AP Psych Final pt. 1/3

Which two concepts can be thought of as opposite processes within the classical conditioning model?

Acquisition and extinction

The psychologist most closely associated with the study of operant conditioning was

B. F. Skinner.

_______________ emphasized the purpose of behavior as opposed to its analysis and description.

Behaviorism

________ disparity refers to the slightly different view of the world that each eye receives, and is a distance cue that allows us to perceive the depth of a given visual stimulus.

Binocular

Which brain area is primarily involved with producing speech?*

Broca's area

The infant Albert developed a fear of rats after a white rat was associated with a loud noise. In this example, fear of the white rat was the

CR

When a child works on a "connect the dots" puzzle, she can often see the completed work before she has finished all of the dots. Once there is enough visual information present, she's able to perceive the completed picture even though it is still incomplete. Which Gestalt principle does this demonstrate?

Closure

Which of the following statements is most correct about the relationship between correlation and causation?

Correlation indicates the possibility of a causal relationship, but it does not prove causation.

If you watch a flock of birds flying overhead, each very close to the next one, you may perceive them as all being part of the same group. If they were all spaced very much apart, however, you may see them as individual birds not flying together. This distinction takes advantage of which Gestalt principle?

Proximity

_______________ founded the field of psychoanalysis.*

Sigmund Freud

This organization, one of the largest professional groups of psychologists in the world, was founded in 1892.

The American Psychological Association

Which type of processing involves the interpretation of sensations and is influenced by available knowledge and expectancies?

Top down

When perceiving stimuli, one can draw from their own experiences or expectations of said stimuli. This process is referring to as:

Top-down processing

Your ears receive sound waves and convert this energy into neural messages that travel to your brain and are processed as sounds. This is an example of ________.

Transduction

A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after

an unpredictable number of responses have been made.

A drug that blocks the reuptake of a particular neurotransmitter is called a(n):

antagonist.

Molecules that are similar enough to a neurotransmitter to bind to its receptor sites on a dendrite and block that neurotransmitter's effects are called what?

antagonists

Feature detectors

are nerve cells in the brain's visual cortex that fire in response to specific edges, lines, and angles.

Which of the following play the biggest role in our feeling dizzy and unbalanced after a thrilling roller coaster ride?

basilar membranes

Michael receives a paycheck at the end of every week. Which reinforcement schedule is this?

fixed interval

Coffee shops that reward customers with one free cup of coffee after every ten coffee purchases are using a ________ reinforcement schedule.

fixed-ratio

Dr. Mattar is interested in knowing more about brain injury to the occipital cortex, and he studies patients individually in order to gain in-depth knowledge about their behaviors. These studies would best be described as ________.

case studies

A detailed description of a particular individual based on careful observation or formal psychological testing is called a(n):

case study

Researchers use experiments rather than other research methods in order to distinguish between

causes and effects

Jessica experienced difficulty keeping her balance after receiving a blow to the back of her head. It is likely that she injured her:

cerebellum

The thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebrum is called the

cerebral cortex.

A Skinner box is a(n)

chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a reward.

Most people are awake during the day and asleep at night because their ________ cycles are aligned with the outside world.

circadian

As you enter the kitchen after school you can smell chocolate chip cookies baking. This scent causes you to salivate. Your salivation is best explained by

classical conditioning.

The coiled, fluid-filled tube in which sound waves trigger nerve impulses is called the

cochlea.

The _______________ is a psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior.

cognitive perspective

As your teacher dims the lights to show a movie clip, you still perceive your friend's shirt as red. Which of the following best explains this phenomenon?

color constancy

After receiving a painful shot from a female nurse in a white uniform, 3-year-old Vaclav experiences fear of any woman wearing a white dress. Vaclav's reaction best illustrates

generalization

Which of the following plays an essential role in the processing of new memories?

hippocampus

Which term describes the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system?

homeostasis

In his classic study, Albert Bandura found that children exposed to an adult model who behaved aggressively by beating up a Bobo doll

imitated the adult's actions.

In an experimental study of the effects of anxiety on self-esteem, anxiety would be the ________ variable.

independent

Which of the following defines ethical principles that should guide human experimentation?

informed consent, protection from harm, confidentiality, debriefing

Information travels from the spinal cord to the brain via*

interneurons.

