AP Euro Review Materials Unit 5: Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century aka French Revolution & Napoleon

The Great Fear

(July-August 1789) •Countryside rumors spread that the king and sending sending the army to put down peasants, take their land and end the Revolution. •Result: peasants attack chateau (ornate homes of nobles). Burned list of seigneurial dues.

The French Revolution resulted from a combination of long-term social and political causes, as well as Enlightenment ideas, exacerbated by short-term fiscal and economic crises

1) Long term with social structure of France: 1st estate (clergy): paid no taxes but owned 10% of land. 2nd estate (nobles): owned 30% of land, important role in gov't, large econ. role, Nobles did not pay taxes, especially the taille.) Third Estate (peasants & bourgeoisie) grossly underrepresented in Estates-General. Seigneurial dues. Paid almost all of taxes. 2) Long-Term Political Causes for French Revolution: the absolutist rule of Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI ignored long-underlying tensions. Defeat in wars made French monarchy look weak in eyes of French people. 3) Enlightenment ideas•Rousseau, Voltaire, and Diderot's natural rights enshrined in motto of liberty, equality, fraternity.•Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws: separation of powers.•Rousseau's Social Contract with its idea of rebellion of rights not upheld. 4) •short-term fiscal and economic crises.•A) Economic Crisis 1780s: Bad harvests led to rising food prices. People blamed the Monarchy. B) Fiscal Crisis (not enough revenue/taxes). •Interest on private loans accounted for half of public expenditures. •Fear government would not pay led investors to refuse further loans. Repeated failure of monarchy to get nobles to pay higher taxes led to calling of Estates General.

The French Revolution's Effects

1) Thomas Paine & Mary Wollstonecraft initially supported revolt. 2) Revolutionary ideals inspired a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which became the independent nation of Haiti in 1804. 3) While many were inspired by the revolution's emphasis on equality and human rights, others condemned its violence and disregard for traditional authority. Example Edmund Burke in Reflections on the French Revolution. • Most criticism from Edmund Burke.

how and why the Romantic Movement and religious revival challenged Enlightenment thought from 1648 to 1815.

1) •Rousseau questioned the exclusive reliance on reason & emphasized role of emotions in moral improvement of self & society. •Rousseau's Émile : "education should foster rather than restrict children's natural instincts." Emotions should be developed before reason. "I cannot go wrong about what I have felt, or what my feeling has led me to do." 2) Consistent with the Romantic Movement, religious revival occurred in Europe and included notable movements such as Methodism, founded by John Wesley. •Emotion also appeared in the lands occupied by French revolutionary and Napoleonic armies as reaction to the invaders. a) In Spain, Francisco de Goya's The Third of May. b) in Germany during the Napoleonic wars. Also seen with works of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Johann Gottfried von Herder.

•Social hierarchy.

Another area of domestic reform under Napoleon. •"My motto has always been: a career open to all talents." For Napoleon's regime, the importance lay in one's abilities, aka merit, when securing a job in bureaucracy and in the army. Aka Meritocracy. Class not important but abilities were! •At top of hierarchy were notables who displayed exemplary service to Napoleon. The most important were marshals. Napoleon even gave them titles. •"In the backpack of each soldier, there is a marshal's baton." Each soldier knew that ability would lead straight to the top of Napoleon's military. •Highest recognition was Legion of Honor still exists today.

Education under Napoleon

Another area of domestic reform under Napoleon. • a) Higher education became the responsibility of the state. •b)Schools must create patriotic and obedient citizens through teaching secular values linking education to nationalism. •c) State secondary schools called lycées. Only for boys. Napoleon selected their books.

Centralized bureaucracy

Another area of domestic reform under Napoleon. •Continued like under ancient regime. •However, all positions determined by merit. •New position of prefect established; similar to intendent. Responsible to Napoleon led to the growth of political centralization in the hands of Napoleon. •Service in bureaucracy also led to social advancement.

