AP Human Geography: Chapter Ten: Development
Secondary Sector
Includes manufacturers that process, transform, and assemble raw materials into useful products as well as industries that fabricate manufactured goods into finished consumer goods.
What has the UN found about gender inequality over time?
It has declined, greatest improvement in Southwest Asia and North Africa
In general, what do development analysts expect a more developed country will have?
Less gender inequality than a developing one. It can be depicted in a graph, a map too.
What is the main factor for determining the health part of the HDI?
Life expectancy at birth
Inequality adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)
Made by UN to measure extent of inequality. It modifies to account for inequality in a country, if perfect equality is present, HDI and IHDI are the same.
What further complicates the challenge of teaching and learning in developing countries?
Many written materials are produced in developed countries, so those materials may not be available in the language of those in the developing countries.
National Legislature: Empowerment part of the GII (What country has a majority in parliament or congress?)
No gender specific skills are required, yet more men fill positions everywhere than women. Only one country, Rwanda, has majority of women in parliament or congress.
What is the relationship between developed and developing countries often described as?
The north/ south split because most developed countries are north of the equator and developing are south.
Pupil/ teacher ratio
The number of enrolled students divided by the number of teachers. The fewer pupils a teacher has, the more likely that each student will receive effective instruction.
Stimulus strategy
During a downturn, companies should spend more money than they collect in taxes, government should stimulate the economy by putting people to work building bridges and other infrastructure. Once economy recovers, people will be in place to repay debts.
What is development?
Process of improving conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology.
2 strategies to fight economic downturns:
Stimulus strategy and austerity strategy
Jobs fall into 3 categories:
primary sector, secondary sector, tertiary sector
Technological innovations typically diffuse from...
urban to rural areas
Gross national income (GNI)
Value of output of goods and services produced in a country in a year, including money that leaves and enters the country
Stages of Rostow Model: Traditional Society
#1, Not started process of development, High percentage of people involved in agriculture and national wealth associated with "nonproductive " activities, like military and religion
Stages of Rostwo Model: Preconditions for Takeoff
#2, Elite group initiates innovative economic activities, Under influence of well educated leaders country begins to invest in new technology and infrastructure. Support from international funding sources emphasizes importance of constructing new infrastructure, stimulating an increase in productivity.
Stages of Rostow Model: Takeoff
#3, Rapid growth is generated in limited number of economic activities which acheive technical advances and become productive, whereas other regions are dominated by traditional practices.
Stages of Rostow Model: Drive to Maturity
#4, Modern Technology, previously confined to a few takeoff industries diffuses to a wide variety of industries which then experience rapid growth comparable to the growth of the takeoff industries. Workers become more skilled and specialized
Stages of Rostow Model: Age of mass consumption
#5, Economy shifts from production of heavy industry like steel and energy to consumer goods like motor vehicles and refrigerators.
Eras in which many peopel felt that traditional profit making retailers and other service providers were not meeting their needs (consumer owned cooperatives flourished).
1- Great Depression Era in 1930s where people banded together to improve their lives through self help. Important in bringing in electricity to places where pop density too low for private companies to serve profitably. 2- 1960s-70s. Part of counterculture movement, young people felt alienated from profit making corps banded together to open grocery and craft shops. 3- Current from 2000s. Hundreds co-op owned grocery stores opened to provide healthier foods, local farmers have a place to sell locally raised produce and meats, and non GMO and chemical free stuff.
Two principal ways the WTO works to reduce barriers to international trade?
1. countries negotiate reduction or elimination of international trade restrictions on manufactured goods, as made by the self sufficiency plan. 2. It enforces agreements. One country can bring WTO an accusation that a country has violated a WTO agreement, and it rules on the validity of the claim and places charges. Also protects intellectual property in the internet age.
Where were the World Bank and the IMF conceived at?
1944 UN conference in Breton Woods New Hampshire, to promote economic development and stability after devastation of WWII and avoid policies leading to Great Depression in the 30s.
World wide female labor force participation rate? Where are gaps largest and smallest? Which country has a surprisingly high rate?
51% compared to 77% of men; gaps are largest in South Asia and southwest asia and north africa, and smaller in East Asia and sub saharan Africa; Sub Saharan Africa even though they have the world's highest fertility rates.
How many women have completed secondary school worldwide? Which gender is more likely in US, Europe, and developing countries?