The amount of light entering the eye is regulated by the

iris

Which of the following is an unconditioned response?

jerking your hand off a very hot stove

Though there is no single "control center" for emotions, their regulation is primarily attributed to the brain region known as the:

limbic system.

The convergence of parallel lines provides the distance cue known as

linear perspective.

Watson and Rayner's study of Little Albert demonstrated how specific fears

may be produced through classical conditioning.

Your life would be most immediately threatened if you suffered destruction of the

medulla.

The effect of a drug that is an agonist is to:*

mimic a particular neurotransmitter

For you to be able to run, ________ must relay messages from your central nervous system to your leg muscles.

motor neurons

Cataplexy is a symptom associated with ________.

narcolepsy

Escape from an aversive stimulus is a ________ reinforcer.

negative

Mason, a stockbroker, runs two miles every day after work because it reduces his level of stress. Mason's running habit is maintained by a(n) ________ reinforcer.

negative

Attempting to discourage a toddler's biting of his sister behavior, one could issue a time out whenever the toddler bit his sister. This is an example of:

negative punishment

Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response is called a(n)

negative reinforcer.

After Becky falls asleep he feels a sense of panic, screams, and attempts to escape from his room. Which parasomnia does Becky have?

nigh terrors

Color constancy refers to the fact that

objects are perceived to be the same color even if the light they reflect changes.

Our ability to learn by witnessing the behavior of others best illustrates

observational learning

In a well-known experiment, preschool children pounded and kicked a large inflated Bobo doll that an adult had just beaten on. This experiment served to illustrate the importance of

observational learning.

Mirror neurons provide a biological basis for

observational learning.

Interposition is a cue for depth perception in which closer objects

obstruct our view of distant objects

A PET scan of a patient looking at a photograph of a painting would most likely indicate high levels of activity in which brain structure?

occipital lobes

In which form of learning is behavior said to be influenced by its consequences?

operant conditioning

Because Adam was put in time-out on several occasions for biting electric cords, he no longer does so. Adam's behavior change best illustrates the value of

operant conditioning.

The last time you came home after your curfew, your parents grounded you for the next two weekends. Ever since then you have been careful to come home on time. The change in your behavior is best explained by

operant conditioning.

A specification of how a researcher measures a research variable is known as a(n)

operational definition.

Which lobe of the brain receive the input that enables you to feel whether something is rough or smooth?

parietal

The process by which we select, organize, and interpret sensory information in order to recognize meaningful objects and events is called

perception.

A gland located at the base of the brain producing hormones that control other glands and which affects metabolism, bone growth and maturity.

pituitary gland

In a drug treatment study, participants given a pill containing no actual drug are receiving a(n)

placebo

The capacity of one brain area to take over the functions of another damaged brain area is known as brain

plasticity.

In a resting state, the axon is:*

polarized, with mostly positively charged ions outside and negatively charged ions inside.

The complete set of cases from which samples may be drawn is called a(n)

population

Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response is called a(n)

positive reinforcer.

The law of effect refers to the tendency to

repeat behaviors that are rewarded.

Which technique involves repeating the essence of an earlier research study with different participants and in different circumstances?

replication

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the rods and cones, is the

retina.

When we stare at an object, each eye receives a slightly different image, providing a depth cue known as:

retinal disparity.

The most light-sensitive receptor cells are the

rods.

Psychology refers to the ________.*

scientific study of the mind and behavior.

The occipital lobes are to ________ as the temporal lobes are to ________.

seeing; hearing

Because she was listening to the news on the radio, Mrs. Wilson didn't perceive a word her husband was saying. Her experience best illustrates

selective attention.

Diminished sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus is known as

sensory adaptation.

The peripheral nervous system consists of:*

sensory and motor neurons.

For you to experience the pain of a sprained ankle, ________ must first relay messages from your ankle to your central nervous system.

sensory neurons

Bottom-up processing involves analysis that begins with the

sensory receptors.

The process of reinforcing successively closer approximations to a desired behavior is called

shaping.

For the most rapid acquisition of a CR, the CS should be presented

shortly before the CR.

