ap psych chapters 1-3

operational definition

a definition of a variable as it relates to the procedure; a form of standardization

measure of central tendency

a statistic that represents the data as a whole: mean, median, or mode

confounding variable

a variable, other than the ones introduced by the experimenter, that affects a participant's behavior and confuses data interpretation

behavior

actions through which organisms adjust to their environment

determinism

all events are determined by specific smaller factors; mental processes follow predictable patterns

neuromodulator

any substance that modifies the activities of the postsynaptic neuron

standard deviation

average distance between each data element and the mean

behaviorist perspective

behavior is caused by environmental stimuli; study antecedent conditions, behavioral response, and consequences

evolutionary perspective

behavior is caused by evolution and natural selection to serve larger adaptive purposes

biological perspective

behavior is caused by functions of genes, brain, nervous system, and endocrine system

humanistic perspective

behavior is caused by human decision; focuses on individual's perspective

cognitive perspective

behavior is caused by human thought; thought can be the causes and results of actions

psychodynamic perspective

behavior is caused by past experiences, instinct, biological drives, and motivation; developed by Freud

William James

believed consciousness is an ongoing stream that allows humans to adjust to their environment; mental processes are important, not the contents of the mind

Max Wertheimer

believed that the mind understands experiences as organized wholes (gestalts)

dendrites

branched fibers of neurons that receive incoming signals

terminal buttons

bulblike structures at the branched endings of axons that contain neurotransmitters

soma

cell body of a neuron, containing nucleus and cytoplasm

glia

cells that hold neurons together and facilitate neural transmission, remove damaged neurons, and prevent poisonous substances from reaching the brain

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers released from neurons that cross synapse, stimulating the postsynaptic neuron

hormones

chemical messengers that regulate metabolism and influence body growth and mood

normal curve

data from a large population in which the mean, median, and mode coincide

measures of variability

describes distribution of scores around the central tendency: range or standard deviation

range

difference between highest and lowest elements in a set

between-subjects control

different groups of participants are randomly assigned to experimental or control conditions

within-subjects design

each participant is his/her own control; behavioral changes are compared to initial behavior

Wilhelm Wundt

established first formal experimental psychology lab

expectancy effect

experimenter manipulates the situation to create the expected result

sociobiology

explains social behavior in terms of evolution

axon

extended fiber of a neuron through which nerve impulses travel from soma to terminal buttons

environmental/situational variables

external factors that influence behavior

functionalism

focuses on the functions of mental and behavioral processes in an organism's interactions with the environment

John Dewey

founder of functionalism and progressive learning

pituitary gland

gland located in the brain that secretes growth hormones and influences secretion in other glands

Walter Hess

he used electrical stimulation to probe structures deep in the brain

frequency distribution

how frequently each result occurs

PET scan (positron-emission tomography)

image that records brain activity through radioactive materials introduced into regions of the brain

correlation coefficient (r)

indicates degree of relationship between two variables; between -1 and 1

inhibitory inputs

information entering a neuron signaling it not to fire

excitatory inputs

information entering a neuron that signals it to fire

context of discovery

initial phase of research in which observations, beliefs, and information lead to a new idea

organismic/dispositional variables

internal factors that influence behavior

frontal lobe

located above lateral fissure; involved in motor control and cognitive activities

parietal lobe

located behind the frontal lobe and above the lateral fissure; contains somatosensory cortex

temporal lobe

located below lateral fissure; contains auditory cortex

occipital lobe

located in the back region of brain; contains primary visual cortex

experimental methods

manipulating the independent variable to determine the effect on the dependent variable

naturalistic observation

naturally occurring behavior is observed by a researcher, who does not attempt to interfere with it

corpus callosum

nerve fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

action potential

nerve impulse activated in a neuron that travels down the axon and causes neurotransmitters to be released into a synapse

endocrine system

network of glands that manufacture and secrete hormones into the bloodstream

motor neurons

neurons that carry messages away from the central nervous system toward the muscles and glands

sensory neurons

neurons that carry messages from sense receptors to the CNS

theory

organized set of concepts that explains a phenomenon; generates new hypotheses

cerebral cortex

outer surface of the cerebrum

hippocampus

part of the limbic system involved in storing memory

amygdala

part of the limbic system that controls emotion, aggression, and formation of emotional memory

A-B-A design

participants experience the baseline condition, then treatment, then return to the baseline

resting potential

polarization of cellular fluid within a neuron, which provides the capability to produce an action potential

ion channels

portion of neurons' cell membranes that selectively permit certain ions to flow in and out

EEG (electroencephalogram)

records electrical activity of the brain

cerebellum

region of brain attached to the brain stem that controls motor coordination and balance

reticular formation

region of brain stem that alerts cerebral cortex to incoming sensory signals; maintains consciousness

pons

region of brain stem that connects spinal cord with the brain and links parts of the brain together

medulla

region of brain stem that regulates breathing, waking, and heartbeat

association cortex

region of cerebral cortex in which many high-level brain processes occur

Broca's area

region of cerebral cortex that controls language

motor cortex

region of cerebral cortex that controls voluntary muscles

visual cortex

region of occipital lobes that processes visual information

somatosensory cortex

region of parietal lobes that processes sensory input from various body areas

auditory cortex

region of temporal lobes that receives and processes auditory information

brain stem

regulates body's basic life processes

limbic system

regulates emotional behavior, motivational urges, and memory

cerebrum

regulates higher cognitive and emotional functions

hypothalamus

regulates motivated behavior and homeostasis

thalamus

relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex

all-or-none law

rule that the size of action potential is unaffected by increases in the intensity of stimulation beyond the threshold level

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

scans brain using magnetic fields and radio waves

psychology

scientific study of individuals' behavior and mental processes

self-report measures

self-behaviors that are identified through a participant's reports

Robert Rosenthal

studied expectancy bias

human behavior genetics

studies the genetic component of individual differences in behavior

neuroscience

study of the brain and the connection between brain activity and behavior

structuralism

study of the structure of the mind and behavior; all mental experience can be understood as a combination of simple elements

sympathetic division

subdivision of ANS that deals with emergency response

parasympathetic division

subdivision of ANS that monitors internal functions

somatic nervous system

subdivision of PNS that connects CNS to skeletal muscles and skin

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

subdivision of PNS that controls involuntary motor responses

Sperry and Gazzaniga

tested capabilities of epileptic patients with separated hemispheres

reliability

the consistency of results produced from one procedure

validity

the extent to which a test measures what it was intended to measure

cultural perspective

used to determine how universal a theory is across all people and cultures

descriptive statistics

using mathematical procedures to summarize sets of data with respect to central tendencies, variability, and correlations

inferential statistics

using probability to determine whether outcomes result from chance

behavioral measures

ways to study overt reactions that are observed and recorded

significant difference

when the probability that something is not due to chance is over 5%

Edward Titchener

American psychologist, studied consciousness and introspection; structuralism