court members should display during the Renaissance. He described an ideal courtier as well-mannered, well-educated, and multitalented.

Henry VIII's wives

Catherine of Aragon- Mother of Mary I, divorced b/c she produced no sons. Anne Boleyn- mother of Elizabeth I, beheaded by husband. Jane Seymour- produced son but died 12 days later. Anne of Cleves- German princess, not satisfied with physical appearance and divorced her. Catherine Howard- committed adultery, had her beheaded. Catherine Parr- outlived Henry

What measures did the Roman Catholic Church take to reform itself and to combat Protestantism in the sixteenth century?

Catholic Reformation: a revived papacy; the regeneration of old religious orders and the founding of new ones, most notably the Jesuits; and the reaffirmation of traditional Catholic doctrine at the Council of Trent. Jesuits were among the new orders. They established schools that have a lot of humanist educational methods, converted many non-believers to the faith, and fought Protestantism. The reform of the papacy helped advance the Catholic Reformation. Pope Paul III advocated for reform, making reformers into cardinals. He summoned various councils, such as the one in Trent, in order to cleanse the papacy out of corruption. The reaffirmation of Catholic teachings helped complete the Catholic Reformation. The Catholic Clergy convened in a series of meetings in Trent to resolve the doctrinal differences. Although some reforms were made, the Catholic Church reaffirmed most of their beliefs, such as the 7 sacraments, the indulgences, and transubstantiation. The Council of Trent helped the Catholics to possess a clear doctrine and strengthened unity within the Catholic Church.

Mary Queen of Scots

Catholic relative to Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England. She allegedly plotted with Spain's Philip II to overthrow Elizabeth and reassert Catholicism in England. Elizabeth had her beheaded after she plotted to kill her multiple times.

John Wyclif

Disgust with clerical corruption led him to far-ranging attack on papal authority and medieval Christian beliefs and practices. Alleged that there was no basis in Scripture for papal claims and he advocated for popes to be stripped of their power. He attracted followers called Lollards.

Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile

During the late 15th century, they became King and Queen of a united Spain after centuries of Islamic domination. Together, they made Spain a strong Christian nation and also provided funding to overseas exploration, notably Christopher Columbus. They also started the Spanish Inquisition.

Thomas Moore

English humanist who tried to show a better model of society; wrote the book Utopia which described the ideal society where greed corruption and war have been weeded out.

Erasmus (1466-1536)

Erasmus was a great master of Greek language and a humanist thinker who was friends with Sir Thomas More. His most famous work was In Praise of Folly (satire) where he openly criticized the Catholic church (of which he was a devout follower) and called for massive reforms.

Isabella D' Este

First woman ruler of Mantua, Italy. She gained power after her husband, Francesco Gonzaga, was kidnapped. Being highly educated, history has her known as an intelligent, wise, and powerful woman. She is also known as a patron of the arts and for her persuasive letters/clever negotiations.

Filippo Brunelleschi

Florentine architect who was the first great architect of the Italian Renaissance; built first dome over Cathedral of Florence.

Charles VII (1422-1461)

French king during the Hundred Years' War who revived the French monarch and revived France itself, created the first permanent royal army through taxes.

Johannes Gutenberg

German inventor who in *1453*, developed the printing press, which led to an increase in scholarly research and the increase in the public's desire to gain knowledge. Led to greater access of texts which improved education and spread humanism/protestantism. Paper was cheaper than animal skin and easier to print onto.

Pope Paul III (1534-1549)

He promised to summon a council for reform if he was elected pope after the death of Pope Clement VII. Roman aristocrat, humanist, and astrologer, Pope Paul III formed the Council of Trent during the Catholic reformations.

Leonardo Bruni

He was a humanist, and sometimes known as the first modern historian. His most famous work was the History of Florentine People. This book was known as the first modern book because of its three part view of history; antiquity, Middle Ages, and modern. His other book, "The New Cicero", identified "Classical Latin" as well as the foundations of civic humanism.

Charles V (1519-1556)

He was the Hapsburg dynastic ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and of extensive territories in Spain and the Netherlands. He demanded that Luther recant, as he strongly supported the Catholic Church. He then outlawed Luther and his followers.

Christine de Pizan

Highly educated Renaissance-era woman who was among the first to earn a living as a writer; wrote books, including short stories, novels, and manuals on military techniques. Her "The Book of The City of Ladies" and other works spoke out against men's objections to educating women, and championed formal education for women.