54% compared to 64% of men; In US girls, in Europe boys, and boys in developing countries
What do northern European countries argue that Southern European countries with poorer economies should do? What do southern European countries say in return?
Adopt austerity programs; Fund stimulus programs that would in the long run lead to more prosperity as a whole .
Developing countries face two fundamental obstacles in trying to encourage more rapid development:
Adopting policies successfully promoting development. Finding funds to pay for development
Purchasing power parity (PPP)
An adjustment made to the GNI to account for differences among countries in the cost of goods. For example, if a resident of country A has the same income as resident of country B but must pay more for a starbucks latte, the resident of Country B is better off.
Structural adjustment program
Contains economic "reforms" or "adjustments" such as economic goals, strategies for acheiving objectives, and external financing requirements
Cooperatives also enable small scale farmers and artisans to undertake fair trade production, Producer and worker cooperatives offer several advantages:
Cooperative can qualify for credit so that funds can be borrowed to buy equipment and invest in improving farms. Materials can be purchased at lower costs. People who grow or make products democratically manage allocation of resources and assure safe and healthy working conditions. Profits are reinvested in the community instead of going to absentee corporate owners.
What occurs with the international trade model?
Countries open themselves to foreign investment and international markets. More popular in late 20th century. Requires a country to consider its distinctive or unique economic assets. A country can develop economically by concentrating scarce resources on expansion of local industries, by selling these they can bring country funds that can be used to finance other developments.
What is the world trade organization? Who made it? What does it work to do with countries?
Countries representing 97% of world trade made the organization in 1995. It works to reduce barriers to international trade in two principal ways.
Where is gender inequality index highest in? Largest contributor to this inequality? Lowest? How is it related to HDI?
Developing countries particularly Sub Saharan Africa, South Asia, Central Asia, and Southwest Asia and North Africa; Reproductive health; Europe; High HDIs have low GIIs.
What does the self sufficiency model encourage?
Domestic production of goods, discourage foreign ownership of businesses and resources, and protect business from international competition.
Which countries have highest percentage of women in national legislature? Lowest? How about the US?
Europe where women are 1/4; Southwest Asia and North Africa; US has 19-20% figures, 20/100 senators, and 84/435 representatives They are slightly below all countries and lower than to be expected for a developed country
What did India do to dismantle its formidable collection of barriers to international trade:
Foreign companies ere allowed to set up factories and sell in India. Tariffs and restrictions on the import and export of goods were reduced or eliminated. Monopolies in communications, insurance, other industries were eliminated.
How did India display characteristics similar to the self sufficiency path? (by limiting imports)
Foreign companies had to secure a license (long process) Company holding import license severely restricted in how much it could import to India. Heavy taxes on imported goods. Indian money could not be converted to other currencies.
International Trade Examples
Four Asian Dragons and Petroleum-rich Arabian Peninsula States.
Developing Country
Frequently called a less developed country (LDC) has made some progress through development, though less than developed countries.
Austerity strategy
Government should sharply reduce taxes so people and businesses can revive economy by spending their tax savings. Spending on government programs should be sharply cut also to keep debt from swelling and hampering economy in the future.
Example of Microfinance
Grameen Bank (1977), established in Bangladesh, specializes in making loans to women who make and sell products with the money. It has made several thousand loans to women in Bangladesh and surrounding countries and only 1% failed to make weekly loan repayments.
Has FDI grown or shrunk since the 90s? Does it flow equally around the world? How much went to developing and developed? Was it spread equally within developing countries?
Grown; No; Only 1/3 went to developing in 2013 while 2/3 went to developed countries; No, 1/3 given to China alone and another 1/3 to Singapore, Brazil, Russia, Mexico
Who described the relationship between developing and developed as core and periphery? What disadvantage does this give developing countries?
Immanuel Wallerstein. According to his world systems analysis, an increasingly unified world economy in developed countries form an inner core area whereas developing occupy periphery areas; They have less access to the world centers of consumption communications wealth and power which are clustered in the core.
In theory,why are new or expanded businesses attracted to an area?
Improved infrastructure will contribute to additional taxes that the developing country will use in part to repay loans and to improve its citizens' living conditions.
Why does UN use reproductive health as an indicator to GII?