Which theory emphasizes that personal expectations and motivations influence the level of absolute thresholds?

signal detection theory

Which of the following modern psychological perspectives most resembles functionalism?

the behavioral perspective

Which modern psychological perspective focuses on bodily events and their effects on behavior, feelings, and thoughts?

the biological perspective

To understand the unusual behavior of an adult client, a clinical psychologist carefully investigates the client's current life situation and his physical, social-cultural, and educational history. Which research method has the psychologist used?

the case study

Both the researchers and the participants in a memory study are ignorant about which participants have actually received a potentially memory-enhancing drug and which have received a placebo. This investigation involves the use of

the double-blind procedure.

Which of the following correlation coefficients expresses the weakest degree of relationship between two variables?

-0.12 (whichever negative number is closest to 0)

Which of the following correlation coefficients expresses the strongest degree of relationship between two variables?

-0.67 (whichever number is the most negative)

What stage of sleep are you most likely experiencing if an EEG of your brain activity showed sleep spindles and K-complexes?

2

Classical and operant conditioning are forms of ________ learning.

Associative

Sleep researchers who are interested in brain wave activity are likely to use which kind of brain scan?

EEG

Participants were instructed to focus on either white or black objects, disregarding the other color. When a red cross passed across the screen, about one third of the subjects did not notice it. This research protocol demonstrates which concept?

Inattentional blindness

Which nerve carries visual information from the retina to the brain?

Optic

The researcher most closely associated with the study of classical conditioning is

Ivan Pavlov.

Who is the father of Behaviorism?

John B. Watson

The technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer images of structures within the brain is called:

MRI

Which of the following is true of negative reinforcement and punishment?

Negative reinforcers increase the rate of operant responding; punishments decrease the rate of operant responding.

In order to identify which of Lucy's brain areas was most active when she talked, neuroscientists gave her a temporarily radioactive form of glucose and a(n):

PET scan.

________ refers to the way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced; ________ refers to what happens when sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor.

Perception; sensation

Which of the following is the best example of the overjustification effect?

Phoebe loses her former interest in playing the violin after her mother promises to pay her 3 dollars for each hour of practice.

What is the difference between a primary and a conditioned reinforcer?

Primary reinforcers are unlearned and innately satisfying; conditioned reinforcers are learned.

Nikki was walking around a department store shopping one day, and did not realize that the shirt she was wearing looked just like the shirts worn by employees. When a stranger asked, "do you work here," she thought it was funny. The other customers' assumption that Nikki was a store employee demonstrates the Gestalt principle of _______.

Similarity

A(n) ________ , also known as an operant chamber, is an instrument that isolates an animal from the external environment and allows a researcher to control that animal's rewards and punishments

Skinner box

_______________ combine elements of behaviorism with research on thoughts, values, expectations, and intentions and believe that people learn not only by adapting their behavior to the environment, but also by observing and imitating others.

Social-cognitive learning theorists

Which of the following is true for those assigned to the experimental group in an experiment?

The experimental group receives the experimental treatment

Which of the following is true for those assigned to a control group?

The experimental treatment is absent.

Stage 1 sleep is characterized by a predominance of ________ wave activity in the brain.

alpha

Which brain area is primarily involved with understanding meaningful speech?

Wernicke's area

Which individual wrote Principles of Physiological Psychology and is credited with establishing a scientific laboratory of Psychology at the University of Leipzig?

Wilhelm Wundt

The first psychological laboratory was established by

Wilhelm Wundt.

The founder of functionalism was:

William James

Evidence that some cones are especially sensitive to red light, others to green light, and still others to blue light is most directly supportive of the ________ theory.

Young-Helmholtz

The minimum amount of stimulation a person needs to detect a stimulus 50 percent of the time is called the

absolute threshold.

The process by which negative and positive ions in the axon are exchanged through membranes and re-polarized by a set of gateways and pumps to be made ready for communication is known as:

action potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron is called the

action potential.

The depolarization of a neural membrane can create a(n

action potential.

Which of the following is primarily responsible for the transmitting of electrical signals to allow the communication of networked neurons?

axon

The amplitude of a wave is the height of a wave as measured from the highest point on the wave________ to the lowest point on the wave ________

crest; trough

The area of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye is called the

blind spot

If the sound of an electric can opener causes a child to salivate because it has previously been associated with the presentation of food, the child's salivation to the sound of the can opener is a(n)

conditioned response.