What was humanism, and what effect did it have on philosophy, education, attitudes toward politics, and the writing of history?

Humanism was the concept of individual self-worth and meaning outside the traditional societal hierarchy. People began to become interested the betterment of themselves through education. They questioned things through philosophy. They became more interested and involved in politics and began to record history that wasn't solely related to religion.

Good luck!

I know you'll nail it!

Spanish Inquisition (1478)

Institution organized by Fernando and Isabel of Spain to hunt out heretical or contrary opinions. The subjects of persecution/torture included Protestants, Jews, Muslims, and witches.

Cosmo de Medici

Italian banker and leader of Florence, he wanted to make Florence the greatest city in the world. His actions helped bring about the Renaissance.

Leonardo da Vinci

Italian painter, engineer, musician, and scientist. The most versatile genius of the Renaissance, Leonardo filled notebooks with engineering and scientific observations that were in some cases centuries ahead of their time. As a painter Leonardo is best known for The Last Supper (c. 1495) and Mona Lisa (c. 1503).

Lorenzo de Medici (the Magnificent)

Italian statesman and scholar who supported many artists and humanists including Michelangelo and Leonardo and Botticelli (1449-1492).

Pope Julius II (1503-1513)

Known as the "warrior pope", this strong opponent of the Borgia family succeeded Alexander VI as Pope. He suppressed the Borgias and placed their newly conquered lands in Romagna under papal jurisdiction. This pope was more concerned with war and politics than being the spiritual leader of the Catholic Church. He personally led armies against the approval of conservative Christians.

Piero de Medici

Last Medici ruler of Florence; overthrown by French invasion.

What were Martin Luther's main disagreements with the Roman Catholic Church, and what political, economic, and social conditions help explain why the movement he began spread so quickly across Europe?

Luther didn't like the Catholic practice of selling indulgences. In his Ninety-Five Theses, Luther listed all the sins of selling indulgences, convinced that indulgences bring eternal damnation. Luther debated with Catholics on various issues involving papal authority. Luther denied the authority of the pope and criticized the Catholic Church both in debates, and pamphlets. Lutheranism spread so quickly due to the political, economic, and social conditions that affected Europe at the time. Politically, the princes and imperial cities converted to Lutheranism, enabling Lutheranism to survive. The princes converted to Lutheranism for various reasons, including economic reasons, such as princes not having to pay a Catholic tax and keeping more money in their territory. By social means, the peasants are attracted to Luther's idea that all Christians are equal. Although Luther supported the princes over the peasants, the peasants were inspired by Luther's break from the Catholic Church.

Consubstantiation

Luther's belief that the bread and wine is not changed but that Christ is present in spirit only.

What were the main tenets of Lutheranism, Zwinglianism, Anabaptism, and Calvinism, and how did they differ from each other and from Catholicism? What impact did political, economic, and social conditions have on the development of these four reform movements?

Lutheranism- saved by faith alone Zwinglianism- believed in a simple church and mass while not approving of monasticism, relics, paintings, veneration of saints, celibacy, pilgrimages, and papal authority. Calvinism- predestination anabaptism- taught that infant Baptism was invalid and that only adults should be baptized All these followings believe that faith alone saves a person, and not through good works like Catholicism.

How did Machiavelli's works reflect the political realities of Renaissance Italy?

Machiavelli took a new, realistic approach to politics. He believed it was okay to do bad things for the betterment of oneself or country. These beliefs became common practice among Italian politicians.

95 Theses (*1517*)

Martin Luther's ideas that he posted on the church door at Wittenburg which questioned the Roman Catholic Church.

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic order founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534. They played an important part in the Catholic Reformation and helped create conduits of trade and knowledge between Asia and Europe while spreading their faith as missionaries.

Major Italian City States (Renaissance)

Milan (Sforza) Venice (oligarchy) Florence (Medici) Papal Estates/Rome (papacy) Naples (not as powerful b/c of fighting with French/Spanish)

New Monarchies (15th century)

Monarchies that emerged and differed from their medieval predecessors in having greater centralization of power, more regional boundaries, and stronger representative institutions. (France, England, Spain)

German Peasants' Revolt

Nobles seized village common lands, imposed higher rents, required extra services. Peasants are very angry and destroy everything. Luther is in shock & writes to the princes showing no mercy. The princes' armies kill 100,000 people, and many peasants reject Luther's religious leadership.