In countries where effective control of reproduction is universal, women have fewer children and maternal and child health is improved. Women in developing tend to die at childbirth and give birth as teenagers. Every country offering women full range of reproductive health options is low fertility rate.
Value added
In manufacturing, is the gross value of a product minus the costs of raw materials and energy. The value added in the US is about 67$ and in Mexico only 16$. It partly pays for manufacture and purchase of the machinery.
Primary sector
Includes activities that directly extract materials from the Earth through agriculture, and sometimes by mining, fishing, and forestry.
Summary of progress made in GNI per capita since 1980:
Increased much more rapidly in developed than developing
With increased competition what have indian companies had to do? Give an example.
Increased quality of their products; The main auto industry in India, Maruti-Udyong Ltd. was controlled by the government, and captured more than 80% of the Indian market by selling cars considered out of date in other countries. They sold company to Japanese company Suzuki and it now only holds 45% of India's market.
Summary of progress made in life expectancy since 1980:
Increased same number of years in developed and developing.
Fair Trade
International trade providing greater equity to workers small businesses and consumers.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
International trade requires corporations based in a particular country to invest in other countries. Investment made by a foreign country in the economy of another country is known as foreign direct investment.
Tertiary Sector
Involves provision of goods and services to people in exchange for payment such as retailing banking law education and government.
According to international co-op principles, a co-op business:
Is owned by people who shop there rather than corporation. Is democratically governed by a member elected board rather than appointed by a corporation owner. Financed primarily by investments made by the a owners rather than commercial lenders. Controlled by people living in community rathre than by distant shareholders. Educates public on importance sustainable development rather than hiding info about poor working conditions. Helps other cooperatives through sharing expensive and sharing of sources of fair trade products rather than competing with other cooperatives. Helps improve community in which cooperative is locating rather thanseeking to extract the maximum profit out of the community.
International Monetary Fund: Who does it loan to? What is it designed to do? What is funding based on?
It loans to countries experiencing balance of payment problems threatening expansion of international trade. It is designed to help a country rebuild international reserves, stabilize currency exchange rates, and pay for imports without imposition of harsh trade restrictions or capital controls. Funding is based on each member country's relative size in the world economy
Why is per capita GNI not accurate in determining a country's development?
It measures the average wealth, not the distribution of wealth.
Two indicators the reproductive health part of GII is based on?
Maternal morality rate and Adolescent fertility rate
Summary of progress made in Education since 1980:
Mean years of education has increased by same amount in developed and developing.
Gender inequality Index (GII)
Measures gender gap in level of achievement for three dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment, labor market. It is similar to IHDI, higher it is greater inequality between men and women. Score of 0 means they fare equally and score of 1.0 means women fare as poorly as possible in all areas.
Gender related development index (GDI)
Measures gender gap in the level of achievement for the three dimensions of the HDI: income, education, life expectancy Countries ranked based on gender partity from HDI If both were the same, GDI would be 1.000, average for the world is 0.920, which means average HDI for females (.655) is 92% of that for males (.712)
cooperative store
Member owned member governed business that operates for benefits of its members according to common principles agreed upon by the international cooperative community.
What do better health and welfare in developed countries also allow?
More dependence placed on working adults since larger amount of retired people and people under 15. Better health and welfare permit babies to survive infancy in developed countries because in developing countries, babies may die from malnutrition and inaccess to medecine and poor medical practices resulting from lack of education.
What does the UN consider schooling to be?
Most critical measure of the ability of an individual to gain access to knowledge needed for development.
Part of wealth generated is used to purchase goods and services. Especially important are those related to:
Motor vehicles (allow access to jobs and services and permit businesses to distribute products) Telephones (enhance interaction with providers of raw materials and customers for goods and services) Computers (facilitate the sharing of information with other buyers and suppliers)
Adolescent fertility rate
Number of births per 1000 women ages 15-19. The rate is 19 in developed countries and 53 in developing. It is below 10 in most European countries because most couples use contraceptives. In Sub Saharan Africa, where gender inequality is high, it is 110.
Maternal morality rate
Number of women who die giving birth per 100,000 mothers. The rate is 16 per 100,000 in developed countries and 171 in developing. The highest rates are in Sub Saharan Africa, UN estimates 150,000 women and 1.6 million children die between onset of labor and 48 hours after birth.