Napoleonic Code

Another one of Napoleon's domestic reforms. •New law code aka Code Napoleon aka Napoleonic Code. •Napoleon: "My glory is not to have won forty battles...but what nothing will destroy, what will live eternally, is my Civil Code." •Solidified gains of Revolution with equality before the law, right of individuals to choose their professions, religious toleration (Protestants and Jews included) abolition of serfdom and feudalism. •Simply codifying laws was an enlightenment and revolutionary value. •Property rights protected so it was pro-bourgeoisie. Most laws dealt with property. •Protected rights of employers by continuing Le Chapelier Law: no right to strike.

levée en masse aka nation-at-arms

Because of imminent invasion, in 1793 the Committee of Public Safety ordered nation-wide conscription which resulted in Europe's largest army of 650,000 men that helped save the Revolution. Nationalism had become a weapon. Because they were victorious, France then launched invasions so as to free the rest of Europe from feudalism & absolutism

Jacobins

Beginning in first phase of the Revolution, political clubs were legalized. Joining these clubs became very popular. This one was led by Danton, Marat, and Robespierre. It wanted an end to the constitutional monarchy of France by establishing a republican government with universal male suffrage.

Active and Passive Citizens.

Designation made during first phase of the French Revolution. •The Constitution made all the French people citizens of France. •However, it also made a further distinction between Active and Passive Citizens. •Active citizens were the only citizens allowed to vote because they payed property taxes. •No vote for all! •Passive citizens were too poor to pay taxes. •Limited equality. •Evidence of moderate nature of the first phase of the Revolution.

Fall of Bastille

July 14, 1789: •Revolution saved by events outside of Versailles; not by the bourgeoisie at Versailles.People of Paris attacked and seized this prison which was a symbol of French absolutism. •It's fall convinced Louis XVI that he could not to rely on his troops, so he gave up on Paris. Largest city in France now controlled by revolutionaries.

Flight to Varennes

July 20, 1791: Support for constitutional monarchy faded with Louis' and his family's failed plan to flee France and reach the Austrian army of his brother-in-law.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

July, 1790. •All clergy must swear oath to the Constitution. Clergy paid by state. Bishops and priests elected locally. The State was over the church. Since most of the French were very Catholic, the Civil Constitution of Clergy turned away support for Revolution. Term for opposition to a revolution is Counter-revolution.

Slogan of the Revolution

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.

Battle of Waterloo

Napoleon returned from Elba. For 100 Days, he ruled. He was defeated by the British led by Wellington at Waterloo. Final exile at St. Helena.

Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

Preamble of France's first constitution that was issued August 1789. It's basic principle was that all "men are born and remain free and equal in rights". Contained the following articles: 1) proclaimed the rights of liberty, private property, the inviolability of the person, and resistance to oppression . 2) All citizens were equal before the law and were to have the right to participate in legislation directly or indirectly. 3) no one was to be arrested without a judicial order. 4) Freedom of religion 5) freedom of speech 6) property was given the status of an inviolable right, which could be taken by the state only if an indemnity were given. 7) offices and position were opened to all citizens

La Marseillaise

Spirited song composed to motivate France's revolutionary armies. Displays a tremendous groundswell of support for the Revolution. Became the national anthem of France.

Peninsular War

aka Spanish ulcer. Nationalism Awakened in Spain. To enforce Continental System on Portugal, route led through Spain/invasion of Spain. Hypocritical placing of Napoleon's brother on throne of Spain. French occupation forces. Also backlash against Napoleonic Code. Result: Spanish nationalism awakened in Peninsular War. Guerrilla warfare. Tied up many French troops.

Declaration of Pillnitz

joint declaration issued on August 27, 1791 by monarchs ofAustria and of Prussia, urging European powers to unite to restore the monarchy in France following Flight to Varennes. The French government largely interpreted it as a threat to its sovereignty culminating in France declaring war on Austria. The effect will be an invasion by both monarchies of France whose army lacked trained officers (emigres). Subsequent French military defeats will partly lead to mounting paranoia in France.

Coup d'état 1799

resulted in the overthrew of the Directory (3rd phase of Revolution. The conservative one). This ended French Revolution & led to rise of Napoleon as 1st Consul of Consulate.

the Tennis Court Oath (1789)

• •After Third Estate renamed self "National Assembly".Next day, locked out of meeting hall.Went nearby indoor tennis court and swore not to disband National Assembly until France had a constitution.