Sultan Mehmet II

Ottoman ruler who conquered Constantinople in *1453*

P (Politics) I (Intellectual) R (Religion) A (Art) T (Technology) E (Economics) S (social)

P: CENTRALIZATION!! (new monarchies/bureaucracy)-- France, England, and Spain. More monarchies appeared as feudalism was dying. However, HRE/Italy was not very centralized-- Italy was separated into many city states. Important political figures include; Henry's (England/France), Mary I, Charles V, Louis XI, Isabella and Ferdinand. I: HUMANISM!! (change from scholasticism). Individualism and more education (liberal arts). People go back to reading classical texts (Greek/Roman). Secularism... Petrarch! Northern christian humanism was more focused on religion. Erasmus (satire!!) R: REFORMATION!!; Luther in 1527 started this movement-- spread mostly in Northern Europe. He spoke out against issues in the Catholic Church like indulgences, nepotism, ignorance, and pluralism. Others follow in his footsteps such as Calvin (predestination), Zwingli (change in Eucharist), Anabaptists (views on baptism). Spain stays Catholic-- Spanish Inquisition. Council of Trent is called to deal with problems in the Catholic Church, but also reaffirm Catholic practices. This leads to Catholic/Counter Reformation. Jesuits-- VERY Catholic. A: RENAISSANCE!!-- mannerism/baroque art. Italian Renaissance; humanism, geometric perspective. Northern Renaissance; Bible, still lives, details. Mannerism-- nature to extreme (creepy). Italian Baroque-- Drama... made to help the Catholic Church. "The Prince" (Machiavelli)- Politics! "Courtier" (Castiglione)- Court! T: Printing press!! (Gutenberg/1435). Used paper and helped ideas spread quicker/wider. E: Middle class and urban centers were growing as a result of the Black Death. Medici bankers ruled Florence. Very rich Popes showed off their wealth (Leo X's elephants). Monarchs were gaining more economic control-- shared it with the middle class. Trade was moving from Venice to Spain/Netherlands. There were many poor peasants, but serfdom was coming to an end. S: More freedom for the poor, and race was not just about skin color-- significant divider (Jews). Marriage becomes more important with protestants-- wife was to be the moral center/ideal in the home. Education was opening up a bit to people of any standard.

What impact did the Black Death have on the society and economy of Europe?

People abandoned their friends and family, fled cities, and shut themselves off from the world. Funeral rites became perfunctory or stopped altogether, and work ceased being done. Some felt that the wrath of God was descending upon man, and so fought the plague with prayer. Some felt that they should obey the maxim, "Eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow you may die." The society experienced an upheaval to an extent usually only seen in controlled circumstances such as carnival. Faith in religion decreased after the plague, both because of the death of so many of the clergy and because of the failure of prayer to prevent sickness and death. The economy underwent abrupt and extreme inflation. Since it was so difficult (and dangerous) to procure goods through trade and to produce them, the prices of both goods produced locally and those imported from afar skyrocketed. Because of illness and death workers became exceedingly scarce, so even peasants felt the effects of the new rise in wages. The demand for people to work the land was so high that it threatened the manorial holdings. Serfs were no longer tied to one master; if one left the land, another lord would instantly hire them. The lords had to make changes in order to make the situation more profitable for the peasants and so keep them on their land. In general, wages outpaced prices and the standard of living was subsequently raised. As a consequence of the beginning of blurring financial distinctions, social distinctions sharpened. The fashions of the nobility became more extravagant in order to emphasize the social standing of the person wearing the clothing. The peasants became slightly more empowered, and revolted when the aristocracy attempted to resist the changes brought about by the plague. In 1358, the peasantry of northern France rioted, and in 1378 disenfranchised guild members revolted. The social and economic structure of Europe was drastically and irretrievably changed.

Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)

Political leader of the Huguenots and a member of the Bourbon dynasty, succeeded to the throne as Henry IV. He realized that as a Protestant he would never be accepted by Catholic France, so he converted to Catholicism. When he became king in 1594, the fighting in France finally came to an end.

What role did politics, economic and social conditions, and religion play in the European wars of the sixteenth century?