3 sets of standards of fair trade movement distinguishing it:
One to producers, One to workers in farms and on factories, and one to consumers, especially in developed countries.
Why are people healthier in developed countries than in developing countries?
People in developed countries have wealth to provide care for sick people, and preserve some of that wealth to protect people who are unable to work.
Literacy rate
Percentage of country's people who can read and write.
Female labor force participation rate
Percentage of women holding full time jobs outside the home.
What does the fair trade movement focus on?
Products exported from developing countries to developed countries.
World Bank has judged several projects in Africa as failures because...
Projects don't function because of faulty engineering. Recipient nations squander or spend aid on armaments or the aid is stolen. New infrastructure does not attract new investments.
Why should countries not embrace international trade?
Some countries are dependent on sale of one commodity have suffered because the price of that commodity has not risen as rapidly as the cost of products they need to buy. Building up a handful of takeoff industries that sell to people in developed countries has forced some developing countries to cut back on production of food clothing and other necessities for own people. Countries that depend on selling low cost manufactured goods have found that world market for many products has declined in recent years.
Which regions have the two lowest HDI scores?
South Asia and Sub Saharan Africa
Four Asian Dragons: What countries? What did they not possess? What did they do to fix it?
South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong. Singapore and Hong Kong lacked many natural resources. They made manufactured goods like clothing and electronics. Low labor costs enabled them to sell products inexpensively in developed countries.
Reforms required of a developed country under a structural adjustment program
Spending only what can afford. Directing benefits to poor, not just elite. Diverting investment from military spending to health and education spending. Investing scarce resources where they will have most impact. Encouraging a more productive private sector. Reforming government
What strategy did US use in 2008? After success of tea party candidates, what strategy was used in 2010? What did European countries do?
Stimulus; Austerity; did not decide between either.
Human Development index (HDI)
The UN created the HDI to measure the level of development of every country. The highest possible is 1.0 or 100%
What happens if the IHDI is lower than the HDI?
The country has some inequality, the greater the difference the greater the inequality. Countries with large differences between classes have larger inequality. The lowest scores are in Sub Saharan Africa and South Asia
What is the empowerment measure of GII measured by (2 factors)?
The percentage of seats held by women in the national legislature and percentage of women who have completed some secondary school.
The contribution to GNI among primary, secondary, tertiary sectors varies between developed and developing countries:
The share of GNI accounted for by the primary sector has decreased in developing countries, but it remains higher in developed countries. The low share in developed countries indicates that a handful of farmers produce enough food for the rest of society. The share of GNI accounted for by secondary sectors has decreased sharply in developed countries and is now less than developing countries. Share of GNI accounted for by the tertiary sector is relatively high in developed countries, and is now growing in developing countries.
Productivity
The value of a particular product compared to the amount of labor of a particular product compared to the amount of labor needed to make it. Measured by the value added per capita.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
The value of the output of goods and services produced in a country in a year. It does not account for money that enters and leaves a country.
Compare Brazil and Turkey, two developing countries and their inequality
They are middle of the pack for HDI Inequality can be seen by comparing HDI and IHDI: Brazil has lower IHDI, indicating more inequality in Turkey Inequality can be seen through differences in GNI per capita: In Turkey wealth is higher in western part of country, and lower in the east with Kurds seeking independence. In Brazil, wealth is on East coast, especially in largest city, San Paulo
Why do people in developed countries produce more with less effort?
They have access to more machines, tools, and equipment to perform work while in developing countries, they rely on animal and human power.
What did Europeans believe when adopting the euro? What happened in reality?
They thought if every country in the region had the same currency, trade in the region would be enhanced. But with the severe economic downturn, having each country saddled with the same currency made countries with weaker economies suffer.
How is austerity imposed?
Through a policy framework paper (PFP) outlining a structural adjustment program
Sustainable Development Goals
To reduce disparities between developed and developing, 193 members of UN adopted 17 Sustainable Goals in 2015.
What are the major sources of FDI? How many companies was US home to in 2014 and what were they? How many of the 500 largest companies had headquarters in developed countries? Developing?
Transnational corporations that invest and operate in countries other than the one which company headquarters are located; eight (Apple, Exxon Mobile, Microsoft, Alphabet (google), Berkshire Hathaway, Johnson & Johnson, Wells Fargo, GE); In developed 211; developing 86 with 32 in China
Why should countries embrace international trade?