•seigneurial dues:

•1) corvée: Roadwork; an obligation of peasants to landowners. 2) banalitiés-Fees that peasants were obligated to pay landlords for the use of the village mill, bakeshop and winepress. Economic inequality: inequality of doing free work for nobles(corvée)

"What is the Third Estate?" by Abbé Sieyès.

•1) evocation of "the nation". French Revolution gave boost to individuals looking at selves by nationality (French vs German). •2) popular sovereignty: government created by & subject to will of people. •1st. What is the third estate? Everything. •2nd. What has it been heretofore in the political order? Nothing. •3rd. What does it demand? To become something therein.... Resulted in 3rd Estate renaming itself "the National Assembly"

Congress of Vienna

•After the defeat of Napoleon by a coalition of European powers, the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) attempted to restore the balance of power in Europe and contain the danger of revolutionary or nationalistic upheavals in the future. •Quadruple Alliance sought to contain Napoleonic France after the fall of Napoleon...the first time. Done by restoring the old order, meaning those who had held power before 1789. Thus, monarchies such as the Bourbons (Louis XVIII) & others were restored to power. •The Congress of Vienna tried to turn the clock back to Europe BEFORE 1789, before the changes with ideas and power caused by the French Revolution and Napoleon. Congress of Vienna's goals seen with priorities of Metternich: principle of legitimacy and balance of power.

Émigrés

•Another source of counterrevolution arose from the nobles who fled France during the revolution. •They sought support against the revolution from the courts of other kingdoms in Europe.

•The Revolution Becomes More Radical

•August 9, 1792 a mob attacks the Tuilléries Palace. Swiss guards surrender & are massacred. Louis & family flee for lives to Legislative Assembly which votes for an immediate end of the monarchy & a new constitution with universal male suffrage.

Continental System: economic warfare

•Coalitions against France. Britain along with Prussia, Austria, and Russia. Efforts by Europeans to address balance of power all failed to stop Napoleon by land. •Napoleon's fleet destroyed by admiral Nelson at Trafalgar. Failed to defeat Britain at sea, so to weaken Britain, Napoleon turned to the Continental System. Goal: prevent British goods from reaching European continent. Britain would be weakened economically and thus could not wage war. •Continental System failed because 1) European states needed British trade. 2) Britain found other markets in Latin America and in the eastern Mediterranean. •Failure of the Continental System was one of the two reasons for the collapse of Napoleon's empire.

Napoleon and European Liberalism

•Everywhere Napoleon's armies went they pushed for acceptance of Enlightenment and French Revolutionary ideals: legal equality, religious toleration, and economic freedom. This would lead to development of liberal traditions in those countries as enshrined in his Napoleonic Code. Hence historians see him as last of enlightened despots.

First Phase or Liberal Phase or Bourgeois Phase

•First, or liberal, phase of French Revolution established constitutional monarchy, increased popular participation (Active & Passive Citizens), nationalized Catholic Church (Civil Constitution of the Clergy, & abolished hereditary privileges (Decrees of August 4, 1789)

The Pendulum and the Three Phases of French Revolution.

•French Revolution 1789: three phases. •Depicted by pendulum. •1st Revolution moderate or in center. •Then, radically to left. •Then, more conservative swing to right.

economic & political consequences of rivalry between Britain & France from 1648 to 1815.

•KC-2.1.III.D: Rivalry between Britain and France resulted in world wars fought both in Europe and in the colonies, with Britain supplanting France as the greatest European power Examples: 1) War of Spanish Succession. Britain gains foothold in Northern Canada. 2) Seven Years' War (French and Indian War, and Great War for Empire in India). Britain #1 at cost to France.

causes and consequences of European maritime competition from 1648 to 1815.

•KC-2.2: Expansion of European commerce accelerated growth of worldwide economic network. •KC-2.2.III: Commercial rivalries influenced diplomacy and warfare among European states in the early modern era. •KC-2.2.III.A: European sea powers vied for Atlantic influence throughout 18th century. KC-2.2.III.B: Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British rivalries in Asia culminated in British domination in India & Dutch control of East Indies.