Politics: Due to growing monarchical power, towns, provinces, and Calvinist nobles ganged up on French monarchy, halting the centralized monarchy. (Politiques: a group who emerged during the French Wars of Religion in the sixteenth century, placed politics above religion, and believed that no religious truth was worth the ravages of civil war.) Economic and Social conditions: bruh idk lol Religion: French Wars of Religion (Huguenots vs. Guise vs. Valois): since the Catholics greatly outnumbered the Calvinists, Catholics don't see why they should compromise. Saint Bartholomew Day's Massacre- Guise ordered massacre of Huguenots, triggering French Wars.

Boniface VIII

Pope who was angered by Philip IV's demand that the clergy pay taxes to the national treasury. He wrote a decree called the "Unam Sanctum" which declared his own supremacy over temporal rulers... He began the Great Schism, and said that spiritual authority was superior over secular authority.

Calvinism

Protestant sect founded by John Calvin. Emphasized a strong moral code and believed in predestination (the idea that God decided whether or not a person would be saved as soon as they were born). Calvinists supported constitutional representative government and the separation of church and state.

Puritans

Protestant sect in England hoping to "purify" the Anglican church of Roman Catholic traces in practice and organization.

What impact did the Protestant Reformation have on society in the sixteenth century?

Protestants advocate family life rather than celibacy. Since Protestants abolished idea of special holiness for celibacy, family could be placed at the center of human life, and a new stress on "mutual love between man and wife" could be extolled. However, the reformation also left few opportunities for women due to the destruction of convents, leaving only family life as a destiny. Women were educated, but only in a primary school, so that she can raise her future children in the Christian faith.

What were the chief characteristics of Renaissance art, and how did it differ in Italy and northern Europe?

Renaissance art as a whole was very focused on creating realistic works and works showcasing the human figure. In Italy, artists focused on accuracy, the human form, and technical skills. Northern artists focused on details, emotion, and religious/devotional art.

What were the policies of the Renaissance popes, and what impact did those policies have on the Catholic Church?

Renaissance popes were trying to maintain power while reforms were being brought up across Europe. Popes tried to eliminate the ability of people to make reforms so they could maintain power. The Churches became corrupt as popes became interested in politics and war rather than spiritual matters.

Machiavelli

Renaissance writer; formerly a politician, and wrote "The Prince", a work on ethics and government describing how rulers maintain power by methods that ignore right or wrong. (Politics!!!)

Medici Family

Rich banking family in Florence that controlled the government. Patrons of the arts and responsible for commissioning many art and architecture projects.

Politiques

Rulers or people in positions of power who put the success and well-being of their states above all else.

Indulgences

Selling of forgiveness by the Catholic Church. It was common practice when the church needed to raise money. The practice led to the Reformation.

Spanish Netherlands (Revolt + Reaction)

Seventeen provinces, (Belgium, Modern Netherlands, Luxembourg) which are basically the Low Countries. They are called low be cause they are below sea level. The Dutch Revolt occurred against Philip II when he failed to unite all 17 provinces after inheriting them from Charles V. Philip II sent 20,000 Spanish troops under Duke of Alva (the "Iron Duke") to pacify Low Countries, and once again sent Duke of Parma to crush unified provinces in 1576 after just being unified by William of Orange.

Nepotism

Showing favoritism to friends or family, as in granting positions in jobs or politics.

Edward VI (1547-1553)

Son of Jane Seymour. Nine-year old boy king of England. He was heavily influenced by protestant advisors. Died at the age of 15.

How did the adversities of the the 14th century affect urban life and medical practices?

The adversities of the 14th century greatly affected urban life and medical practices as people tried to ward off the plague. To help stop the plague, authorities in the urban towns tried to keep the cities cleaner and organized prostitution. The shorter life spans made men not wait so long to marry. People lived their lives as fully as possible. Women were considered to be the servants of men, few actually worked. Children were educated earlier in their lives and was put in schools. People wanted to stop the plague so they invested in better medicine. Surgeons became more important. Although insufficient against the plague, great strides were taken to better understand the disease.

How and why did the authority and prestige of the papacy decline in the 14th century?

The authority and prestige of the papacy greatly declined in the 14th century when there was a power struggle between the pope and the monarchies. When King Philip IV tried to tax the clergy, a feud started. Pope Boniface VIII believed the papacy should have spiritual influence and taxation privileges. The feud ended with the pope excommunicating the king, forcing him to strike back through kidnapping the pope. The papacy moved to Avignon which angered the people and made them worry as the French influence over the papacy was growing. The people wanted an Italian pope so Pope Urban VI was chosen. The French chose their pope, resulting in 2 popes and thus causing The Great Schism. This caused chaos for catholics. They searched for stability through new reform such as conciliarism. The instability of the papacy as the Great schism went on made the authority and prestige of the papacy decline.