Under self sufficiency, businesses have little incentive to improve quality, lower production costs, reduce prices, or increase production. Companies protected from international competition are not pressured to keep up with rapid technological changes. The complex system needed to administer the controls requires many government employees and encourages inneficiency, abuse, and corruption. Potential entrepreneurs find that struggling to produce goods or offer services is less rewarding financially than advising others how to get around complex government regulations.
Two major lenders to developing countries
World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF)
To form the access to knowledge part of the HDI, the UN combines two measures of years of schooling
Years of schooling for todays adults and expected years of schooling for today's wealth
Technological change is helping to ....
reduce the gap between developed and developing countries in access to communications. EX: cell phone ownership
Fair trade requires the following of workers rights.
workers must be payed fair wages- at least enough to cover food, shelter, education, health care, and other basic needs. Workers must be permitted to organize a union and to have the right to collective bargaining. Workers must be protected by high environmental and safety standards.
Nine regions ranked based on HDI
1. North America, 2. Europe, 3. Latin America, 4. East Asia, 5. Southwest Asia and North Africa, 6. Southeast Asia tied with Central Asia, 8.South Asia, 9. Sub Saharan Africa
5 Stages of Rostow Model, according to which each country is in one of these stages.
1. traditional society. 2. preconditions for takeoff 3. takeoff 4. drive to maturity 5. Age of mass consumption
Three factors that HDI is based on
A decent standard of living, a long and healthy life, and access to knowledge
Developed country
Also known as more developed country (MDC) and referred to by the UN as a very high developed country has progressed further along the development continuum.
Microfinance
Alternative source of loans; provision of small loans and other financial services to individuals and small businesses in developing countries that are unable to obtain loans from commercial banks.
Expected years of schooling for today's youth
Amount of years the UN forecasts that a 5 year old will spend in school. Developed countries: 16.3 years, for Sub Saharan Africa it is 9.3 years, and for South Asia, 10.2 years
UN measures standard of living in countries though a complex index called:
Annual gross income per capita at purchasing power parity
Years of schooling for today's adults
Average time person 25 years and older spends in school. Adults in developed have about 11.5 compared to 4.7 in South Asia and Sub Saharan Africa
Key elements of the self sufficiency path to development
Barriers limit import of goods from other places. Fledgling businesses nursed to success by being isolated from competition with larger international corporations. Investment spread as equally as possible across all sectors of a country's economy and in all regions. Incomes in countryside keep pace with those in the city and reducing poverty takes precedence over encouraging a few people to become wealthy consumers.
What do developing countries borrow money to do? What will this allow them to do?
Build new infrastructure (EX: hydroelectric dams, electric transmission lines, flood protection systems, water supplies, roads, hotels. It will make conditions for domestic and foreign businesses to open or expand.
How did India display characteristics similar to the self sufficiency path? (controls on Indian countries)
Business needed government permission to sell a new product, modernize a factory, expand production, set prices, hire or fire workers, and change of classification of existing workers. Unprofitable business received government subsidies. Government itself owned not just communications, transportation, and power companies, but also insurance companies and automakers.
The UN found 2 factors contributing for the relatively low US GII rating:
Compared with other very high HDI countries, the US has a much higher birth rate among teenage women and a higher mortality rate among women during childbirth. Percentage of women in the national legislature is lower in the US than in other high HDI countries.
Critics charge that poverty worsens under structural adjustment programs. By placing priority on reducing government spending and inflation structural adjustment programs may result in the following:
Cuts in health education, and social services that benefit the poor. Higher unemployment. Loss of jobs in state enterprises and civil service. Less support for those most in need, poor pregnant women, nursing mothers, young children, and elderly. These essentially punish poor for crimes they did not commit.
What does the inability of some countries to pay back loans do for them?
Debt exceeds annual income Financial institutions in developed countries refuse to make further loans, and infrastructure stops. Damages financial stability of banks
Two types of countries
Developed countries and developing countries
Optimism about benefit of the international trade development model based on 3 observations:
Developed countries in Europe and North Africa were joined by others in Southern and Eastern Europe and Japan in 2nd half of 20th century. Developing countries contained abundant supply of many raw materials sought by manufacturers and producers in developed countries, which could generate funds by sale that they could use to promote development. A country that concentrates on international trade benefits from exposure to the demands, needs and preferences of consumers in other countries. T
How is it possible to measure the contribution made by an average individual to the country's wealth?