Months after she was attacked by a dog, Britney's heart pounds with fear merely at the sight of the place where she was attacked by a vicious chihuahua named "Ginger". The location of her attack is most likely a(n) ________ for Britney's anxiety.

conditioned stimulus

Which receptor cells in the eye most directly enable us to distinguish different colors?

cones

In an experiment, which of the following would be used to identify aspects or characteristics that may skew the results?

confounding

Information is most quickly transmitted from one cerebral hemisphere to the other by the

corpus callosum.

The nerve fibers that enable communication between the right and left cerebral hemispheres and that have been severed in split-brain patients form a structure called the:

corpus callosum.

An undersupply of serotonin is most closely linked to

depression

Accommodation refers to the

diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus.

A correlation coefficient is a measure of the

direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.

After recovering from a serious motorcycle accident, Gina was afraid to ride a motorcycle but not a bicycle. Gina's pattern of fear best illustrates

discrimination.

Melissa has just completed running a marathon. She is so elated that she feels little fatigue or discomfort. Her lack of pain is probably the result of the release of:

dopamine

Neurosurgeons have severed the corpus callosum in human patients in order to reduce

epileptic seizures.

Which psychological perspective might advance the argument that our sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which are higher during periods of darkness?

evolutionary

In the control condition of an experiment the:

experimental treatment is absent.

The American Psychological Association have developed ethical principles urging investigators to

explain the research to the participants after the study has been completed.

After Pavlov had conditioned a dog to salivate to a tone, he repeatedly sounded the tone without presenting the food. As a result, ________ occurred.

extinction

The perceptual tendency to group together stimuli that are near each other is called

proximity.

To assess the effect of televised violence on aggression, researchers plan to expose one group of children to violent movie scenes and another group to nonviolent scenes. To reduce the chance that the children in one group have more aggressive personalities than those in the other group, the researchers should make use of

random assignment

Which technique most clearly minimizes the likelihood that any outcome differences between the experimental and control conditions can be attributed to age or personality differences in research participants?

random assignment

Which procedure helps to ensure that the participants in a survey are representative of a larger population?

random sampling

Reuptake refers to the

reabsorption of excess neurotransmitter molecules by a sending neuron.

Spontaneous recovery refers to the

reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

A neuron will generate action potentials more often when it:

receives more excitatory than inhibitory inputs.

An event that increases the frequency of the behavior that it follows is a(n)

reinforcer.

As the retinal image of a horse galloping toward you becomes larger, it is unlikely that the horse will appear to grow larger. This best illustrates the phenomenon of

size constancy.

Voluntary movements, such as writing with a pencil, are directed by the:

somatic nervous system.

A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n)

specified number of responses have been made.

A fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n)

specified time period has elapsed.

While you are hiking in the mountains, a rattlesnake slithers across your trail. Which of the following triggers the "fight-or-flight" response, increasing your heart rate and blood pressure, as you run away?

sympathetic nervous system

An accelerated heartbeat is to a slowed heartbeat as the ________ nervous system is to the ________ nervous system.

sympathetic; parasympathetic

The spatial junctions where impulses are chemically transmitted from one neuron to another are called

synapses

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that travel across the*

synaptic gap

Kinesthesis refers to the

system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.

This is the part of the brain responsible for distributing and redirecting visual information from the optic nerve.

thalamus

Which brain structure receives information from all the senses except smell?

thalamus

B. F. Skinner's work elaborated what E. L. Thorndike had called

the law of effect.

The stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse is called the*

threshold

In the hypothesis "Students who study a list of terms in the morning, just after waking up, will recall more terms than students who study the list just before falling asleep," what is the independent variable?

time of day

The process by which our sensory systems convert stimulus energies into neural messages is called

transduction.

On the first day of class, Professor Wallace tells her geography students that pop quizzes will be given at unpredictable times throughout the semester. Clearly, studying for Professor Wallace's surprise quizzes will be reinforced on a ________ schedule.

variable-interval

While playing tennis you need to know where your limbs are located so you can move them into the right positions to run or swing your racket. Which of the following senses provides this information?

vestibular

According to the opponent-process theory, cells that are stimulated by exposure to ________ light are inhibited by exposure to ________ light.

yellow; blue