Metternich

•Leader of the Congress of Vienna. •Also, Foreign Minister of Austrian Empire, so he was against nationalism & liberalism because he did not want to see Austria lose power. The Austrian Empire was a polyglot state consisting of eleven different peoples. Liberalism and nationalism (Hungarian) would tear the empire apart. One of Metternich's goals came via the principle of legitimacy: restore legitimate monarchs. Restore monarchs to their thrones who had held them prior to the French Revolution of 1789. This was done in France, Spain, and the Italian states. Thus, France became a monarchy again under Louis XVIII. •Another of Metternich's goals was to restore the balance of power: prevent one power from dominating others. 1) Achieved with France by redrawing the map of Europe so that France's borders returned to 1789 position and by giving territory to stronger states along France's borders. 2) Following defeat of Napoleon after his invasion of Russia, Russia was feared to be endangering the balance of power. Austria and Prussia were then given lands to strengthen them and thus form a barrier to Russian growth.

Nationalist Responses to Napoleon

•Napoleon really out to strengthen France and hence his own power, not to help Europeans. . Napoleon's expanding empire created nationalist responses throughout Europe.These appeared in Spain, German states, and Russia. Thus, "nationalism as a double-edged sword". Napoleon used it to motivate troops to victory, but nationalism of conquered peoples awakened and used against Napoleon. •Second reason for Napoleon's downfall.

•Nationalism Awakened in Russia:

•Napoleon sought to enforce Continental System after Russia withdrew. Result: Invasion of Russia by Napoleon's Grand Army of 600,000 men. •Russian nationalism awoke: Mother Russia. Russians used scorched earth tactics. Napoleon's long lines of supply. Russians refused to surrender; even abandoned their capital. Thus, Great Retreat with horrible winter. Only 40,000 troops returned. •Russians kept advancing into Central Europe. Prussia and Austria attacked too. Napoleon abdicated. Exiled at Elba.

Nationalism Awakened in German states

•Napoleon's occupation and forced acceptance of revolutionary ideals led quickening of German and Italian nationalism. German nationalism awoke as a reaction to French rationalism. Prussians learned to harness nationalism to their own benefit.

Decrees of August 4, 1789

•News of chaos of the Great Fear got back to Versailles & led to National Assembly ending seigneurial rights & nobles' freedom from taxation, which finally ends French feudalism & marked the death of Old Regime aka Ancien Regime which was absolutism prior to French Revolution of 1789

Concordat (1801):

•One of Napoleon's five domestic reforms. It was Napoleon's peace with Catholic Church after twelve years of divisiveness since Civil Constitution of the Clergy. •Church did not get much: •a)declared as majority church of French. •b)right to hold public processions •c) of opening seminaries •Napoleon got •a) Catholic Church on his side: not his enemy. •b) Napoleon still controlled clergy by paying them. •c) No returning of church property seized during Revolution. Bourgeoisie loved this! •d) State still controlled the church.

Sans-Culottes

•Parisian revolutionaries who supported Revolution. Composed of small shopkeepers, laborers, & artisans. It was okay owning property, but against unearned property & not working for a living. Demanded maximum price on bread. •Wore Phrygian cap, symbol freed slave from Roman Republic with a cockade. Sans-Culottes believed popular sovereignty should occur every day with direct democracy. Supported the Jacobins.

Napoleon's new military tactics allowed him to exert direct or indirect control over much of the European continent, spreading the ideals of the French Revolution across Europe.

•Pre-1812: Napoleon wins every battle . His tactics: •1) Use of French citizen-soldiers vs the professional armies composed of mercenaries. Nationalism as a weapon for French. •2) Napoleon as great organizer •3) mixed order stretched across battlefield •4) canons more mobile •5) lived off the land •6) devotion of Napoleon's soldiers to him. Vive l'Empereur! Example of charisma of Napoleon that lead to his troops' devotion to him.

Battle of Valmy

•Prussians attempted to attack Paris and crush the Revolution. •20 September 1792, French citizen army opposed them. They were highly motivated since the Revolution for them gave them liberty. One Prussian described the French as attacking them like mad wolves. •The French scored a stunning defeat that temporarily saved the Revolution.

As first consul and emperor, Napoleon undertook a number of enduring domestic reforms while often curtailing some rights and manipulating popular impulses behind a façade of representative institutions.