Divide the GNI by total population
Summary of progress made in HDI since 1980:
Gap between developed countries and developing has shrunk. Increased more rapidly in developing.
Two indexes to measure gender equality
Gender related development index (GDI) Gender Inequality Index (GII)
Consider Germany and Greece's situation with the common currency, the euro.
Germany had stronger economy than Greece. If both had different currencies, Greece could lower value of its drachma compared to the German mark, making german goods more expensive and greek less, stimulating the economy. But Greece no longer has the chance to devalue its currency against Germany.
World Bank: What does it include? What does either do? Who are the loans to?
It includes the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and International Development Association (IDA). IBRD provides loans to reform public administration and legal institutions, develop and strengthen financial institutions, and implement transportation and social service projects, gives money raised from sales of bonds to private investors. IDA gives funds to countries too risky to qualify for IBRD loans, from government contributions. 270 billion are outstanding, 14% India, and 5% each China Mexico Turkey, Brazil Indonesia Pakistan Bangladesh Vietnam
Protection of workers' rights is not a high priority in the international trade development approach according to critics. Critics charge that:
Oversight of worker's conditions by governments and international lending agencies is minimal. Workers allegedly work long hours in poor conditions for low pay. Children or forced labor may be in the workforce. Health problems may result from poor sanitation and injuries from inadequate safety precautions. Injured, ill, or laid off workers are not compensated.
Why did countries like India convert from self sufficiency to international trade during the 1990s?
Overwhelming evidence that international trade promoted development. After converting to international trade, India's GNI per capita increased 6.5% per year compared to 1.8% under self sufficiently. Overall, in the world those that switched have increased 4% rather than 1% under self sufficiency.
Why have critics attacked the WTO?
Protestors gather in the streets, people say that it is antidemocratics because decisions made behind closed doors benefit large corps rather than poor. They also charge that it compromises the power and sovereignty of individual countries because it orders changes in taxes and laws that it considers unfair trading practices.
Other indicators measuring regional variations in access to knowledge
Pupil/teacher ratio and literacy rate
Fair trade is a set of business practices designed to advance a number of economic, social, and environmental goals. These include:
Raising incomes of small scale farmers and artisans by eliminating some of the intermediaries. Disturbing profits and risks associated with production, and sale of goods more fairly among producers, distributors, retailers, and financiers. Increasing entrepreneurial and management with entrepreneurs. Promoting safe and sustainable farming methods as well as working conditions, such as prohibiting the use of dangerous pesticides and herbicides and by promoting production of certified organic crops.
Inequality in developed countries
Regional interval variations in GNI per capita are less than in developing. In US GNI per capita is 122% of national average in wealthiest region and 90% of that in poorest region. Through most of 20th century gap between rich and poor has decreased because they used wealth to extend health care and education and provide assistance to poorer people. But since 1980, inequality has increased including US and UK
Petroleum Rich Arabian Peninsula States: Which states? What did they use revenue from oil for?
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, United Arab Emirates. They used it to finance large scale projects like housing, highways, hospitals, airports, universities, and telecommunications networks. Steel aluminum and petrochemical factories competed on world markets with help of government subsidies. Landscape has been further changed by diffusion of consumer goods
To promote development, developing countries choose one of 2 models
Self sufficiency or international trade
Since the world systems theory was created, what has an increasingly important element been? Which core and periphery areas have special connections?
Semi peripheries- countries either intermediate in in level of economic development or situated close to core or periphery; Development prospects Latin America tied to gov and businesses in North America, Africa and Eastern Europe to Western Europe, and those of Asia to Japan and a lesser extent, Europe and North America.
3 widely used barriers limiting import of goods from other places
Setting high taxes (tariffs) on imported goods to make them more expensive than domestic; fixing quotas to limit number of imported goods; requiring licenses in order to restrict number of legal supporters.
In developed countries, who possesses motor vehicles, telephones and computers? In developing countries? Are they vital to the economy in developing countries?
Virtually all residents and central to the economy; some countries do and some do not, but for those that do, it is only elites and their possession of those goods may cause political unrest; No
Millenium Development Goals
What sustainable development goals replaced. It was eight goals made in 2002 with goal of acheiving them by 2015.