Henry VII (1485-1509)

The first Tudor king that worked to establish a strong monarchical government and ended the private wars of nobles in England.

Reconquista (1492)

The reconquest of Spain from the Moors (African Muslims) completed by Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand in *1492*. The King and Queen then funded Columbus because he wanted to spread Christianity similarly to how they forced people living in Spain to convert to Catholicism.

Lutheranism

The religious doctrine that Martin Luther developed; it differed from Catholicism in the doctrine of salvation, which Luther believed could be achieved by faith alone, not by good works. Lutheranism was the first Protestant faith.

Catholic Reformation (Counter Reformation)

The religious reform movement within the Roman Catholic Church that occurred in response to the Protestant reformation. It reaffirmed Catholic beliefs and promoted education, and set out to revive the moral authority of the church + roll back the protestant tide.

Individualism

The shift towards an emphasis on individuals—recognizing them/celebrating them (and/or recognizing and celebrating yourself). Individualism stressed personality, uniqueness, and the fullest development of capabilities and talents.

What major social changes occurred during the Renaissance?

The social structure was inherited from the Middle Ages (Estate system), but experienced adaptions. Nobles increasingly pursued education, and serfdom + the feudal system began to dissipate as a result of a money system. There were large gaps between social groups and an increase in slavery. Affairs were accepted for men and scorned for women due to marriage practices. Family played a big role during the Renaissance as it provided a sense of security.

Philip II of Spain

The son of Charles V who later became husband to Mary I and king of Spain and Portugal. He supported the Counter Reformation and sent the Spanish Armada to invade protestant England (1527-1598) He was an intolerant, VERY Catholic king.

Purgatory

The state of purification that takes place after death for those who need to be made clean and holy before meeting the all-holy God in Heaven.

What were the chief ideas of the Christian humanists, and how did they differ from the ideas of the Christian reformers?

They cultivated a knowledge of classics by studying works of antiquity early Christian fathers (Saints Augustine, Ambrose, and Jerome); felt that through education in the sources of Classical, and especially Christian, antiquity, they could instill a true inner religious feeling that would reform the church and society (supported schools as a result, brought out new editions of classics, and prepared new editions of the Bible and writings of the church fathers). Erasmus: formulated and popularized the reform program of Christian humanism. He edited the Greek text of the New Testament from the earliest available manuscripts and published it, along with a new Latin translation. Thomas More: Lord chancellor of England. A devout man, he spent many hours in prayer and private devotions. His book Utopia reflects his own concerns with the economic, social, and political problems of his day. He presented a new social system in which cooperation and reason replaced power and fame as the proper motivating agents for human society. They differ from the Christian reformers in that while the Christian humanists want to bring back the simplicity of the old church, the reformers want to change the corrupt practices of the church.

Johann Tetzel

This Dominican monk was chosen to advertise indulgences in 1517, and did so using extreme methods so that many people bought them. This caught Luther's attention, and was a factor that led to the 95 Theses.

Edict of Nantes

This was published by King Henry VI (former Henry of Navarre) in 1598. It granted the Huguenots liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship in 150 fortified towns in France. The reign of Henry VI and the Edict of Nantes prepared the way for French absolutism in the seventeenth century by helping restore internal peace in France. It was a liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship in one hundred and fifty fortified towns.

Sack of Rome (1527)

Troops of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sacked Rome, directly challenging the power of the Catholic Church and helping to advance Protestantism in Europe. The siege also marked the virtual end of the Italian Renaissance and, in the eyes of some historians, the end of the High Renaissance.

Elizabeth I

Tudor Queen of England. Daughter of Henry VIII. Succeeded Mary I in 1558 and ruled until 1603. In addition to leading the defeat of the Spanish Armada and developing England into a world power, she strengthened Protestantism. Her reign would stabilize England and lay its foundations to become a world empire.

Henry VIII (1509-1547)

Tudor monarch of England who desired a divorce from Catherine of Aragon because she would not bear him a male heir. Created the Church of England (Anglican Church) and made himself the supreme leader after the pope refused to annul his marriage.

Pluralism

Within the Church, a bishop having control over more than one church office.

Chaucher

Wrote the Canterbury Tales