•Representative institutions •1) Napoleon not king; but was first consul. Consuls in Ancient Roman Republic, •2) Few men could vote for officeholders and not via universal suffrage. Universal male suffrage only to vote in a plebiscite (yes or no), •3) Senate (Roman republic) but appointed by consul, •4) Tribunate (Roman Republic) chosen by senate from list of 6000 "notables". Tribunate could discuss legislation but not vote on it. •5) Legislative Body could vote on legislation but not discuss it. •6) Constitution but very authoritarian (power concentrated in a leader not constitutionally responsible to people). Embodied principle "authority from above, confidence from below" since power in Napoleon's hands (executive branch) and gained support via plebiscite. •Curtailing of rights: 1) No universal male suffrage 2) Reduced newspapers from 73 to 13. 3) Secret police 4) Women rights declined.

Napoleonic Code and women

•Restored father's control over children. Reversed Revolution's policies. •Divorce made more difficult for women to obtain. •Women less equal to men since their property came under control of their husbands. Their testimony in court less reliable than a man's. •Napoleon: "In France women are considered too highly. They should not be regarded as equal to men. In reality, they are nothing more than machines for producing children." •Set standards for Europe and New World by establishing male power by transferring autonomy and economic goods from women to men. "the code organized gender roles for more than a century."

Revolution, war, and rebellion demonstrated the emotional power of mass politics and nationalism

•Revolution, war and rebellion are inherently emotional acts. •The French Revolution is littered with examples of nationalism: 1) the Fall of the Bastille, 2) Women's March on Versailles, 3) Marseillaise, 4) Battle of Valmy. 5) Napoleon utilized nationalism as a weapon. •Within nationalism one sees the emotional aspect also seen with Romanticism.

• the Reign of Terror

•So as to quickly fight enemies, the Convention made the Terror/ Reign of Terror. Put aside constitution of 1793. Reduced rights of accused, no trial by jury, set up special courts & had trials of the disloyal. To organize the fight against the many threats, the Convention voted executive control to Committee of Public Safety. Instead of 100s of delegates arguing, only dozen. First leader: Danton.Most important member: Robespierre. Law of Suspects: guilty unless proven innocent. Law of Prairial: no self defense if accused; acquittal or death. 50,000 guillotined including Danton, Marie Antoinette, & Olympe de Gouges.

Women and French Revolution

•Women enthusiastically participated in the early phases of the revolution; however, while there were brief improvements in the legal status of women, citizenship in the republic was soon restricted to men. •1) Women's March on Versailles. •2) Olympe de Gouges "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen" NOTE: she was guillotined during the Reign of Terror because she was too revolutionary for Robespierre. •3) Women formed Society for Revolutionary Republican Women: aid in war effort. Nonetheless, Paris Commune outlawed political clubs for women. •Mary Wollstonecraft enthusiastic initially for Revolution. Angered by Assembly refusing right to education for women. Lead the way in feminism. "A Vindication of the Rights of Women".

Women's March on Versailles

•Women were passive citizens but nonetheless participated in the Revolution as seen with this event. Lack of bread led them to march on Versailles and bring back King & royal family to Paris. The National Assembly also moved to Paris. •From this point on, the Revolution will be influenced by Parisian mobs.

September Massacres (1792)

•mass killing of prisoners by a mob that took place in Paris from September 2 to September 6 in 1792. Caused by paranoia about losing the war against Austria and Prussia & emigres fomenting counterrevolution. This is further evidence of the chaotic and paranoid filled years of the French Revolution. It made a profound impression abroad, where they were publicized as proof of the horrors of revolution.

National Convention

•new Jacobin-dominated legislative assembly elected by universal male suffrage. Major actions •1)Abolished the monarchy & proclaimed a republic. •2) Louis XVI tried & beheaded by the guillotine. 3) instituted the Reign of Terror which was to be led by the Committee of Public Safety. •4) Banned women's clubs & societies. •5) Time reorganized (Year I). New calendar no Christian holidays. De-Christianization: non-atheist religion focusing on reason, Cult of Supreme Being. •6) Passed Law of the Maximum. Government involvement in economy that set max price on bread. Loved by sans-culottes.